Emanuel Lasker

Emanuel Lasker
Full name	Emanuel Lasker
Country	Germany
World Champion	1894–1921

Emanuel Lasker (December 24, 1868 – January 11, 1941) was a German chess player, mathematician, and philosopher who was World Chess Champion for 27 years. In his prime Lasker was one of the most dominant champions, and he is still generally regarded as one of the strongest players ever.

It is often said that Lasker used a "psychological" approach to the game, and even that he sometimes deliberately played inferior moves to confuse opponents. However recent analysis indicates that he was ahead of his time and used a more flexible approach than his contemporaries, which mystified many of them. While it is often said that Lasker spent little time studying the openings, he actually knew the openings well but disagreed with many contemporary analyses. Although Lasker also published chess magazines and five chess books, later players and commentators found it difficult to draw lessons from his methods.

He demanded high fees for playing matches and tournaments, which aroused criticism at the time but contributed to the development of chess as a professional career. The conditions which Lasker demanded for World Championship matches in the last 10 years of his reign were controversial, and prompted attempts, particularly by his successor José Raúl Capablanca, to define agreed rules for championship matches.

Lasker was also a talented mathematician, and his Ph.D. thesis is regarded as one of the foundations of modern algebra. He was a first-class contract bridge player and wrote about this and other games, including Go and his own invention, Lasca. His attempt to produce a general theory of competitive activities had some influence on the early development of game theory, and his books about games in general presented a problem which is still considered notable in the mathematical analysis of card games. However his philosophical works and a drama which he co-wrote now receive little attention.

Life and career

Early years 1868–1894

Lasker as a young man

Emanuel Lasker was born on December 24, 1868 at Berlinchen in Neumark (now Barlinek in Poland), the son of a Jewish cantor. At the age of eleven he was sent to Berlin to study mathematics, where he lived with his brother Berthold, eight years his senior, who taught him how to play chess. According to the website Chessmetrics, Berthold was among the world's top ten players in the early 1890s. To supplement their income Emanuel Lasker played chess and card games for small stakes, especially at the Café Kaiserhof.

Emanuel Lasker shot up through the chess rankings in 1889, when he won the Café Kaiserhof's annual Winter tournament 1888/89 and the Hauptturnier A ("second division" tournament) at the sixth DSBnbsp;Congress (German Chess Federation's congress) held in Breslau. He also finished second in an international tournament at Amsterdam, ahead of some well-known masters including Isidore Gunsberg (assessed as the second strongest player in the world at that time by Chessmetrics). In 1890 he finished third in Graz, then shared first prize with his brother Berthold in a tournament in Berlin. In Spring 1892 he won two tournaments in London, the second and stronger of these without losing a game. At New York 1893 he won all of his thirteen games, one of the few times in chess history that a player has achieved a perfect score in a significant tournament.

His record in matches was equally impressive: at Berlin in 1890 he drew a short play-off match against his brother Berthold; and won all his other matches from 1889 to 1893, mostly against top-class opponents: Curt von Bardeleben (1889; ranked 9th best player in the world by Chessmetrics at that time), Jacques Mieses (1889; ranked 11th), Henry Edward Bird (1890; then 60 years old; ranked 29th), Berthold Englisch (1890; ranked 18th), Joseph Henry Blackburne (1892, without losing a game; Blackburne was aged 51 then, but still 9th in the world), Jackson Showalter (1892–1893; 22nd) and Celso Golmayo Zúpide (1893; 29th). Chessmetrics calculates that Emanuel Lasker became the world's strongest player in mid-1890, and that he was in the top 10 from the very beginning of his recorded career in 1889.

The players and tournament officials at the New York 1893 tournament

In 1892 Lasker founded the first of his chess magazines, The London Chess Fortnightly, which was published from August 15, 1892 to July 30, 1893. In the second quarter of 1893 there was a gap of ten weeks between issues, allegedly because of problems with the printer. Shortly after its last issue Lasker traveled to the USA, where he spent the next two years.

Lasker challenged Siegbert Tarrasch, who had won three consecutive great international tournaments (Breslau 1889, Manchester 1890, and Dresden 1892), to a match. Tarrasch haughtily declined, stating that Lasker should first prove his mettle by attempting to win one or two major international events.

Chess competition 1894–1918

Wilhelm Steinitz, whom Lasker beat in World Championship matches in 1894 and 1896

Rebuffed by Tarrasch, Lasker challenged the reigning World Champion Wilhelm Steinitz to a match for the title. Initially Lasker wanted to play for US $5,000 a side and a match was agreed at stakes of $3,000 a side, but Steinitz agreed to a series of reductions when Lasker found it difficult to raise the money, and the final figure was $2,000, which was less than for some of Steinitz' earlier matches (the final combined stake of $4,000 would be worth over $495,000 at 2006 values). Although this was publicly praised as an act of sportsmanship on Steinitz' part, Steinitz may have desperately needed the money. The match was played in 1894, at venues in New York, Philadelphia and Montreal. Steinitz had previously declared he would win without doubt, so it came as a shock when Lasker won the 1st game. Steinitz responded by winning the 2nd, and was able to maintain the balance through the 6th. However Lasker won all the games from the 7th to the 11th, and Steinitz asked for a week's rest. When the match resumed, Steinitz looked in better shape and won the 13th and 14th games. Lasker struck back in the 15th and 16th, and Steinitz was unable to compensate for his losses in the middle of the match. Hence Lasker won convincingly with 10 wins, 5 losses and 4 draws. Lasker thus became the second formally-recognized World Chess Champion, and confirmed his title by beating Steinitz even more convincingly in their re-match in 1896–1897 (10 wins, 5 draws, 2 losses).

