Jump to content

Plastisphere

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A colony of limpets attached to a diving mask, found washed ashore on a beach

The plastisphere is a human-made ecosystem consisting of organisms able to live on plastic waste. Plastic marine debris, most notably microplastics, accumulates in aquatic environments and serves as a habitat for various types of microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi.[1][2] As of 2022, an estimated 51 trillion microplastics are floating in the surface water of the world's oceans.[3] A single 5mm piece of plastic can host 1,000s of different microbial species.[4] Some marine bacteria can break down plastic polymers and use the carbon as a source of energy.

Microbes interacting with the surface of plastics.

Plastic pollution acts as a more durable "ship" than biodegradable material for carrying the organisms over long distances.[5][6] This long-distance transportation can move microbes to different ecosystems and potentially introduce invasive species[1] as well as harmful algae.[7] The microorganisms found on the plastic debris comprise an entire ecosystem of autotrophs, heterotrophs and symbionts.[8] The microbial species found within plastisphere differ from other floating materials that naturally occur (i.e., feathers and algae) due to plastic's unique chemical nature and slow speed of biodegradation. In addition to microbes, insects have come to flourish in areas of the ocean that were previously uninhabitable. The sea skater, for example, has been able to reproduce on the hard surface provided by the floating plastic.[9]

History

[edit]
Global distribution of microplastics according to size in millimeters.

Discovery

[edit]

The plastisphere was first described in 2013 by a team of three marine scientists, Linda Amaral-Zettler from the Marine Biological Laboratory, Tracy Mincer from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, and Erik Zettler from Sea Education Association.[10][11] They collected plastic samples during research trips to study how the microorganisms function and alter the ecosystem. They analyzed plastic fragments collected in nets from multiple locations within the Atlantic Ocean.[11] The researchers used a combination of scanning electron microscopy and DNA sequencing to identify the distinct microbial community composition of the plastisphere.[11] Among the most notable findings were "pit formers", crack and pit forming organisms that provide evidence of biodegradation[11][12] and may also have the potential to break down hydrocarbons.[11] In their analysis, the researchers also found members of the genus Vibrio, a genus which includes the bacteria that cause cholera and other gastrointestinal ailments.[13] Some species of Vibrio can glow, and it is hypothesized that this attracts fish that eat the organisms colonizing the plastic, which then feed from the stomachs of the fish.[14] Studies carried out in the Baltic Sea[15] and in the Mediterranean Sea,[16] also found microorganisms of the genus Vibrio, in plastic films and fragments, and in plastic fibres, respectively.

UN assessment of marine plastics litter

Anthropogenic sources

[edit]

Plastic was invented in 1907 by Leo Baekeland using formaldehyde and phenol.[17] Since then, plastic use has exploded and is prevalent throughout human society. From 1964 to 2014, the use of plastic increased twenty-fold. It is expected to double from the 2014 levels by 2035.[18] Efforts to curb plastic production through plastic bans have largely focused on packaging and single-use plastics, but have not slowed the pace of plastic pollution. Similarly, plastic recycling rates tend to be low. In the EU, only 29% of the plastic consumed is recycled.[19] Plastic that does not reach a recycling facility or landfill, accumulates in marine environments due to accidental dumping of the waste, losses during transport, or direct disposal from ships.[19] In 2010, it was estimated that 4 to 12 million metric tons (Mt) of plastic waste entered into marine ecosystems.[20]

Smaller, more inconspicuous microplastic particles have aggregated in the oceans since the 1960s.[21] A more recent concern in microplastic pollution is the use of plastic films in agriculture. 7.4 million tons of plastic film are used each year to increase food production.[22] Scientists have found that microbial biofilms can form within 7–14 days on plastic film surfaces, and have the ability to alter the chemical properties of the soil and plants that we are ingesting.[23] Microplastics have been recorded everywhere, even the Arctic due to atmospheric circulation.[24]

Research

[edit]

Diversity

[edit]

Large-scale sequencing studies have found alpha diversities to be lower in the plastisphere relative to surrounding soil samples due to a decrease in species richness in the plastisphere.[25][26][27][28] Polymer film fragments affect microbes in different ways, leading to mixed effects on microbial growth rates in the plastisphere.[25][28][29] Certain polymer degrading bacteria release toxic byproducts as a result of the degradation, serving as a deterrent to the colonization of the plastisphere by other species.[25] Phylogenetic diversity is also decreased in the plastisphere relative to nearby soil samples.[25]

