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Ælfric of Eynsham

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Ælfric of Eynsham (the Grammarian) (ca. 955–ca. 1010), was a Benedictine English abbot, as well as a consummate, prolific writer in Old English of hagiography, homilies, biblical commentaries, and other genres. He is also known variously as Ælfric Grammaticus, Ælfric of Cerne and Ælfric the Homilist. He mainly thought of himself as a humble teacher, responsible for the souls in his care.

Life and works

The Tower of Babel, from a manuscript of a work by Ælfric

Ælfric was educated in the Benedictine Old Minster at Winchester under Saint Æthelwold, who was bishop there from 963 to 984. Æthelwold had carried on the tradition of Dunstan in his government of the abbey of Abingdon, and at Winchester he continued his strenuous efforts. He seems to have actually taken part in the work of teaching.

Ælfric no doubt gained some reputation as a scholar at Winchester, for when, in 987, the abbey of Cerne (Cerne Abbas in Dorset) was finished, he was sent by Bishop Ælfheah (Alphege), Æthelwold's successor, at the request of the chief benefactor of the abbey, the ealdorman Æthelmaer, to teach the Benedictine monks there. This date (987) is one of only two certain dates we have for Ælfric, who was then in priest's orders. Æthelmaer and his father Æthelweard were both enlightened patrons of learning, and became Ælfric's faithful friends.

It was at Cerne, and partly at the desire, it appears, of Æthelweard, that he planned the two series of his English homilies (ed. Benjamin Thorpe, 1844-1846, for the Ælfric Society and more recently by Malcolm Godden and Peter Clemoes for EETS), compiled from the Christian fathers, and dedicated to Sigeric, Archbishop of Canterbury (990-994). The Latin preface to the first series enumerates some of Ælfric's authorities, the chief of whom was Gregory the Great, but the short list there given by no means exhausts the authors whom he consulted. In the preface to the first volume he regrets that except for Alfred's translations Englishmen had no means of learning the true doctrine as expounded by the Latin fathers. Professor Earle (A.S. Literature, 1884) thinks he aimed at correcting the apocryphal, and to modern ideas superstitious, teaching of the earlier Blickling Homilies.

The first series of forty homilies is devoted to plain and direct exposition of the chief events of the Christian year; the second deals more fully with church doctrine and history, Ælfric denied the immaculate birth of the Virgin (Homilies, ed. Thorpe, ii.466), and his teaching on the Eucharist in the Canons and in the Sermo de sacrificio in die pascae (ibid. ii.262 seq.) was appealed to by the Protestant Reformation writers as a proof that the early English church did not hold the Roman doctrine of transubstantiation.

His Latin Grammar and Glossary were written for his pupils after the two books of homilies. A third series of homilies, the Lives of the Saints, (hagiography) dates from 996 to 997. Some of the sermons in the second series had been written in a kind of rhythmical, alliterative prose, and in the Lives of the Saints (ed. W. W. Skeat, 1881-1900, for the Early English Text Society) the practice is so regular that most of them are arranged as verse by Professor Skeat.

By the wish of Æthelweard he also began a paraphrase of parts of the Old Testament, but under protest, for the stories related in it were not, he thought, suitable for simple minds. There is no certain proof that he remained at Cerne. It has been suggested that this part of his life was chiefly spent at Winchester; but his writings for the patrons of Cerne, and the fact that he wrote in 998 his Canons as a pastoral letter for Wulfsige, the bishop of Sherborne, the diocese in which the abbey was situated, afford presumption of continued residence there.

1005 is the other certain date we have for Ælfric, when he left Cernel for nobleman Æthelmær’s new monastery in Eynsham, a long eighty-five-mile journey inland in the direction of Oxford. Here he lived out his life as Eynsham’s first abbot, from 1005 until his death. After his elevation, he wrote an abridgment for his monks of Æthelwold's De consuetudine monachorum, adapted to their rudimentary ideas of monastic life; a letter to Wulfgeat of Ylmandun; an introduction to the study of the Old and New Testaments (about 1008, edited by William L'Isle in 1623); a Latin life of his master Æthelwold; a pastoral letter for Wulfstan, archbishop of York and bishop of Worcester, in Latin and English; and an English version of Bede's De Temporibus.