Sketch of Lasker, ca. 1894

Influential players and journalists belittled the 1894 match both before and after it took place. Lasker's difficulty in getting backing may have been caused by hostile pre-match comments from Gunsberg and Leopold Hoffer, who had long been a bitter enemy of Steinitz. One of the complaints was that Lasker had never played the other two members of the top four, Siegbert Tarrasch and Mikhail Chigorin – although Tarrasch had rejected a challenge from Lasker in 1892, publicly telling him to go and win an international tournament first. After the match some commentators, notably Tarrasch, said Lasker had won mainly because Steinitz was old (58 in 1894).

Emanuel Lasker answered these criticisms by creating an even more impressive playing record. Before World War I broke out his most serious "setbacks" were third place at Hastings 1895 (where he may have been suffering from the after-effects of typhoid), tie for second at Cambridge Springs 1904, and tie for first at the Chigorin Memorial in St Petersburg 1909. He won first prizes at very strong tournaments in St. Petersburg (1895–1896), Nuremberg (1896), London (1899), Paris (1900) and St. Petersburg (1914), where he overcame a 1½ point deficit to finish ahead of the rising stars José Raúl Capablanca and Alexander Alekhine, who later became the next two World Champions. For decades chess writers have reported that Tsar Nicholas II of Russia conferred the title of "Grandmaster of Chess" upon each of the five finalists at St Petersburg 1914 (Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, Tarrasch and Marshall), but chess historian Edward Winter has questioned this, stating that the earliest known sources supporting this story were published in 1940 and 1942.

Lasker's match record was as impressive between his 1896–1897 re-match with Steinitz and 1914: he won all but one of his normal matches, and three of those were convincing defenses of his title. He first played against Marshall in the World Chess Championship 1907, when despite his aggressive style Marshall could not win a single game, losing eight and drawing seven (final score: 11½−3½).

He then played Tarrasch in the World Chess Championship 1908, first at Düsseldorf then at Munich. Tarrasch was an extremely talented player who firmly believed the game of chess was governed by a precise set of principles. For him the strength of a chess move was in its logic, not in its efficiency. Because of his stubborn principles he considered Lasker as a coffeehouse player who won his games only thanks to dubious tricks, while Lasker mocked the arrogance of Tarrasch who in his opinion shone more in salons than at the chessboard. Both players hated each other, so that at the opening ceremony Tarrasch refused to talk to Lasker, only saying:"Mr. Lasker, I have only three words to say to you: check and mate !"

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"Tarrasch–Lasker". after 19.Qxa7

Lasker gave a brillant answer on the chessboard, winning 4 games of the first 5 games, and playing a type of chess Tarrasch could not understand. For example in the 2nd game after 19 moves came a situation (see diagram at left) in which Lasker was a pawn down, with a bad bishop and doubled pawns. At this point it looked like Tarrasch was winning, but 20 moves later he was forced to resign. Lasker eventually won by 10½−5½ (8 wins, 5 draws, 3 losses). Tarrasch claimed the wet weather was the cause of his defeat.

In 1909 Lasker drew a short match (2 wins each) against Dawid Janowski, an all-out attacking Polish player who lived in in Paris. Several months later they played a longer match, and chess historians still debate whether this was for the World Chess Championship. Understanding Janowski's style, Lasker chose to defend solidly so that Janowski unleashed his attacks too soon and left himself vulnerable. Lasker easily won the match 8–2 (7 wins, 2 draws, 1 loss). This victory was convincing for everyone but Janowski, who asked for a revenge match. Lasker accepted and they played World Chess Championship match in Paris the next year. Lasker crushed his opponent, winning 9½−1½ (8 wins, 3 draws, no defeat). Janowski was not able to understand Lasker's moves, and after his first 3 losses he declared to Edward Lasker, "Your homonym plays so stupidly that I cannot even look at the chessboard when he thinks. I am afraid I will not do anything good in this match."

Carl Schlechter would have taken Lasker's world title if he had drawn the last game of their 1910 match.

Despite all these successes, Lasker only scraped a tie in the 10-game match against Schlechter in 1910 by winning the last game that was played, creating a mystery that has not yet been solved. This match was originally meant to consist of 30 games, but was cut to 10 when it became obvious that there were insufficient funds to meet Lasker's demand for a fee of 1,000 marks per game played. It is generally regarded as a World Championship match, but some sources have doubted this in view of its strange outcome. It is difficult to explain Schlechter's decision to play for a win in the tenth game, when he could have forced a draw quite easily and thus won the match as he was one point ahead. Some commentators have argued that there was a secret clause that required Schlechter to have a two-game lead in order to claim victory. However Lasker himself wrote two days before the tenth game, "The match with Schlechter is nearing its end and it appears probable that for the first time in my life I shall be the loser. If that should happen a good man will have won the World Championship," which implies that it really was a world title match and that there was no secret "two-game lead" clause. Another report shortly after the end of the match appears to speculate that Schlechter threw the last game because a narrow victory for him would not have been in the financial interests of either player, as they would have had to play another match if Schlechter won narrowly, but they had not been able to get adequate financial backing for the 1910 match. It has even been suggested that Schlechter played to win the last game because he was too honorable to win the title by a fluke, having won the fifth game by a swindle in a lost position.