The bacterial and microbial communities in the plastisphere are significantly different from those found in surrounding soil samples, creating a new ecological niche within the ecosystem.[25][30][31] The specific growth of bacteria caused by film fragments is a primary cause for the creation of a unique bacterial community.[25][32] Changes in bacterial community composition over time in the plastisphere have also been shown to drive changes in surrounding land.[25][28][33]

In another study which looked at the factors influencing the diversity of the plastisphere, the researchers found that the highest degree of unique microorganisms tended to favor plastic pieces that were blue.[34]

A 2024 paper described an experiment carried out across the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea aimed at studying the colonisation and genetic variety of organisms in the marine plastisphere. The paper identified tardigrades incubating in plastics in situ.[35]

Taxonomy

[edit]

The ability of certain bacteria to degrade polymers facilitates their flourishing within the plastisphere. Phyla of bacteria that have increased presences in the plastisphere relative to soil samples without plastic micro-fragments include Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Chloroflexi, Firmicutes, Planctomycetes, and Proteobacteria.[25][36][37][38][39] Furthermore, bacteria of the order Rhizobiales, Rhodobacterales, and Sphingomonadales are enriched in the plastisphere.[25] Interactions within the unique bacterial community composition in the plastisphere influence local biogeochemical cycles and ecosystems' food web interactions.

Community metabolism

[edit]

Bacterial communities in the plastisphere have enhanced metabolisms.[25] KEGG Pathway enrichment analyses of plastisphere samples have demonstrated increases in genetic and environmental information processing, cellular processes, and organismal systems.[25] Enhanced metabolic functions for communities in the plastisphere include nitrogen metabolism, insulin signaling pathways, bacterial secretion, organophosphorus compound metabolism, antioxidant metabolism, Vitamin B synthesis, chemotaxis, terpenoid quinone synthesis, sulfur metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, herbicide degradation, fatty acid metabolism, amino acid metabolism, ketone body pathways, lipopolysaccharide synthesis, alcohol degradation, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degradation, lipid metabolism, cofactor metabolism, cellular growth, cell motility, membrane transport, energy metabolism, and xenobiotics metabolism.[25][39][40][41]

Relationship to biogeochemical cycles

[edit]

The presence of hydrocarbon-degrading species such as hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria in the plastisphere indicates a direct link between the plastisphere and the carbon cycle.[25][42][43]

Metagenome analyses suggest that genes involved in carbon degradation, nitrogen fixation, organic nitrogen conversion, ammonia oxidation, denitrification, inorganic phosphorus solubilization, organic phosphorus mineralization, and phosphorus transporter production are enriched in the plastisphere, demonstrating the potential impact on biogeochemical cycles by the plastisphere.[25][44][45][46][47][48][49][50] Specific bacterial phyla present in the plastisphere due to their biodegradation abilities and their role in the carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles include Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes.[25][42][43][51][52] Some carbon-degrading bacteria are able to use plastics as a food source.[53][54]

Research in the southern Pacific Ocean has investigated the plastisphere's potential in CO2 and N2O contribution where fairly low greenhouse gas contributions by the plastisphere were noted. However, it was concluded that greenhouse gas contribution was dependent on the degree of nutrient concentration and the type of plastic.[55]

Significance to human health

[edit]

KEGG Pathway enrichment analyses of plastisphere samples suggest that sequences related to human disease are enriched in the plastisphere.[25] Cholera causing Vibrio cholerae, cancer pathways, and toxoplasmosis sequences are enriched in the plastisphere.[13][25] Pathogenic bacteria are sustained in the plastisphere in part due to the adsorption of organic pollutants onto biofilms and their usage as nutrition.[25][39][40] Current research also aims to identify the relationship between the plastisphere and respiratory viruses and whether the plastisphere affects viral persistence and survival in the environment.[56]

Degradation by microorganisms

[edit]