The Colloquium, a Latin dialogue designed to serve his scholars as a manual of Latin conversation, may date from his life at Cerne. It is safe to assume that the original draft of this, afterwards enlarged by his pupil, Ælfric Bata, was by Ælfric, and represents what his own scholar days were like. The last mention of Ælfric Abbot, probably the grammarian, is in a will dating from about 1010.

Ælfric was a conscientious monk who left careful instructions to future scribes to copy his works carefully because he did not want his works' scholarly, salvation-bringing words marred by the introduction of unorthodox passages and scribal errors. Through the centuries, however, Ælfric’s sermons were threatened by the terrorism of Viking axes and the dangerous banality of human neglect when—-some seven hundred years after their composition-—they nearly perished in London's Cotton Fire that scorched or destroyed close to 1,000 invaluable ancient works.

Ælfric was the most prolific and best writer in Old English. His main theme is God's mercy. He writes, for example: "The love that loves God is not idle. Instead, it is strong and works great things always. And if love isn’t willing to work, then it isn’t love. God’s love must be seen in the actions of our mouths and minds and bodies. A person must fulfill God’s word with goodness." (“For Pentecost Sunday”)

He also observes in “For the Sixth Day (Friday) in the Third Week of Lent” and in “For the First Sunday After Pentecost”: "And we ought to worship with true humility if we want our heavenly God to hear us because God is the one who lives in a high place and yet has regard for the deep down humble, and God is always near to those who sincerely call to him in their trouble. . . . Without humility no person can thrive in the Lord."

And in the "Fifth Sunday After Pentecost” he reminds us: "Bosses who cannot permit those working under them to know kindness during this life of labor should never themselves enjoy lives of luxury because they could easily be kind to their workers every day. And then they would have some kindness in their souls. God loves kindness.”1

Contrast this leitmotif of God's mercy with Archbishop Wulfstan’s trenchant pulpiteering and thundering sermons. Ælfric by no means expressed the popular opinion of the time. His forward-thinking views toward women (though they were not 'modern' views, by any stretch of the imagination) and his strong stance on 'clǽnnes,' or purity, were more extreme than others during that time (see for instance his homily on Judith). This was, no doubt, related to his service under the monastic reformer Saint Æthelwold in the monastery at Winchester.


1. These quotations are from translations made by Carmen Acevedo Butcher in God of Mercy: Ælfric's Sermons and Theology (Mercer University Press, 2006).

Identification

The true identification of Ælfric has been problematic, primarily because Ælfric is often confused with Ælfric, the Archbishop of Canterbury. Though Ælfric was initially identified with the archbishop, thanks to the work of Lingard and Dietrich, most modern scholars now identify Ælfric as holding no higher office than abbot of Eynsham. However, in the past, there have been attempts to identify him with three different people:

(1) As above, Ælfric was identified with Ælfric (995-1005), Archbishop of Canterbury. This view was upheld by John Bale (Ill. Maj. Brit. Scriptorum, 2nd ed., Basel, 1557-1559; vol. i, p. 149, s.v. Alfric); by Humphrey Wanley (Catalogus librorum septentrionalium, &c., Oxford, 1705, forming vol. ii of George Hickes's Antiquae literaturae septemtrionalis); by Elizabeth Elstob, The English Saxon Homily on the Birthday of St. Gregory (1709; new edition, 1839); and by Edward Rowe Mores, Ælfrico, Dorobernensi, archiepiscopo, Commentarius (ed. G. J. Thorkelin, 1789), in which the conclusions of earlier writers on Ælfric are reviewed. Mores made him abbot of St Augustine's at Dover, and finally archbishop of Canterbury.

(2) Sir Henry Spelman, in his Concina ... (1639, vol. i, p. 583), printed the Canones ad Wulsinum episcopum, and suggested Ælfric Putta or Putto, Archbishop of York, as the author, adding some note of others bearing the name. The identity of Ælfric the grammarian with Ælfric archbishop of York was also discussed by Henry Wharton, in Anglia Sacra (1691, vol. i, pp. 125-134), in a dissertation reprinted in J. P. Migne's Patrologia (vol. 139, pp. 1459-70, Paris, 1853).

(3) William of Malmesbury (De gestis pontificum Anglorum, ed. N. E. S. A. Hamilton, Rolls Series, 1870, p. 406) suggested that he was Abbot of Malmesbury and Bishop of Crediton.