File:Capablanca3.JPG

José Raúl Capablanca won the world title from Lasker in 1922.

In 1911 Lasker received a challenge for a world title match against the rising star José Raúl Capablanca. Lasker was unwilling to play the traditional "first to win ten games" type of match in the semi-tropical conditions of Havana, especially as drawn games were becoming more frequent and the match might last for over six months. He therefore made a counter-proposal: if neither player a had a lead of at least two games by the end of the match, it should be considered a draw; the match should be limited to the best of thirty games, counting draws; except that if either player won six games and led by at least two games before thirty games were completed, he should be declared the winner; the champion should decide the venue and stakes, and should have the exclusive right to publish the games; the challenger should deposit a forfeit of US $2,000 (equivalent to over $194,000 in 2006 values); the time limit should be twelve moves per hour; play should be limited to two sessions of 2½ hours each per day, five days a week. Capablanca objected to the time limit, the short playing times, the thirty-game limit, and especially the requirement that he must win by two games to claim the title, which he regarded as unfair. Lasker took offence at the terms in which Capablanca criticized the two-game lead condition and broke off negotiations, and until 1914 Lasker and Capablanca were not on speaking terms. However at the 1914 St. Petersburg tournament Capablanca proposed a set of rules for the conduct of World Championship matches, which were accepted by all the leading players including Lasker.

Late in 1912 Lasker entered into negotiations for a world title match with Akiba Rubinstein, whose tournament record for the previous few years had been on a par with Lasker's and a little ahead of Capablanca's. The two players agreed to play a match if Rubinstein could raise the funds, but Rubinstein had few rich friends to back him and the match was never played. The start of World War I put an end to hopes that Lasker would play either Rubinstein or Capablanca for the World Championship in the near future.

Throughout World War I (1914–1918) Lasker played in only two serious chess events. He convincingly won (5½−½) a non-title match against Tarrasch in 1916. In September–October 1918, shortly before the armistice, he won a quadrangular (4-player) tournament, half a point ahead of Rubinstein.

Academic activities 1894–1918

File:Hilbert1912.jpg

David Hilbert encouraged Lasker to obtain a Ph.D in mathematics.

Despite his superb playing results, chess was not Lasker's only interest. His parents recognized his intellectual talents, especially for mathematics, and sent the adolescent Emanuel to study in Berlin (where he found he also had a talent for chess). Lasker gained his abitur (high school graduation certificate) at Landsberg an der Warthe, now a Polish town named Gorzow Wielkopolski but then part of Prussia. He then studied mathematics and philosophy at the universities in Berlin, Göttingen and Heidelberg.

In 1895 Lasker published two mathematical articles in Nature. On the advice of David Hilbert he registered for doctoral studies at Erlangen during 1900–1902. In 1901 he presented his doctoral thesis Über Reihen auf der Convergenzgrenze ("On Series at Convergence Boundaries") at Erlangen and in the same year it was published by the Royal Society. He was awarded a doctorate in mathematics in 1902. His most significant mathematical article, in 1905, published a theorem of which Emmy Noether developed a more generalized form, which is now regarded as of fundamental importance to modern algebra and algebraic geometry.

Lasker held short-term positions as a mathematics lecturer at Tulane University in New Orleans (1893) and Victoria University in Manchester (1901; Victoria University was one of the "parents" of the current University of Manchester). However he was unable to secure a longer-term position, and pursued his scholarly interests independently.

In 1906 Lasker published a booklet titled Kampf (Struggle), in which he attempted to create a general theory of all competitive activities, including chess, business and war; this later had some influence on von Neumann's work on game theory. He produced two other books which are generally categorized as philosophy, Das Begreifen der Welt (Comprehending the World; 1913) and Die Philosophie des Unvollendbar (The Philosophy of the Unattainable; 1918).

Other activities 1894–1918

In 1896–1897 Lasker published his book Common Sense in Chess, based on lectures he had given in London in 1895.

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In 1903 Lasker played in Ostend against Mikhail Chigorin a six-game match that was sponsored by the wealthy lawyer and industrialist Isaac Rice in order to test the Rice Gambit. Lasker narrowly lost the match. Three years later Lasker became secretary of the Rice Gambit Association, founded by Rice in order to promote the Rice Gambit, and in 1907 Lasker quoted with approval Rice's views on the convergence of chess and military strategy.

In November 1904, Lasker founded Lasker's Chess Magazine, which ran until 1909.

For a short time in 1906 Emanuel Lasker was interested in the Japanese strategy game Go, but soon returned to chess. Curiously he was introduced to the game by his namesake Edward Lasker, who wrote a successful book Go and Go-Moku in 1934.

At the age of 42, in July 1911, Lasker married Martha Cohn (née Bamberger), a rich widow who was a year older than Lasker and already a grandmother. They lived in Berlin.

Martha Cohn wrote popular stories under the pseudonym "L. Marco".