Some microorganisms present in the plastisphere have the potential to degrade plastic materials.[19] This could be potentially advantageous, as scientists may be able to utilize the microbes to break down plastic that would otherwise remain in the environment for centuries.[57] However, as plastic is broken down into smaller pieces and eventually microplastics, there is a higher likelihood that it will be consumed by plankton and enter into the food chain.[58] As plankton are eaten by larger organisms, the plastic may eventually cause there to be bioaccumulation in fish and other marine species eaten by humans.[58] The following table lists some microorganisms with biodegradation capacity.[19]

Microorganisms and their biodegradation capacity[19]
Microorganism Plastic type Degradation capacity
Aspergillus tubingensis[59] Polyurethane Degraded 90% within 21 days[19]
Pestalotiopsis microspora[60] Polyurethane Degraded 90% within 16 days[19]
Bacillus pseudofirmus[61] LDPE Degraded 8.3% over 90 day observation period[61]
Salipaludibacillus agaradhaerens[62] LDPE Degraded 18.3 ± 0.3% and 13.7 ± 0.5% after 60 days of incubation[62]
Tenebrio molitor larvae[63] Polystyrene (PS) Degradation rates doubled for meal worms with diets that consisted of 10% PS

and 90% bran in comparison to meal worms who were exclusively fed PS[63]

Enterobacter sp.[19] Polystyrene (PS) Degraded a maximum of 12.4% in 30 days[19]
Phanerochaete chrysosporium[19] Polycarbonate Degraded 5.4% in 12 months[19]
Marine microbial consortium[19] Polycarbonate Degraded 8.3% in 12 months[19]
Ideonella sakaiensis[64] PET Fully degraded within six weeks[19]
Activated sludge[65] PET Degraded up to 60% within a year[19]
Galleria mellonella caterpillars[66] Polyethylene Degraded 13% within 14 hours[66] Average degradation rate of 0.23 mg cm-2 h-1[66]
Zalerium maritimum[67] Polyethylene Degraded 70% within 21 days[19]