The main facts of his career were finally elucidated by Eduard Dietrich in a series of articles contributed to C. W. Niedner's Zeitschrift für historische Theologie (vols. for 1855 and 1856, Gotha), which have formed the basis of all subsequent writings on the subject.

Further Reading

Selected Bibliography

Primary Source:

  • Ælfric. MS Cotton Vitellius C.v. Western Manuscripts Room, British Library, London.

Editions of Works by Ælfric:

  • Pope, John C., ed. Homilies of Ælfric: A Supplementary Collection. Being Twenty-One Full Homilies of His Middle and Later Career For the Most Part Not Previously Edited, with Some Shorter Pieces, Mainly Passages Added to the Second and Third Series. 2 volumes. EETS 259, 260. London: Oxford University Press, 1967, 1968.
  • Clemoes, Peter, ed. Ælfric’s Catholic Homilies: The First Series Text. EETS. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
  • Crawford, Samuel J., ed. The Old English Version of the Heptateuch, Ælfric’s Treatise on the Old and New Testament and His Preface to Genesis. EETS OS 160. London: Oxford University Press, 1969.
  • Eliason, Norman and Peter Clemoes, eds. Ælfric’s First Series of Catholic Homilies. British Museum Royal 7 C. XII fols. 4-218. EETS. Early English Manuscripts in Facsimile 13. Copenhagen: Rosenkilde and Bagger, 1966.
  • Elstob, Elizabeth. An English-Saxon Homily on the Birth-day of St. Gregory: Anciently Used in the English-Saxon Church. Giving an account of the conversion of the English from paganism to Christianity, Translated into Modern English, with Notes, Etc. London: W. Bowyer, 1709.
  • —. An English-Saxon Homily on the Birth-day of St. Gregory: Anciently Used in the English-Saxon Church. Giving an account of the conversion of the English from paganism to Christianity, Translated into Modern English, with Notes, Etc. London: W. Bowyer, 1709. Created by Timothy Graham and designed by John Chandler. Kalamazoo, MI: The Board of the Medieval Institute, 2002. [cited 11 October 2004]. http://www.wmich.edu/medieval/research/rawl/elstob/cover.html.
  • Fausbøll, Else, ed. Fifty-Six Ælfric Fragments: the Newly-Found Copenhagen Fragments

of Ælfric's Catholic Homilies with Facsimiles. Copenhagen: University of Copenhagen, 1986.

  • Fehr, Bernhard, ed. Die Hirtenbriefe Ælfrics: In Altenglischer und Lateinischer Fassung. 1914. With a supplement to the Introduction by Peter Clemoes. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1966.
  • Garmonsway, G. N., ed. Colloquy. Ælfric. 2nd ed. 1939. Exeter: University of Exeter, 1999.
  • Godden, Malcolm, ed. Ælfric’s Catholic Homilies: Introduction, Commentary, and Glossary. EETS. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  • —. Ælfric’s Catholic Homilies: The Second Series Text. EETS. London: Oxford University Press, 1979.
  • Griffiths, Bill, ed. and trans. St Cuthbert: Ælfric's Life of the Saint in Old English with Modern English Parallel. Seaham: Anglo-Saxon Books, 1992.
  • Henel, Heinrich, ed. Ælfric’s De Temporibus Anni. EETS OS 213. 1942. Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 1970.
  • Jones, Christopher A. Ælfric's Letter to the Monks of Eynsham. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
  • Needham, G. I., ed. Ælfric: Lives of Three English Saints. Gen. Ed. M. J. Swanton. Exeter Medieval English Texts. 2nd ed. Exeter: University of Exeter, 1984.
  • Skeat, Walter W., ed. Ælfric’s Lives of Saints. 2 volumes. EETS OS 76, 82 and 94, 114. London: N. Trübner & Co., 1881-85, 1890-1900. Reprinted as 2 volumes, 1966.
  • Smith, Alexandra. “Ælfric’s Life of St. Cuthbert, Catholic Homily II.X: An Edition with Introduction, Notes, Translation, and Glossary.” Diss. Queen’s University at Kingston, 1972.
  • Temple, Winifred M. “An Edition of the Old English Homilies in the British Museum MS. Cotton Vitellius C.v.” 3 volumes. Diss. Edinburgh University, 1952.
  • Thorpe, Benjamin, ed. and trans. The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church. The First Part, Containing The Sermones Catholici, or Homilies of Ælfric. In the Original Anglo-Saxon, with an English Version. 2 volumes. Ælfrices Bocgild. London: Richard and John E. Taylor, 1844, 1846.
  • Whitelock, Dorothy, ed. Sermo Lupi ad Anglos. 3rd ed. Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1977.
  • Zupitza, Julius. Ælfrics Grammatik und Glossar. Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1880.