During World War I, Lasker invested all of his savings in German war bonds. Since Germany lost the war, Lasker lost all his money. During the war, he wrote a book which claimed that civilization would be in danger if Germany lost the war.

1918 – end of life

In January 1920 Lasker and José Raúl Capablanca signed an agreement to play a World Championship match in 1921, noting that Capablanca was not free to play in 1920. Because of the delay Lasker insisted on a final clause that: allowed him to play anyone else for the championship in 1920; nullified the contract with Capablanca if Lasker lost a title match in 1920; and stipulated that if Lasker resigned the title Capablanca should become World Champion. Lasker had previously included in his agreement before World War I to play Akiba Rubinstein for the title a similar clause that if he resigned the title, it should become Rubinstein's.

A report in the American Chess Bulletin (July–August 1920 issue) said that Lasker had resigned the world title in favor of Capablanca because the conditions of the match were unpopular in the chess world. The American Chess Bulletin speculated that the conditions were not sufficiently unpopular to warrant resignation of the title, and that Lasker's real concern was that there was not enough financial backing to justify his devoting nine months to the match. When Lasker resigned the title in favor of Capablanca he was unaware that enthusiasts in Havana had just raised $20,000 to fund the match provided it was played there. When Capablanca learned of Lasker's resignation he went Holland, where Lasker was living at the time, to inform him that Havana would finance the match. In August 1920 Lasker agreed to play in Havana, but insisted that he was the challenger as Capablanca was now the champion. Capablanca signed an agreement that accepted this point, and soon afterwards published a letter confirming this. Lasker also stated that, if he beat Capablanca, he would resign the title so that younger masters could compete for it. The match was played in March–April 1921 and Lasker resigned it after fourteen games, when he was trailing by four games and had won none. Reuben Fine Harry Golombek attributed this to Lasker's being in mysteriously poor form. On the other hand Vladimir Kramnik thought that Lasker played quite well and the match was an "even and fascinating fight" until Lasker blundered in the last game, and explained that Capablanca was 20 years younger, a slightly stronger player, and had more recent competitive practise.

By this time Lasker was nearly 53 years old, and he never played another serious match; his only other match was a short exhibition against Frank James Marshall in 1940, which he won. After winning the New York 1924 chess tournament (1½ points ahead of Capablanca) and finishing second at Moscow in 1925 (1½ points behind Efim Bogoljubow, ½ point ahead of Capablanca), he effectively retired from serious chess.

Emanuel Lasker and his brother Berthold Lasker in 1907

During the Moscow 1925 chess tournament, Emanuel Lasker received a telegram informing him that the drama written by himself and his brother Berthold, Vom Menschen die Geschichte ("History of Mankind"), had been accepted for performance at the Lessing theatre in Berlin. Emanuel Lasker was so distracted by this news that he lost badly to Carlos Torre the same day. The play was not a success and has little literary value.

In 1926 Lasker wrote Lehrbuch des Schachspiels, which he re-wrote in English in 1927 as Lasker's Manual of Chess. He also wrote books on other games of mental skill: Encyclopedia of Games (1929) and Das verständige Kartenspiel (means "Sensible Card Play"; 1929; English translation in the same year), both of which posed a problem in the mathematical analysis of card games; Brettspiele der Völker ("Board Games of the Nations"; 1931), which includes 30 pages about Go and a section about a game he had invented in 1911, Lasca; and Das Bridgespiel ("The Game of Bridge"; 1931). Lasker became an expert bridge player, representing Germany at international events in the early 1930s, and a registered teacher of the Culbertson system.

In October 1928 Emanuel Lasker's brother Berthold died.

In spring 1933 Adolf Hitler started a campaign of discrimination and intimidation against Jews, depriving them of their property and citizenship. Lasker and his wife Martha, who were both Jews, were forced to leave Germany in the same year. After a short stay in England, in 1935 they were invited to live in the USSR by Nikolai Krylenko, the Commissar of Justice who was responsible for the Moscow show trials and, in his other capacity as Sports Minister, was an enthusiastic supporter of chess. In the USSR Lasker renounced his German citizenship and received Soviet citizenship, and was given a post, probably honorary, at Moscow's Institute for Mathematics. Lasker returned to competitive chess to make some money, finishing fifth in Zürich 1934 and third in Moscow 1935 (undefeated, ½ point behind Mikhail Botvinnik and Salo Flohr; ahead of Capablanca, Rudolf Spielmann and several Soviet masters), sixth in Moscow 1936 and seventh equal in Nottingham 1936. His performance in Moscow 1935 at age 67 was hailed as "a biological miracle."

Unfortunately Stalin's Great Purge started at about the same time the Laskers arrived in the USSR. In 1937, after a trip to New York to visit relatives, Martha and Emanuel Lasker decided to stay in the United States. In the following year Emanuel Lasker's patron Krylenko was purged. Lasker tried to support himself by giving chess and bridge lectures and exhibitions, as he was now too old for serious competition. In 1940 he published his last book, The Community of the Future, in which he proposed solutions for serious political problems, including anti-Semitism and unemployment. He died of a kidney infection in New York on January 11, 1941, at the age of 72, as a charity patient at the Mount Sinai Hospital. His wife Martha and his sister Mrs. Lotta Hirschberg were still alive at the time.