Oftentimes the degradation process of plastic by microorganisms is quite slow.[19] However, scientists have been working towards genetically modifying these organisms in order to increase plastic biodegradation potential. For instance, Ideonella sakaiensis has been genetically modified to break down PET at faster rates.[68] Multiple chemical and physical pretreatments have also demonstrated potential in enhancing the degree of biodegradation of different polymers. For instance UV or c-ray irradiation treatments, have been used to heighten the degree of biodegradation of certain plastics.[19]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Zettler ER, Mincer TJ, Amaral-Zettler LA (2 July 2013). "Life in the 'Plastisphere': Microbial Communities on Plastic Marine Debris". Environmental Science & Technology. 47 (13): 7137–7146. Bibcode:2013EnST...47.7137Z. doi:10.1021/es401288x. PMID 23745679. S2CID 10002632.
  2. ^ Kirstein, I. V., Wichels, A., Gullans, E., Krohne, G., & Gerdts, G. (2019). The Plastisphere – Uncovering tightly attached plastic "specific" microorganisms. PLoS ONE, 14(4), 1–17. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0215859
  3. ^ "FAU Scientists Uncover 'Missing' Plastics Deep in the Ocean". www.fau.edu. Retrieved 2023-04-20.
  4. ^ Zettler E. "The "Plastisphere:" A new marine ecosystem | Smithsonian Ocean". ocean.si.edu. Retrieved 2023-04-20.
  5. ^ Thomas R (14 June 2021). "Plastic rafting: the invasive species hitching a ride on ocean litter". The Guardian.
  6. ^ Sahagun L (27 December 2013). "An ecosystem of our own making could pose a threat". Los Angeles Times.
  7. ^ "Behold the 'Plastisphere'". Consortium for Ocean Leadership. Archived from the original on 2015-11-19. Retrieved 2015-11-18.
  8. ^ "Scientists Discover Thriving Colonies of Microbes in Ocean 'Plastisphere'". Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Retrieved 2015-09-27.
  9. ^ "Our Trash Has Become A New Ocean Ecosystem Called "The Plastisphere"". Gizmodo. January 2014. Retrieved 2015-10-20.
  10. ^ Zettler ER, Mincer TJ, Amaral-Zettler LA (2013-07-02). "Life in the "Plastisphere": Microbial Communities on Plastic Marine Debris". Environmental Science & Technology. 47 (13): 7137–7146. Bibcode:2013EnST...47.7137Z. doi:10.1021/es401288x. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 23745679. S2CID 10002632.
  11. ^ a b c d e "Behold the 'Plastisphere'". Ocean Leadership. 2015-11-19. Archived from the original on 2015-11-19. Retrieved 2023-04-12.
  12. ^ Zettler E, Amaral-Zettler L, Mincer T (18 July 2013). "Welcome to The Plastisphere: ocean-going microbes on vessels of plastic". The Conversation. Retrieved 2023-04-12.
  13. ^ a b "Scientists Discover Thriving Colonies of Microbes in Ocean 'Plastisphere'". Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Retrieved 2023-04-12.
  14. ^ "Glowing Bugs May Lure Fish in the 'Plastisphere'". NBC News. 25 February 2014. Retrieved 2023-04-12.
  15. ^ Kirstein IV, Kirmizi S, Wichels A, Garin-Fernandez A, Erler R, Löder M, Gerdts G (2016-09-01). "Dangerous hitchhikers? Evidence for potentially pathogenic Vibrio spp. on microplastic particles". Marine Environmental Research. 120: 1–8. Bibcode:2016MarER.120....1K. doi:10.1016/j.marenvres.2016.07.004. ISSN 0141-1136. PMID 27411093.
  16. ^ Pedrotti ML, Lacerda AL, Petit S, Ghiglione JF, Gorsky G (2022-11-30). "Vibrio spp and other potential pathogenic bacteria associated to microfibers in the North-Western Mediterranean Sea". PLOS ONE. 17 (11): e0275284. Bibcode:2022PLoSO..1775284P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0275284. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 9710791. PMID 36449472.
  17. ^ "The Age of Plastic: From Parkesine to pollution". Science Museum. Retrieved 2023-04-20.
  18. ^ Sánchez, C. (2020). Fungal potential for the degradation of petroleum-based polymers: An overview of macro- and microplastics biodegradation. Biotechnology Advances, 40, 107501. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2019.107501
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Paço A, Jacinto J, Costa JP, Santos PS, Vitorino R, Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos T (March 2019). "Biotechnological tools for the effective management of plastics in the environment". Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. 49 (5): 410–441. Bibcode:2019CREST..49..410P. doi:10.1080/10643389.2018.1548862. ISSN 1064-3389. S2CID 104312770.