Reference Sources:

Bibliographies are published annually in two periodicals, Old English Newsletter and Anglo-Saxon England. Old English Newsletter also publishes a comprehensive annual review of Old English scholarship under the title, “The Year’s Work in Old English Studies” (see Joseph B. Trahern, Jr. and Peter S. Baker, editors, below). The cutting-edge Old English dictionary is now the one being published by the University of Toronto (see Antonette diPaolo Healey, editor, under “Reference Sources” below). This list is by no means exhaustive.

  • Campbell, Alistair. An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Based on the Manuscript Collections of Joseph Bosworth: Enlarged Addenda and Corrigenda. To the Supplement by T. Northcote Toller. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972.
  • DiNapoli, Robert. An Index of Theme and Image to the Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon

Church: Comprising the Homilies of Ælfric, Wulfstan, and the Blickling and Vercelli Codices. Norfolk: Anglo-Saxon Books, 1995.

  • diPaolo Healey, Antonette, editor. The Dictionary of Old English. Founding Editor, Angus Cameron. Toronto: Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto, 1986—. [cited 24 April 2003]. http://www.doe.utoronto.ca/.
  • Greenfield, Stanley B. and Fred C. Robinson. A Bibliography of Publications on Old English Literature from the Beginnings to the End of 1972. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980.
  • Hall, John R. Clark. A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. 1894. 4th ed. With a Supplement by Herbert D. Meritt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960.
  • Hughes, Andrew. Medieval Manuscripts for Mass and Office: A Guide to Their Organization and Terminology. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1982.
  • Ker, N. R. Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1957.
  • Keynes, Simon. “Anglo-Saxon History: A Select Bibliography.” Richard Rawlinson Center for Anglo-Saxon Studies and Manuscript Research, Medieval Institute, Western Michigan University. 1998. Revised and adapted for the web by John Chandler. [cited 17 June 2003]. http://www.wmich.edu/medieval/rawl/keynes1/.
  • Kleist, Aaron. “An Annotated Bibliography of Ælfrician Studies: 1983-1996.” In Old English Prose: Basic Readings, edited by Paul E. Szarmach, 503-52. New York: Garland Publishing, 2000.
  • Latham, R. E., ed. Dictionary of Medieval Latin from British Sources. The British Academy. London: Oxford University Press, 1981.
  • —. Revised Medieval Latin Word-List from British and Irish Sources. The British Academy. London: Oxford University Press, 1980.
  • Leo, Heinrich. Angelsächsisches Glossar. 2 volumes. Halle: Waisenhauses, 1872.
  • Pulsiano, Phillip. An Annotated Bibliography of North American Doctoral Dissertations on Old English Language and Literature. East Lansing, Mich.: Colleagues Press, Inc., 1988.
  • Reinsma, Luke M. Ælfric: An Annotated Bibliography. Garland Reference Library of

the Humanities, Volume 617. New York: Garland Publishing, 1987.

  • Roberts, Jane A. and Christian J. Kay with Lynne Grundy. A Thesaurus of Old English. London: King’s College Medieval Studies XI, 1995.
  • Sawyer, P. H. Anglo-Saxon Charters: An Annotated List and Bibliography. London: Butler & Tanner, Ltd., 1968.
  • Scragg, D. G. and Michael Lapidge, eds. Fontes Anglo-Saxonici: A Database Register of Written Sources used by Authors in Anglo-Saxon England. Manchester, 1987—. [cited 4 October 2004]. http://fontes.english.ox.ac.uk/.
  • Toller, T. Northcote, ed. An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Based on the Manuscript Collections of the Late Joseph Bosworth. 1898. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
  • —. An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Based on the Manuscript Collections of the Late Joseph Bosworth. Supplement. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1921.
  • Trahern, Joseph B. Jr. and Peter S. Baker, eds. “The Year’s Work in Old English

Studies.” Old English Newsletter. Kalamazoo: Richard Rawlinson Center for Anglo-Saxon Studies and Manuscript Research at the Medieval Institute at Western Michigan University. Appears yearly in the winter issues of OEN.