Assessment

Chess strength and style

Lasker is often said to have used a "psychological" method of play in which he considered the subjective qualities of his opponent, in addition to the objective requirements of his position on the board. Richard Réti published a lengthy analysis of Lasker's play in which he concluded that Lasker often deliberately played inferior moves that he knew would make his opponent uncomfortable. W. H. K. Pollock wrote that, "It is no easy matter to reply correctly to Lasker's bad moves."

Lasker himself denied the claim that he deliberately played bad moves, and most modern writers agree. According to Grandmaster Andrew Soltis and International Master John L. Watson, the features that made his play mysterious to contemporaries now appear regularly in modern play: the g2-g4 "Spike" attack against the Dragon Sicilian; sacrifices to gain positional advantage; playing the "practical" move rather than trying to find the best move; counterattacking and complicating the game before a disadvantage became serious. Former World Champion Vladimir Kramnik writes, "He realized that different types of advantage could be interchangeable: tactical edge could be converted into strategic advantage and vice versa," which mystified contemporaries who were just becoming used to the theories of Steinitz as codified by Siegbert Tarrasch.

The famous last round win against José Raúl Capablanca at St. Petersburg in 1914, which Lasker needed in order to win the tournament, is sometimes offered as evidence of his "psychological" style; but Kramnik argues that his play in this game demonstrated deep positional understanding, rather than psychology. Reuben Fine describes Lasker's choice of opening, the Exchange Variation of the Ruy Lopez, as "innocuous but psychologically potent." However an analysis of Lasker's use of this variation throughout his career concludes that he had excellent results with it as White against top-class opponents, and sometimes used it in "must-win" situations.

Many commentators write that Lasker paid little attention to the openings. However Capablanca wrote that Lasker knew the openings very well, although he often disagreed with a lot of contemporary opening analysis. In fact before the 1894 world title match Lasker studied the openings thoroughly, especially Steinitz' favorite lines. In Capablanca's opinion, no player surpassed Lasker in the ability to assess a position quickly and accurately, in terms of who had the better prospects of winning and what strategy each side should adopt. Capablanca also wrote that Lasker was so adaptable that he played in no definite style, and that he was both a tenacious defender and a very efficient finisher of his own attacks.

In addition to his enormous chess skill Lasker had an excellent competitive temperament: his bitter rival Siegbert Tarrasch once said, "Lasker occasionally loses a game, but he never loses his head." Although very strong in matches, he was even stronger in tournaments. For example, Capablanca could not finish ahead of him until fifteen years after their 1921 match, by which time Lasker was 68 years old. Lasker enjoyed the need to adapt to varying styles and to the shifting fortunes of tournaments.

In 1964, Chessworld magazine published an article in which future World Champion Bobby Fischer listed the ten greatest players in history. Fischer did not include Lasker in the list, deriding him at page 59 as a "coffee-house player [who] knew nothing about openings and didn't understand positional chess." However, Pal Benko said that Fischer later reconsidered, telling Benko that "Lasker was a truly great player."

Statistical ranking systems place Lasker high among the greatest players of all time. The book Warriors of the Mind places him sixth, behind Garry Kasparov, Anatoly Karpov, Fischer, Mikhail Botvinnik and Capablanca. In his 1978 book The Rating of Chessplayers, Past and Present, Arpad Elo gave retrospective ratings to players based on their performance over the best five-year span of their career. He concluded that Lasker was the joint second strongest player of those surveyed (tied with Botvinnik and behind Capablanca). The most up-to-date system, Chessmetrics, is rather sensitive to the length of the periods being compared, and ranks Lasker between fifth and second strongest of all time for peak periods ranging in length from one to twenty years. Its author, the statistician Jeff Sonas, concluded that only Kasparov and Karpov surpassed Lasker's long-term dominance of the game.

Influence on chess

Lasker at home in Berlin, in 1933

Lasker founded no school of players who played in a similar style. Max Euwe, World Champion 1935–1937 and a prolific writer of chess manuals, who had had a lifetime 0–3 score against Lasker, said, "It is not possible to learn much from him. One can only stand and wonder." However Lasker's pragmative, combative approach had a great influence on Soviet players like Mikhail Tal and Viktor Korchnoi.

There are several "Lasker Variations" in the chess openings, including Lasker's Defense to the Queen's Gambit, Lasker's Defense to the Evans Gambit (which effectively ended the use of this gambit in tournament play until a revival in the 1990s), and the Lasker Variation in the McCutcheon Variation of the French Defense.

One of Lasker's most famous games is Lasker – Bauer, Amsterdam 1889, in which he sacrificed both bishops in a maneuver later repeated in a number of games. Similar sacrifices had already been played by Cecil Valentine De Vere and John Owen, but these were not in major events and Lasker probably had not seen them.

Lasker was shocked by the poverty in which Wilhelm Steinitz died and did not intend to die in similar circumstances. He became notorious for demanding high fees for playing matches and tournaments, and he argued that players should own the copyright in their games rather than let publishers get all the profits. These demands initially angered editors and other players, but helped to pave the way for the rise of full-time chess professionals who earn most of their living from playing, writing and teaching. Copyright in chess games had been contentious at least as far back as the mid-1840s, and Steinitz and Lasker vigorously asserted that players should own the copyright and wrote copyright clauses into their match contracts. However Lasker's demands that challengers should raise large purses prevented or delayed some eagerly-awaited World Championship matches — for example Frank James Marshall challenged him in 1904 to a match for the World Championship but could not raise the stakes demanded by Lasker until 1907. This problem continued throughout the reign of his successor Capablanca.