  20. ^ Geyer R, Jambeck JR, Law KL (2017-07-01). "Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made". Science Advances. 3 (7): e1700782. Bibcode:2017SciA....3E0782G. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1700782. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 5517107. PMID 28776036.
  21. ^ "International Marine Litter Research Unit". University of Plymouth. Retrieved 2023-04-20.
  22. ^ Publication preview page | FAO | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2021. doi:10.4060/cb7856en. ISBN 978-92-5-135402-5. S2CID 244942866. Retrieved 2023-04-20 – via FAODocuments.
  23. ^ Chung KK, Schumacher JF, Sampson EM, Burne RA, Antonelli PJ, Brennan AB (June 29, 2007). "Impact of engineered surface microtopography on biofilm formation of Staphylococcus aureus". Biointerphases. 2 (2): 89–94. doi:10.1116/1.2751405. PMID 20408641. Retrieved 2023-04-20.
  24. ^ "Microplastics: what they are and how you can reduce them". www.nhm.ac.uk. Retrieved 2023-04-26.
  25. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Luo G, Jin T, Zhang H, Peng J, Zuo N, Huang Y, Han Y, Tian C, Yang Y, Peng K, Fei J (2022-01-15). "Deciphering the diversity and functions of plastisphere bacterial communities in plastic-mulching croplands of subtropical China". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 422: 126865. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126865. ISSN 0304-3894. PMID 34449345.
  26. ^ Zettler ER, Mincer TJ, Amaral-Zettler LA (2013-06-19). "Life in the "Plastisphere": Microbial Communities on Plastic Marine Debris". Environmental Science & Technology. 47 (13): 7137–7146. Bibcode:2013EnST...47.7137Z. doi:10.1021/es401288x. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 23745679. S2CID 10002632.
  27. ^ Miao L, Wang P, Hou J, Yao Y, Liu Z, Liu S, Li T (February 2019). "Distinct community structure and microbial functions of biofilms colonizing microplastics". Science of the Total Environment. 650 (Pt 2): 2395–2402. Bibcode:2019ScTEn.650.2395M. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.378. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 30292995. S2CID 52945987.
  28. ^ a b c Yang K, Chen QL, Chen ML, Li HZ, Liao H, Pu Q, Zhu YG, Cui L (2020-08-19). "Temporal Dynamics of Antibiotic Resistome in the Plastisphere during Microbial Colonization". Environmental Science & Technology. 54 (18): 11322–11332. Bibcode:2020EnST...5411322Y. doi:10.1021/acs.est.0c04292. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 32812755. S2CID 221179856.
  29. ^ Li W, Zhang Y, Wu N, Zhao Z, Xu W, Ma Y, Niu Z (23 August 2019). "Colonization Characteristics of Bacterial Communities on Plastic Debris Influenced by Environmental Factors and Polymer Types in the Haihe Estuary of Bohai Bay, China". Environmental Science & Technology. 53 (18): 10763–10773. doi:10.1021/acs.est.9b03659.s001. PMID 31441645.
  30. ^ Loeppmann S, Blagodatskaya E, Pausch J, Kuzyakov Y (January 2016). "Substrate quality affects kinetics and catalytic efficiency of exo-enzymes in rhizosphere and detritusphere". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 92: 111–118. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2015.09.020. ISSN 0038-0717.
  31. ^ Mooshammer M, Hofhansl F, Frank AH, Wanek W, Hämmerle I, Leitner S, Schnecker J, Wild B, Watzka M, Keiblinger KM, Zechmeister-Boltenstern S, Richter A (2017-05-05). "Decoupling of microbial carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycling in response to extreme temperature events". Science Advances. 3 (5): e1602781. Bibcode:2017SciA....3E2781M. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1602781. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 5415334. PMID 28508070. S2CID 11935199.
  32. ^ Harrison JP, Schratzberger M, Sapp M, Osborn AM (2014-09-23). "Rapid bacterial colonization of low-density polyethylene microplastics in coastal sediment microcosms". BMC Microbiology. 14 (1): 232. doi:10.1186/s12866-014-0232-4. ISSN 1471-2180. PMC 4177575. PMID 25245856.
  33. ^ Kettner MT, Oberbeckmann S, Labrenz M, Grossart HP (2019-03-20). "The Eukaryotic Life on Microplastics in Brackish Ecosystems". Frontiers in Microbiology. 10: 538. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2019.00538. ISSN 1664-302X. PMC 6435590. PMID 30949147.
  34. ^ Wen B, Liu JH, Zhang Y, Zhang HR, Gao JZ, Chen ZZ (October 2020). "Community structure and functional diversity of the plastisphere in aquaculture waters: Does plastic color matter?". Science of the Total Environment. 740: 140082. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.740n0082W. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140082. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 32927571. S2CID 221721483.
