Chandrayaan-2
File:HBD Raj-2 lander and orbiter integrated stack.jpg Chandrayaan-2 composite | |
Mission type | Lunar orbiter, lander, rover |
---|---|
Operator | Indian Space Research Organisation |
COSPAR ID | 2019-042A |
SATCAT no. | 44441 |
Website | www |
Mission duration | Orbiter: 1 year Vikram lander: <15 days[1] Pragyan rover: <15 days[1] |
Spacecraft properties | |
Manufacturer | Indian Space Research Organisation |
Launch mass | Combined (wet): 3,850 kg (8,490 lb)[2][3][4] Combined (dry): 1,308 kg (2,884 lb)[5] |
Payload mass | Orbiter (wet): 2,379 kg (5,245 lb)[3][4] Orbiter (dry): 682 kg (1,504 lb)[5] Vikram lander (wet): 1,471 kg (3,243 lb)[3][4] Vikram lander (dry): 626 kg (1,380 lb)[5] Pragyan rover: 27 kg (60 lb)[3][4] |
Power | Orbiter: 1 kW[6]
Vikram lander: 650 W Pragyan rover: 50 W |
Start of mission | |
Launch date | July 22, 2019, 14:43 IST (09:13 UTC)[7] |
Rocket | GSLV Mk III[8][9] |
Launch site | Satish Dhawan Space Centre Second Launch Pad |
Contractor | Indian Space Research Organisation |
Moon orbiter | |
Orbital insertion | September 7, 2019 (planned)[10][11] |
Orbital parameters | |
Periapsis altitude | 100 km (62 mi)[12] |
Apoapsis altitude | 100 km (62 mi)[12] |
Chandrayaan-2 (Sanskrit: चन्द्रयान-२; Sanskrit: [t͡ɕən̪d̪ɾəjaːna d̪ʋi]; lit: Moon-craft[13][14] ) is India's second lunar exploration mission after Chandrayaan-1.[15] Developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO),[16][17] the mission was launched from Sriharikota Space Center on 22 July 2019 to the Moon by a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV Mk III).[8][9] It includes a lunar orbiter, lander and rover, all developed domestically.[18] The main scientific objective is to map the location and abundance of lunar water.
Chandrayaan-2 will attempt a soft landing of a lander and rover in a high plain between two craters, Manzinus C and Simpelius N, at a latitude of about 70° south. The wheeled rover will move on the lunar surface and will perform on-site chemical analysis. It can relay data to Earth through the Chandrayaan-2 orbiter and lander, which will fly on the same launch.[19][20][21]
Launch of Chandrayaan-2 was originally scheduled for 14 July 2019 at 21:21 UTC (15 July 2019 2:51 IST) but due to a technical glitch on the launcher it was cancelled 56 minutes before launch and was rescheduled for 22 July 2019.[10][7] It was successfully launched on 22 July 2019 14:43 IST (09:13 UTC) from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota in Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh.
A successful landing would make India the 4th country to achieve a soft landing on the Moon, after the space agencies of the USSR, USA and China.[22] If successful, Chandrayaan-2 will be the second mission to soft land near the lunar south pole region after the Chinese Chang'e 4 mission, which landed in that region on 3 January 2019,[23][24][25] although Chandrayaan-2 will land at a latitude further south on the near side of the Moon.[26]
History
On 12 November 2007, representatives of the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) and ISRO signed an agreement for the two agencies to work together on the Chandrayaan-2 project.[27] ISRO would have the prime responsibility for the orbiter and rover, while Roscosmos was to provide the lander. The Indian government approved the mission in a meeting of the Union Cabinet, held on 18 September 2008 and chaired by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh.[28] The design of the spacecraft was completed in August 2009, with scientists of both countries conducting a joint review.[29][30]
Although ISRO finalised the payload for Chandrayaan-2 per schedule,[31] the mission was postponed in January 2013[32] and rescheduled to 2016 because Russia was unable to develop the lander on time.[33][34] Roscosmos later withdrew in wake of the failure of the Fobos-Grunt mission to Mars, since the technical aspects connected with the Fobos-Grunt mission were also used in the lunar projects, which needed to be reviewed.[33] When Russia cited its inability to provide the lander even by 2015, India decided to develop the lunar mission independently.[32][35][36]
The spacecraft's launch had been scheduled for March 2018, but was first delayed to April and then to October to conduct further tests on the vehicle.[37][38] On 19 June 2018, after the program's fourth Comprehensive Technical Review meeting, a number of changes in configuration and landing sequence were planned for implementation, pushing the launch to the first half of 2019.[39] Two of the lander's legs got minor damage during one of the tests in February 2019.[40]