Some of the controversial conditions that Lasker insisted on for championship matches led Capablanca to attempt twice (1914 and 1922) to publish rules for such matches, to which other top players readily agreed.

Work in other fields

Despite the relatively small amount of time Lasker spent working on mathematics, he produced a theorem which, after a further refinement, became one of the foundations of modern algebra. His attempt to create a general theory of all competitive activities had some influence on von Neumann's work on game theory, and his later writings about card games presented a significant issue in the mathematical analysis of card games.

However, his dramatic and philosophical works have never been highly regarded.

Friends and relatives

Lasker was a good friend of Albert Einstein, who wrote the introduction to the posthumous biography Emanuel Lasker, The Life of a Chess Master from Dr. Jacques Hannak (1952). In this preface Einstein express his satisfaction at having met Lasker, writing:

Emanuel Lasker was undoubtedly one of the most interesting people I came to know in my later years. We must be thankful to those who have penned the story of his life for this and succeeding generations. For there are few men who have had a warm interest in all the great human problems and at the same time kept their personality so uniquely independent.

Poetess Else Lasker-Schüler was his sister-in-law. Edward Lasker, born in Kempen (Kępno), Greater Poland (then Prussia), the German-American chess master, engineer, and author, claimed that he was distantly related to Emanuel Lasker. They both played in the great New York 1924 chess tournament.

Publications

Chess

• The London Chess Fortnightly, 1892–1893
• Common Sense in Chess, 1896 (an abstract of 12 lectures delivered to a London audience in 1895)
• Lasker's How to Play Chess: An Elementary Text Book for Beginners, Which Teaches Chess By a New, Easy and Comprehensive Method, 1900
• Lasker's Chess Magazine, OCLC 5002324, 1904–1907.
• The International Chess Congress, St. Petersburg, 1909, 1910
• Lasker's Manual of Chess, 1925, is as famous in chess circles for its philosophical tone as for its content.
• Lehrbuch des Schachspiels, 1926 — English version Lasker's Manual of Chess published in 1927.
• Lasker's Chess Primer, 1934

Mathematics

• Lasker, Emanuel (1895). "Metrical Relations of Plane Spaces of n Manifoldness". Nature. 52 (1345): 340–343. doi:10.1038/052340d0. Retrieved 2008-05-31. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Lasker, Emanuel (1895). "About a certain Class of Curved Lines in Space of n Manifoldness". Nature. 52 (1355): 596. doi:10.1038/052596a0. Retrieved 2008-05-31. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Lasker, Emanuel (1901). "Über Reihen auf der Convergenzgrenze ("On Series at Convergence Boundaries")". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A. 196: 431–477. Retrieved 2008-05-31. — Lasker's Ph.D. thesis.
• Lasker, E. (1905), "Zur Theorie der Moduln und Ideale", Math. Ann., 60: 19–116, doi:10.1007/BF01447495

Other games

• Kampf (Struggle), 1906.
• Encyclopedia of Games, 1929.
• Das verständige Kartenspiel (Sensible Card Play), 1929 — English translation published in the same year.
• Brettspiele der Völker (Board Games of the Nations), 1931 — includes sections about Go and Lasca.
• Das Bridgespiel ("The Game of Bridge"), 1931.

Philosophical

• Das Begreifen der Welt (Comprehending the World), 1913.
• Die Philosophie des Unvollendbar (The Philosophy of the Unattainable), 1918.
• Vom Menschen die Geschichte ("History of Mankind"), 1925 — a play, co-written with his brother Berthold.
• The Community of the Future, 1940.

Quotations

By Lasker

• "Lies and hypocrisy do not survive for long on the chessboard. The creative combination lies bare the presumption of a lie, while the merciless fact, culminating in a checkmate, contradicts the hypocrite."
• "Education in Chess has to be an education in independent thinking and judgement. Chess must not be memorized, simply because it is not important enough. ... Memory is too valuable to be stocked with trifles."

About Lasker

• W. H. K. Pollock: "It is no easy matter to reply correctly to Lasker's bad moves."
• Viktor Korchnoi: "My chess hero"
• Mikhail Tal: "The greatest of the champions was, of course, Emanuel Lasker"
• Colin Crouch: "He had an immense influence on younger players in the Soviet Union, and Tal and Korchnoi, in particular, regarded Lasker as their chess hero."

Notable games

• "Emanuel Lasker vs Johann Hermann Bauer, Amsterdam 1889". ChessGames.com.
  Although this was not the earliest known game with a successful two bishops sacrifice, this combination is now known as a "Lasker-Bauer combination" or "Lasker sacrifice".
• "Harry Nelson Pillsbury vs Emanuel Lasker, St Petersburg 1895". ChessGames.com.
  A brilliant sacrifice in the seventeenth move leads to a victorious attack.
• "Wilhelm Steinitz vs Emanuel Lasker, London 1899". ChessGames.com.
  The old champion and the new one really go for it.
• "Frank James Marshall vs Emanuel Lasker, World Championship Match 1907, game 1". ChessGames.com.
  Lasker's attack is insufficient for a quick win, so he trades it in for an endgame in which he quickly ties Marshall in knots.
• "Emanuel Lasker vs Carl Schlechter, match 1910, game 10". ChessGames.com.
  Not a great game, but the one that saved Emanuel Lasker from losing his world title in 1910.
• "Emanuel Lasker vs Jose Raul Capablanca, St Petersburg 1914". ChessGames.com.
  Lasker, who needed a win here, surprisingly used a quiet opening, allowing Capablanca to simplify the game early. There has been much debate about whether Lasker's approach represented subtle psychology or deep positional understanding.
• "Max Euwe vs Emanuel Lasker, Zurich 1934". ChessGames.com.
  66-year old Lasker beats a future World Champion, sacrificing his Queen to turn defense into attack.