  • Wanley, Humfrey. “Catalogus Cod. MSS. Anglo-Saxonicorum Bibliothecae Cottonianae, quae est Westmonasterii.” In Humphredi Wanleii Librorum Vett. Septentrionalium, qui in Angliae Bibliothecis extant, nec non multorum Vett. Codd. Septentrionalium alibi extantium Catalogus Historico-Criticus, cum totius Thesauri Linguarum Septentrionalium sex Indicibus, 183-265. Volume 2 of Linguarum Vett. Septentrionalium Thesaurus by George Hickes. 3 volumes. Oxford: Sheldonian Theater, 1705.
  • Wilcox, Jonathan. “Bibliography.” In Ælfric’s Prefaces, edited by Jonathan Wilcox, 87-105. Durham Medieval Texts, Number 9. Durham: Durham Medieval Texts, 1994.
  • Wright, Thomas. Anglo-Saxon and Old English Vocabularies. 2 volumes. 2nd ed. London: Trübner and Co., 1884.
  • Wyatt, A. J. and H. H. Johnson. A Glossary to Ælfric’s Homilies. London: W. B. Clive & Co., 1891.

Primary Sources:

  • Ælfric. MS B.15.34. Trinity College, Cambridge.
  • —. MS Cotton Cleopatra B.xiii. British Library, London.
  • —. MS Cotton Faustina A.ix. British Library, London.
  • —. MS Cotton Vespasian D.xiv. British Library, London.
  • —. MS Hatton 113. Bodleian Library, Oxford.
  • —. MS Hatton 114. Bodleian Library, Oxford.
  • —. MS 162. The Parker Library, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
  • —. MS 178. The Parker Library, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
  • —. MS 188. The Parker Library, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
  • —. MS 198. The Parker Library, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
  • —. MS 302. The Parker Library, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
  • —. MS 303. The Parker Library, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
  • Catalogue of the Cotton Manuscripts: Drawn Up Between 1631 and 1638, Handwritten in Ink. Add. MS 36789. Western Manuscripts Students’ Room, British Library, London.
  • Madden, Sir Frederic. Add. MS 62576. “Madden Repairs to Cotton MSS.” Western Manuscripts Students’ Room, British Library, London.
  • —. Add. MS 62577. “Cottonian MSS.—Repairing and Binding Account.” Western Manuscripts Students’ Room, British Library, London.
  • —. Add. MS 62578. “List of the Cottonian Manuscripts Injured or Destroyed in 1731 and their Present State of restoration. 1866.” Western Manuscripts Students’ Room, British Library, London.
  • Planta, Joseph. A Catalogue of the Manuscripts in the Cottonian Library, Deposited in the British Museum. MS K.R.4.d. Annotated Copy, in the Keeper’s Room of the Western Manuscripts Students’ Room of the British Library, London. London: Luke Hansard, 1802.
  • Smith, Thomas. Catalogus Librorum Manuscriptorum Bibliothecae Cottonianae. Annotated by various hands, in the Keeper’s Room of the Western Manuscripts Students’ Room of the British Library, London. MS K.R. 4.d. No. 7 (1, 2) in Millar. Oxford: Sheldonian Theater, 1696.
  • Wanley, Humfrey. Handwritten Additions Made in Smith’s 1696 Catalogue: These Include a MS. Copy of the 22 June 1703 Report of the Commissioners (Matthew Hutton, John Anstis, and Humfrey Wanley), Notes of the Number of ff. of Each Cotton MS., and a MS Copy of Wanley’s Catalogue of the Cotton Charters. Add. MS 46911. No. 7 (3) in Millar. Western Manuscripts Students’ Room, British Library, London.