Chandrayaan-2 launch was initially scheduled for 14 July 2019, 21:21 UTC (15 July 2019 at 02:51 IST local time), with the landing expected on 6 September 2019.[41] However, the launch was aborted due to a technical glitch.[42] On 18 July, ISRO announced 22 July 2019, 09:13 UTC (14:43 IST) as new time of launch.[7][43]
Objectives
The primary objectives of Chandrayaan-2 are to demonstrate the ability to soft-land on the lunar surface and operate a robotic rover on the surface. Scientific goals include studies of lunar topography, mineralogy, elemental abundance, the lunar exosphere, and signatures of hydroxyl and water ice.[44] The orbiter will map the lunar surface and help to prepare 3D maps of it. The onboard radar will also map the surface while studying the water ice in the south polar region and thickness of the lunar regolith on the surface.[45] Chandrayaan-2 will inform the location and abundance of lunar water for exploitation by the future lunar base proposed by the Artemis program.[46]
Design
The mission is planned to fly on a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV Mk III) with an approximate lift-off mass of 3,850 kg (8,490 lb) from Satish Dhawan Space Centre on Sriharikota Island.[2][12][9][47] As of June 2019[update], the mission has an allocated cost of ₹978 crore (approximately US$141 million) which includes ₹603 crore for space segment and ₹375 crore as launch costs on GSLV Mk III.[21][48] Chandrayaan-2 stack would be initially put in an Earth parking orbit of 170 km perigee and 40,400 km apogee by the launch vehicle.[49] It will then perform orbit-raising operations followed by trans-lunar injection using its own power.
Orbiter
The orbiter will orbit the Moon at an altitude of 100 km (62 mi).[50] The orbiter carries five scientific instruments. Three of them are new, while two others are improved versions of those flown on Chandrayaan-1. The approximate launch mass will be 2,379 kg (5,245 lb).[3][4][31][51] The Orbiter High Resolution Camera (OHRC) will conduct high-resolution observations of the landing site prior to separation of the lander from the orbiter.[50][1] The orbiter's structure was manufactured by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and delivered to ISRO Satellite Centre on 22 June 2015.[52][53]
- Gross lift-off mass: 2,379 kg (5,245 lb)[2]
- Propellant mass: 1,697 kg (3,741 lb)[5]
- Dry mass: 682 kg (1,504 lb)[5]
Vikram lander
Landing site[25] | Coordinates |
---|---|
SLS54 (prime site) | 70°54′10″S 22°46′52″E / 70.90267°S 22.78110°E |
ALS01 (alternate site) | 67°52′27″S 18°28′10″W / 67.87406°S 18.46947°W |
The mission's lander is called Vikram (Sanskrit: विक्रम, lit. 'Valour') [54] named after Vikram Sarabhai (1919-1971), who is widely regarded as the father of the Indian space programme.[55]
The Vikram lander will detach from the orbiter and descend to a lunar orbit of 30 km × 100 km (19 mi × 62 mi) using its 800 N (180 lbf) liquid main engines. It will then perform a comprehensive check of all its on-board systems before attempting a soft landing, deploy the rover, and perform scientific activities for approximately 15 days. The approximate combined mass of the lander and rover is 1,471 kg (3,243 lb).[3][4]
The preliminary configuration study of the lander was completed in 2013 by the Space Applications Centre (SAC) in Ahmedabad.[32] The lander's propulsion system consists of eight 50 N (11 lbf) thrusters for attitude control and five 800 N (180 lbf) liquid main engines derived from ISRO's 440 N (99 lbf) Liquid Apogee Motor.[56][57] Initially, the lander design employed four main liquid engines, but a centrally mounted engine was added to handle new requirements of having to orbit the Moon before landing. The additional engine is expected to mitigate upward draft of lunar dust during the soft landing.[47] Vikram can safely land on slopes up to 12°.[58][59]
Some associated technologies include a high resolution camera, Lander Hazard Detection Avoidance Camera (LHDAC), Lander Position Detection Camera (LPDC),[60] an 800 N throttleable liquid main engine,[52] attitude thrusters, Ka band radio altimeter (KaRA),[61] Laser Inertial Reference & Accelerometer Package (LIRAP)[62], and the software needed to run these components.[1][50] Engineering models of the lander began undergoing ground and aerial tests in late October 2016, in Challakere in the Chitradurga district of Karnataka. ISRO created roughly 10 craters on the surface to help assess the ability of the lander's sensors to select a landing site.[63]
- Gross lift-off mass: 1,471 kg (3,243 lb)[2]
- Propellant mass: 845 kg (1,863 lb)[5]
- Dry mass: 626 kg (1,380 lb)[5]
Pragyan rover
The mission's rover is called Pragyan (Sanskrit: प्रज्ञान, lit. 'Wisdom') .[64][65] The rover's mass is about 27 kg (60 lb) and will operate on solar power.[3][4] The rover will move on 6 wheels traversing 500 meters on the lunar surface at the rate of 1 cm per second, performing on-site chemical analysis and sending the data to the lander, which will relay it to the Earth station.[66][67][31][51][21] For navigation, the rover uses:
- Stereoscopic camera-based 3D vision: two 1 megapixel, monochromatic NAVCAMs in front of the rover will provide the ground control team a 3D view of the surrounding terrain, and help in path-planning by generating a digital elevation model of the terrain.[68] IIT Kanpur contributed to the development of the subsystems for light-based map generation and motion planning for the rover.[69]
- Control and motor dynamics: the rover has a rocker-bogie suspension system and six wheels, each driven by independent brushless DC electric motors. Steering is accomplished by differential speed of the wheels or skid steering.[70]
The expected operating time of Pragyan rover is one lunar day or around 14 Earth days but its power system has a solar-powered sleep/wake-up cycle implemented, which could result in longer service time than planned.[71][72]
Payload
ISRO selected eight scientific instruments for the orbiter, four for the lander,[73][2][74] and two for the rover.[31][75] While it was initially reported that NASA and ESA would participate in the mission by providing some scientific instruments for the orbiter,[76] ISRO in 2010 had clarified that due to weight restrictions it will not be carrying foreign payloads on this mission.[77] However, in an update just a month before the launch of the mission, a small laser retroreflector from NASA was added to the lander's payload to help scientists measure exact distances to the Moon and lunar libration.[78]
- Chandrayaan-2 Large Area Soft X-ray Spectrometer (CLASS) from ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC), Bangalore
- Solar X-ray monitor (XSM) from Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad for mapping major elements present on the lunar surface.[31]
- Dual Frequency L and S band Synthetic Aperture Radar (DFSAR) from Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad for probing the first few tens of metres of the lunar surface for the presence of different constituents, including water ice. SAR is expected to provide further evidence confirming the presence of water ice below the shadowed regions of the Moon.[31]
- Imaging IR Spectrometer (IIRS) from Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad for mapping of lunar surface over a wide wavelength range for the study of minerals, water molecules and hydroxyl present.[31]
- Chandrayaan-2 Atmospheric Compositional Explorer 2 (ChACE-2) Quadrupole Mass Analyzer from Space Physics Laboratory (SPL), Thiruvananthapuram to carry out a detailed study of the lunar exosphere.[31]
- Terrain Mapping Camera-2 (TMC-2) from Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad for preparing a three-dimensional map essential for studying the lunar mineralogy and geology.[31]
- Radio Anatomy of Moon Bound Hypersensitive Ionosphere and Atmosphere - Dual Frequency Radio Science experiment (RAMBHA-DFRS) by SPL
- Orbiter High Resolution Camera (OHRC) by SAC for scouting a hazard free spot for landing. Imagery from OHRC will later help prepare Digital elevation model of lunar surface.
- Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA) Seismometer by LEOS for studying Moon-quakes near the landing site[73][12][79]
- Chandra's Surface Thermo-physical Experiment (ChaSTE) Thermal probe for estimating the thermal properties of the lunar surface[12]
- RAMBHA-LP Langmuir probe for measuring the density and variation of lunar surface plasma[73][12]
- A laser retroreflector array (LRA) by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center for precise measurements of the Earth–Moon distance and lunar libration.[78]
- Laser induced Breakdown Spectroscope (LIBS) from Laboratory for Electro Optic Systems (LEOS), Bangalore.[31]
- Alpha Particle Induced X-ray Spectroscope (APXS) from PRL, Ahmedabad.
See also
- Chandrayaan programme
- Chandrayaan-1
- Exploration of the Moon
- List of current and future lunar missions
- List of ISRO missions
References
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- ^ "Chandrayaan-2 - Home". Indian Space Research Organisation. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
- ^ a b c "CHANDRAYAAN -2 LAUNCH RESCHEDULED ON 22ND JULY, 2019, AT 14:43 HRS". Indian Space Research Organisation. 18 July 2019. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
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(help) - ^ a b Singh, Surendra (5 August 2018). "Chandrayaan-2 launch put off: India, Israel in lunar race for 4th position". The Times of India. Times News Network. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
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- ^ "GSLV-Mk III - M1 / Chandrayaan-2 Mission". ISRO.gov.in. Retrieved 21 July 2019.