  35. ^ Lacerda AL, Frias J, Pedrotti ML (2024-03-01). "Tardigrades in the marine plastisphere: New hitchhikers surfing plastics". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 200: 116071. Bibcode:2024MarPB.20016071L. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.116071. ISSN 0025-326X. PMID 38290365.
  36. ^ Qian H, Zhang M, Liu G, Lu T, Qu Q, Du B, Pan X (2018-07-25). "Effects of Soil Residual Plastic Film on Soil Microbial Community Structure and Fertility". Water, Air, & Soil Pollution. 229 (8): 261. Bibcode:2018WASP..229..261Q. doi:10.1007/s11270-018-3916-9. ISSN 0049-6979. S2CID 105107805.
  37. ^ Huang Y, Zhao Y, Wang J, Zhang M, Jia W, Qin X (November 2019). "LDPE microplastic films alter microbial community composition and enzymatic activities in soil". Environmental Pollution. 254 (Pt A): 112983. Bibcode:2019EPoll.25412983H. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2019.112983. ISSN 0269-7491. PMID 31394342. S2CID 199507465.
  38. ^ Li Y, Lin M, Ni Z, Yuan Z, Liu W, Ruan J, Tang Y, Qiu R (March 2020). "Ecological influences of the migration of micro resin particles from crushed waste printed circuit boards on the dumping soil". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 386: 121020. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121020. ISSN 0304-3894. PMID 31874765. S2CID 209474917.
  39. ^ a b c Debroas D, Mone A, Ter Halle A (December 2017). "Plastics in the North Atlantic garbage patch: A boat-microbe for hitchhikers and plastic degraders". Science of the Total Environment. 599–600: 1222–1232. Bibcode:2017ScTEn.599.1222D. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.059. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 28514840.
  40. ^ a b Oh M, Yamada T, Hattori M, Goto S, Kanehisa M (2007-10-16). "Systematic Analysis of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reaction Patterns and Prediction of Microbial Biodegradation Pathways". ChemInform. 38 (42). doi:10.1002/chin.200742215. ISSN 0931-7597.
  41. ^ Neis E, Dejong C, Rensen S (2015-04-16). "The Role of Microbial Amino Acid Metabolism in Host Metabolism". Nutrients. 7 (4): 2930–2946. doi:10.3390/nu7042930. ISSN 2072-6643. PMC 4425181. PMID 25894657.
  42. ^ a b Heylen K, Gevers D, Vanparys B, Wittebolle L, Geets J, Boon N, De Vos P (November 2006). "The incidence of nirS and nirK and their genetic heterogeneity in cultivated denitrifiers". Environmental Microbiology. 8 (11): 2012–2021. Bibcode:2006EnvMi...8.2012H. doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2006.01081.x. ISSN 1462-2912. PMID 17014499.
  43. ^ a b Wolińska A, Kuźniar A, Zielenkiewicz U, Izak D, Szafranek-Nakonieczna A, Banach A, Błaszczyk M (October 2017). "Bacteroidetes as a sensitive biological indicator of agricultural soil usage revealed by a culture-independent approach". Applied Soil Ecology. 119: 128–137. Bibcode:2017AppSE.119..128W. doi:10.1016/j.apsoil.2017.06.009. ISSN 0929-1393.
  44. ^ Upadhyay SK, Singh DP, Saikia R (2009-08-22). "Genetic Diversity of Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria Isolated from Rhizospheric Soil of Wheat Under Saline Condition". Current Microbiology. 59 (5): 489–496. doi:10.1007/s00284-009-9464-1. ISSN 0343-8651. PMID 19701667. S2CID 10672506.
  45. ^ Amaral-Zettler LA, Zettler ER, Mincer TJ (2020-01-14). "Ecology of the plastisphere" (PDF). Nature Reviews Microbiology. 18 (3): 139–151. doi:10.1038/s41579-019-0308-0. ISSN 1740-1526. PMID 31937947. S2CID 256744433.
  46. ^ Hayden HL, Drake J, Imhof M, Oxley AP, Norng S, Mele PM (October 2010). "The abundance of nitrogen cycle genes amoA and nifH depends on land-uses and soil types in South-Eastern Australia". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 42 (10): 1774–1783. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2010.06.015. ISSN 0038-0717.
  47. ^ Rodríguez H, Fraga R, Gonzalez T, Bashan Y (2007), "Genetics of phosphate solubilization and its potential applications for improving plant growth-promoting bacteria", First International Meeting on Microbial Phosphate Solubilization, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 15–21, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5765-6_2, ISBN 978-1-4020-4019-1