Secondary Sources:

  • Adriaen, Marci., ed. S. Gregorii Magni Moralia in Iob. Corpus Christianorum Latina Series. 3 volumes. Turnhout: Brepols, 1979-85.
  • Algeo, John. “The Forty Soldiers: An Edition.” Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, 1960.
  • Amos, Thomas L. “Monks and Pastoral Care in the Early Middle Ages.” In Religion, Culture, and Society in the Early Middle Ages, edited by Thomas F. X. Noble and John J. Contreni, 165-80. SMC XXIII. Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Publications, 1987.
  • Assmann, Bruno, ed. Angelsächsische Homilien und Heiligenleben. Bibliothek der Angelsächsischen Prosa 3. Kassel: Georg H. Wigand, 1889.
  • Baasten, Matthew. Pride According to Gregory the Great: A Study of the Moralia. Studies in the Bible and Early Christianity, Volume 7. Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1986.
  • Barry, Patrick, O.S.B. Saint Benedict’s Rule: A New Translation for Today. Herefordshire: Ampleforth Abbey Press, 1997.
  • Ben-Sasson, H. H., ed. A History of the Jewish People. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1977.
  • Berry, Mary. “What the Saxon Monks Sang: Music in Winchester in the Late Tenth Century.” In Bishop Æthelwold: His Career and Influence, edited by Barbara Yorke, 149-60. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1997.
  • Bethurum, Dorothy. The Homilies of Wulfstan. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957.
  • —. “Wulfstan.” In Continuations and Beginnings: Studies in Old English Literature, edited by Eric G. Stanley, 210-46. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, Ltd., 1966.
  • Bhattacharji, Santha, trans. Reading the Gospels with Gregory the Great: Homilies on the Gospels, 21-26. Petersham, Mass.: St. Bede’s Publications, 2001.
  • Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem. 2nd ed. Tomus I: Genesis-Psalmi. Stuttgart: Württembergische Bibelanstalt, 1975.
  • Boenig, Robert, trans. and intro. Anglo-Saxon Spirituality: Selected Writings. The Classics of Western Spirituality. New York: Paulist Press, 2000.
  • Butcher, Carmen Acevedo. “The Feminine Nature of Ælfric’s Works.” In Magistra: A

Journal of Women’s Spirituality in History, edited by Sister Judith Sutera and Brother John Crean, December 2003.

  • —. God of Mercy: Ælfric's Sermons and Theology. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2006.
  • —. “Recovering Unique Ælfrician Texts Using the Fiber Optic Light Cord (FOLC),” Old English Newsletter, Ed. Roy M. Liuzza, 36.3, December 2003. The Board of the Medieval Institute, Western Michigan University. [cited 4 October 2004.] http://oenewsletter.org/OEN/index.php?file=essays/index.txt.
  • —. Incandescence: 365 Readings with Women Mystics. Orleans, MA: Paraclete Press,

2005.

  • Chambers, R. W. On the Continuity of English Prose from Alfred to More and His School. EETS OS 186a. 1932. London: Oxford University Press, 1950.
  • Chittister, Joan. Wisdom Distilled from the Daily: Living the Rule of St. Benedict Today. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1991.
  • —. The Rule of Benedict: Insight for the Ages. New York: Crossroad Publishing Company, 1992.
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  • Clark, Willene B. and Meradith T. McMunn, eds. Beasts and Birds of the Middle Ages: The Bestiary and Its Legacy. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989.
  • Clemoes, Peter. “Ælfric.” In Continuations and Beginnings: Studies in Old English Literature, edited by Eric Gerald Stanley, 176-209. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, Ltd., 1966.
  • —. “The Chronology of Ælfric’s Works.” In The Anglo-Saxons, edited by Peter Clemoes, 212-47. London: Bowes and Bowes, 1959.
  • —. “The Chronology of Ælfric’s Works.” In Old English Prose: Basic Readings, edited by Paul E. Szarmach, 29-72. New York: Garland Publishing, 2000.
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  • —. Preaching and Theology in Anglo-Saxon England: Ælfric and Wulfstan. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977.
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  • —. “Anglo-Saxons on the Mind.” In Learning and Literature in Anglo-Saxon England, edited by Michael Lapidge and Helmut Gneuss, 271-98. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
  • —. “The Sources of Catholic Homilies, C.B.1.2.6.005.02 and C.B.1.2.45.013.02,” 1997, 1988. Fontes Anglo-Saxonici: World Wide Web Register. Eds. D. G. Scragg and Michael
  • Godfrey, John. The Church in Anglo-Saxon England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962.
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  • — and Daniel G. Calder. A New Critical History of Old English Literature. New York: New York University Press, 1986.
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References

  • Public Domain This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  •  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Cousin, John William (1910). A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London: J. M. Dent & Sons – via Wikisource.
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