Tournament results

The following table gives Lasker's placings and scores in tournaments. The first "Score" column gives the number of points on the total possible. In the second "Score" column, "+" indicates the number of won games, "−" the number of losses, and "=" the number of draws.

Date	Location	Place	Score		Notes
1888/89	Berlin (Café Kaiserhof)	1st	20/20	+20 −0 =0
1889	Breslau "B"	1st =	12/15	+11 −2 =2	Tied with von Feyerfeil and won the play-off. This was Hauptturnier A of the sixth DSB Congress, i.e. the "second-division" tournament.
1889	Amsterdam "A" tournament	2nd	6/8	+5 −1 =2	Behind Amos Burn; ahead of James Mason, Isidor Gunsberg and others. This was the stronger of the two Amsterdam tournaments held at that time.
1890	Berlin	1–2	6½/8	+6 −1 =1	Tied with his brother Berthold Lasker.
1890	Graz	3rd	4/6	+3 −1 =2	Behind Gyula Makovetz and Johann Hermann Bauer.
1892	London	1st	9/11	+8 −1 =2	Ahead of Mason and Rudolf Loman.
1892	London	1st	6½/8	+5 −0 =3	Ahead of Joseph Henry Blackburne, Mason, Gunsberg and Henry Edward Bird.
1893	New York City	1st	13/13	+13 −0 =0	Ahead of Adolf Albin, Jackson Showalter and a newcomer called Harry Nelson Pillsbury.
1895	Hastings	3rd	15½/21	+14 −4 =3	Behind Pillsbury and Mikhail Chigorin; ahead of Siegbert Tarrasch, Wilhelm Steinitz and the rest of a strong field.
1895/96	St. Petersburg	1st	6½/8	+6 −1 =1	A Quadrangular tournament; ahead of Steinitz (by two points), Pillsbury and Chigorin.
1896	Nuremberg	1st	13½/18	+12 −3 =3	Ahead of Géza Maróczy, Pillsbury, Tarrasch, Dawid Janowski, Steinitz and the rest of a strong field.
1899	London	1st	23½/28	+20 −1 =7	Ahead of Janowski, Pillsbury, Maróczy, Carl Schlechter, Blackburne, Chigorin and several other strong players.
1900	Paris	1st	14½/16	+14 −1 =1	Ahead of Pillsbury (by two points), Frank James Marshall, Maróczy, Burn, Chigorin and several others.
1904	Cambridge Springs	2nd =	11/15	+9 −2 =4	Tied with Janowski; two points behind Marshall; ahead of Georg Marco, Showalter, Schlechter, Chigorin, Jacques Mieses, Pillsbury and others.
1906	Trenton Falls	1st	5/6	+4 −0 =2	A Quadrangular tournament; ahead of Curt, Albert Fox and Raubitschek.
1909	St. Petersburg	1st =	14½/18	+13 −2 =3	Tied with Akiba Rubinstein; ahead of Oldrich Duras and Rudolf Spielmann (by 3½ points), Ossip Bernstein, Richard Teichmann and several other strong players.
1914	St. Petersburg	1st	13½/18	+10 −1 =7	Ahead of José Raúl Capablanca, Alexander Alekhine, Tarrasch and Marshall. This tournament had an unusual structure: there was a preliminary tournament in which eleven players played each other player once; the top five players then played a separate final tournament in which each player who made the "cut" played the other finalists twice; but their scores from the preliminary tournament were carried forward. Even the preliminary tournament would now be considered a "super-tournament". Capablanca "won" the preliminary tournament by 1½ points without losing a game, but Lasker achieved a plus score against all his opponents in the final tournament and finished with a combined score ½ point ahead of Capablanca's.
1918	Berlin	1st	4½/6	+3 −0 =3	Quadrangular tournament. Ahead of Rubinstein, Schlechter and Tarrasch.
1923	Mährisch-Ostrau	1st	10½/13	+8 −0 =5	Ahead of Richard Réti, Ernst Grünfeld, Alexey Selezniev, Savielly Tartakower, Max Euwe and other strong players.
1924	New York City	1st	16/20	+13 −1 =6	Ahead of Capablanca (by 1½ points), Alekhine, Marshall, and the rest of a very strong field.
1925	Moscow	2nd	14/20	+10 −2 =8	Behind Efim Bogoljubow; ahead of Capablanca, Marshall, Tartakower, Carlos Torre, other strong non-Soviet players and the leading Soviet players.
1934	Zürich	5th	10/15	+9 −4 =2	Behind Alekhine, Euwe, Salo Flohr and Bogoljubow; ahead of Bernstein, Aron Nimzowitsch, Gideon Stahlberg and various others.
1935	Moscow	3rd	12½/19	+6 −0 =13	half a point behind Mikhail Botvinnik and Flohr; ahead of Capablanca, Spielmann, Ilya Kan, Grigory Levenfish, Andor Lilienthal, Viacheslav Ragozin and others. Emanuel Lasker was about 67 years old at the time.
1936	Moscow	6th	8/18	+3 −5 =10	Capablanca won.
1936	Nottingham	7–8th	8½/14	+6 −3 =5	Capablanca and Botvinnik tied for first place.