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Making a throttleable engine of 3 kilonewtons or 4 kilonewtons is a totally new development for us. But we wanted to make use of available technologies. We have a LAM [liquid apogee motor] with a 400 newton thruster, and we have been using it on our satellites. We enhanced it to 800 newtons. It was not a major, new design change.
- ^ Mondal, Chinmoy; Chakrabarti, Subrata; Venkittaraman, D.; Manimaran, A. (2015). Development of a Proportional Flow Control Valve for the 800N Engine Test. 9th National Symposium and Exhibition on Aerospace and Related Mechanisms. January 2015. Bengaluru, India.
- ^ "Chandrayaan-2: First step towards Indians setting foot on moon in near future". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
As solar energy powers the system, a place with good visibility and area of communication was needed. Also, the place where the landing takes place should not have many boulders and craters. The slope for landing should be less than 12 degrees. The South pole has a near-flat surface, with good visibility and sunlight available from the convenience point of view,
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(help) - ^ Subramanian, T. S. "Chandrayaan 2: Giant leap for ISRO". Frontline. Retrieved 9 July 2019.
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Lander (Vikram) is undergoing final integration tests. Rover (Pragyan) has completed all tests and waiting for the Vikram readiness to undergo further tests.
{{cite web}}
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(help) - ^ "ISRO to Launch Chandrayaan 2 on July 15, Moon Landing by September 7". The Wire. Retrieved 12 June 2019.
- ^ May 10, Surendra Singh | TNN | Updated; 2019; Ist, 14:02. "Chandrayaan-2 will carry 14 payloads to moon, no foreign module this time | India News - Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
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has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Laha, Jayanta; Dinesh, B.; Selvaraj, P.; Krishnamoorthy, Subhalakshmi (2018). "Realization of Space Grade Miniature Digital Camera for Lunar Navigation" (PDF). International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics. 118 (16): 1105–1116. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 September 2018.
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suggested) (help) - ^ "With robot hands, IIT-K profs bring joy to paralytics | India News - Times of India". The Times of India. 2019. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
- ^ Annadurai, Mylswami; Nagesh, G.; Vanitha, Muthayaa (28 June 2017). ""Chandrayaan-2: Lunar Orbiter & Lander Mission", 10th IAA Symposium on The Future of Space Exploration: Towards the Moon Village and Beyond, Torin, Italy". Archived from the original on 29 June 2017. Retrieved 14 June 2019.
Mobility of the Rover in the unknown lunar terrain is accomplished by a Rocker bogie suspension system driven by six wheels. Brushless DC motors are used to drive the wheels to move along the desired path and steering is accomplished by differential speed of the wheels. The wheels are designed after extensive modelling of the wheel-soil interaction, considering the lunar soil properties, sinkage and slippage results from a single wheel test bed. The Rover mobility has been tested in the Lunar test facility wherein the soil simulant, terrain and the gravity of moon are simulated. The limitations w.r.t slope, obstacles, pits in view of slippage/sinkage have been experimentally verified with the analysis results.
{{cite web}}
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(help) - ^ "Dr M Annadurai, Project director, Chandrayaan 1: 'Chandrayaan 2 logical extension of what we did in first mission'". The Indian Express. 29 June 2019. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
- ^ Payyappilly, Baiju; Muthusamy, Sankaran (17 January 2018). "Design framework of a configurable electrical power system for lunar rover". ResearchGate: 1–6. doi:10.1109/ICPCES.2017.8117660. ISBN 978-1-5090-4426-9.
- ^ a b c Bagla, Pallava (31 January 2018). "India plans tricky and unprecedented landing near moon's south pole". Science. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
- ^ a b c d "Chandrayaan-2 Payloads". 12 June 2019. Archived from the original on 13 July 2019. Retrieved 13 July 2019.
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(help) - ^ Johnson, T. A. (31 August 2010). "Three new Indian payloads for Chandrayaan 2, decides ISRO". The Indian Express. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
- ^ Beary, Habib (4 February 2010). "NASA and ESA to partner for Chandrayaan-2". Sakal Times. Retrieved 22 February 2010.
- ^ Laxman, Srinivas (5 September 2010). "'We're launching Chandrayaan-2 for a total coverage of the moon'". The Times of India.
- ^ a b Bartels, Meghan (24 March 2019). "How NASA Scrambled to Add Science Experiments to Israeli, Indian Moon Probes". Retrieved 25 March 2019.
- ^ Mallikarjun, Y. (29 May 2013). "India plans to send seismometer to study moonquakes". The Hindu. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
External links
- Official Chandrayaan-2 campaign page by Indian Space Research Organisation