Match results

Here are Lasker's results in matches. The first "Score" column gives the number of points on the total possible. In the second "Score" column, "+" indicates the number of won games, "−" the number of losses, and "=" the number of draws.

Date	Opponent	Result	Location	Score		Notes
1889	E.R. von Feyerfeil	Won	Breslau	1−0	+1 −0 =0	Play-off match
1889/90	Curt von Bardeleben	Won	Berlin	2½−1½	+2 −1 =1
1889/90	Jacques Mieses	Won	Leipzig	6½−1½	+5 −0 =3
1890	Berthold Lasker	Drew	Berlin	½−½	+0 −0 =1	Play-off match
1890	Henry Edward Bird	Won	Liverpool	8½−3½	+7 −2 =3
1890	N.T. Miniati	Won	Manchester	4−1	+3 −0 =2
1890	Berthold Englisch	Won	Vienna	3½−1½	+2 −0 =3
1891	Francis Joseph Lee	Won	London	1½−½	+1 −0 =1
1892	Joseph Henry Blackburne	Won	London	8−2	+6 −0 =4
1892	Bird	Won	Newcastle upon Tyne	5−0	+5 −0 =0
1892/93	Jackson Showalter	Won	Logansport and Kokomo, Indiana	7−3	+6 −2 =2
1893	Celso Golmayo Zúpide	Won	Havana	2½−½	+2 −0 =1
1893	Andrés Clemente Vázquez	Won	Havana	3−0	+3 −0 =0
1893	A. Ponce	Won	Havana	2−0	+2 −0 =0
1893	Alfred Ettlinger	Won	New York City	5−0	+5 −0 =0
1894	Wilhelm Steinitz	Won	New York, Philadelphia, Montreal	12−7	+10 −5 =4	World Championship match
1896/97	Steinitz	Won	Moscow	12½−4½	+10 −2 =5	World Championship match
1901	Dawid Janowski	Won	Manchester	1½−½	+1 −0 =1
1903	Mikhail Chigorin	Lost	Brighton	2½−3½	+1 −2 =3	Rice Gambit match
1907	Frank James Marshall	Won	New York, Philadelphia, Washington DC, Baltimore, Chicago, Memphis	11½−3½	+8 −0 =7	World Championship match
1908	Siegbert Tarrasch	Won	Düsseldorf, Munich	10½−5½	+8 −3 =5	World Championship match
1908	Abraham Speijer	Won	Amsterdam	2½−½	+2 −0 =1
1909	Janowski	Drew	Paris	2−2	+2 −2 =0
1909	Janowski	Won	Paris	8−2	+7 −1 =2	Exhibition match
1910	Carl Schlechter	Drew	Vienna−Berlin	5−5	+1 −1 =8	World Championship match
1910	Janowski	Won	Berlin	9½−1½	+8 −0 =3	World Championship match
1914	Ossip Bernstein	Drew	Moscow	1−1	+1 −1 =0	Exhibition match
1916	Tarrasch	Won	Berlin	5½−½	+5 −0 =1
1921	José Raúl Capablanca	Lost	Havana	5−9	+0 −4 =10	lost World Championship
1940	Frank James Marshall	Lost	New York	½−1½	+0 −1 =1	exhibition match

See also

• List of people who have beaten Emanuel Lasker in chess

Further reading

• Chernev, Irving (1995). Twelve Great Chess Players and Their Best Games. Dover. ISBN 0-486-28674-6.
• Hannak, J. (1952, reprinted by Dover, 1991). Emanuel Lasker: The Life of a Chess Master. ISBN 0-486-26706-7. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
• Kasparov, Garry (2003). My Great Predecessors, part I. Everyman Chess. ISBN 1-85744-330-6.
• Soltis, Andrew (2005). Why Lasker Matters. Batsford.
• Whyld, Ken (1998). The Collected Games of Emanuel Lasker. The Chess Player.
• Winter, Edward. World chess champions. ISBN 0-08-024094-1.

External links

• "Emanuel Lasker Society". Lasker-gesellschaft.de.
• Emanuel Lasker player profile and games at Chessgames.com
• O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Emanuel Lasker", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
• "About Lasca — a little-known abstract game". Human–Computer Interface Research.
• Hans Kmoch. "Grandmasters I have known" (PDF). ChessCafe.com.
• Tryfon Gavriel, Janet Edwardson. "Biography of Emanuel Lasker". Barnet chess club.
• "Lasker's Chess Magazine, January 1905 edition, excerpts". 100bestwebsites.org.
• Jacobs, Joseph; Porter, A. (1901–1906), "Lasker, Emanuel", in Singer, Isidore (ed.), [[Jewish Encyclopedia]], vol. 7, pp. 622–3, retrieved 2008-11-21 {{citation}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)

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