  48. ^ Richardson AE, Simpson RJ (2011-05-23). "Soil Microorganisms Mediating Phosphorus Availability Update on Microbial Phosphorus". Plant Physiology. 156 (3): 989–996. doi:10.1104/pp.111.175448. ISSN 1532-2548. PMC 3135950. PMID 21606316.
  49. ^ Alori ET, Glick BR, Babalola OO (2017-06-02). "Microbial Phosphorus Solubilization and Its Potential for Use in Sustainable Agriculture". Frontiers in Microbiology. 8: 971. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2017.00971. ISSN 1664-302X. PMC 5454063. PMID 28626450.
  50. ^ Luo G, Sun B, Li L, Li M, Liu M, Zhu Y, Guo S, Ling N, Shen Q (December 2019). "Understanding how long-term organic amendments increase soil phosphatase activities: Insight into phoD- and phoC-harboring functional microbial populations". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 139: 107632. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2019.107632. ISSN 0038-0717. S2CID 208554425.
  51. ^ Partanen P, Hultman J, Paulin L, Auvinen P, Romantschuk M (2010-03-29). "Bacterial diversity at different stages of the composting process". BMC Microbiology. 10 (1): 94. doi:10.1186/1471-2180-10-94. ISSN 1471-2180. PMC 2907838. PMID 20350306.
  52. ^ Bhatia A, Madan S, Sahoo J, Ali M, Pathania R, Kazmi AA (July 2013). "Diversity of bacterial isolates during full scale rotary drum composting". Waste Management. 33 (7): 1595–1601. Bibcode:2013WaMan..33.1595B. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2013.03.019. ISSN 0956-053X. PMID 23663960.
  53. ^ Hirai H, Takada H, Ogata Y, Yamashita R, Mizukawa K, Saha M, Kwan C, Moore C, Gray H, Laursen D, Zettler ER, Farrington JW, Reddy CM, Peacock EE, Ward MW (August 2011). "Organic micropollutants in marine plastics debris from the open ocean and remote and urban beaches". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 62 (8): 1683–1692. Bibcode:2011MarPB..62.1683H. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.06.004. ISSN 0025-326X. PMID 21719036.
  54. ^ Syranidou E, Karkanorachaki K, Amorotti F, Franchini M, Repouskou E, Kaliva M, Vamvakaki M, Kolvenbach B, Fava F, Corvini PF, Kalogerakis N (2017-12-21). "Biodegradation of weathered polystyrene films in seawater microcosms". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 17991. Bibcode:2017NatSR...717991S. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-18366-y. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5740177. PMID 29269847.
  55. ^ Cornejo-D'Ottone M, Molina V, Pavez J, Silva N (May 2020). "Greenhouse gas cycling by the plastisphere: The sleeper issue of plastic pollution". Chemosphere. 246: 125709. Bibcode:2020Chmsp.24625709C. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125709. PMID 31901660. S2CID 209893532.
  56. ^ Moresco V, Oliver DM, Weidmann M, Matallana-Surget S, Quilliam RS (August 2021). "Survival of human enteric and respiratory viruses on plastics in soil, freshwater, and marine environments". Environmental Research. 199: 111367. Bibcode:2021ER....199k1367M. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2021.111367. hdl:1893/32650. PMID 34029551. S2CID 235198536.
  57. ^ Davis J (2021-02-10). "How Long Does It Take for Plastic to Decompose?". Chariot Energy. Retrieved 2021-04-16.
  58. ^ a b "Welcome to The Plastisphere: ocean-going microbes on vessels of plastic". The Conversation. 18 July 2013. Retrieved 2015-11-14.
  59. ^ Khan, S., Nadir, S., Shah, Z. U., Shah, A. A., Karunarathna, S. C., Xu, J., ... Hasan, F. (2017). Khan S, Nadir S, Shah ZU, Shah AA, Karunarathna SC, Xu J, Khan A, Munir S, Hasan F (2017-06-01). "Biodegradation of polyester polyurethane by Aspergillus tubingensis". Environmental Pollution. 225: 469–480. Bibcode:2017EPoll.225..469K. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2017.03.012. ISSN 0269-7491. PMID 28318785.
  60. ^ Russell JR, Huang J, Anand P, Kucera K, Sandoval AG, Dantzler KW, Hickman D, Jee J, Kimovec FM, Koppstein D, Marks DH (September 2011). "Biodegradation of polyester polyurethane by endophytic fungi". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 77 (17): 6076–6084. Bibcode:2011ApEnM..77.6076R. doi:10.1128/AEM.00521-11. ISSN 1098-5336. PMC 3165411. PMID 21764951.
  61. ^ a b Dela Torre DY, Delos Santos LA, Reyes ML, Baculi RQ (2018). "Biodegradation of low-density polyethylene by bacteria isolated from serpentinization-driven alkaline spring" (PDF). Philippine Science Letters. 11.
  62. ^ a b Muyot ML, Cada EJ, Sison JM, Baculi RQ (July 2019). "Enhanced in vitro biodegradation of low-density polyethylene using alkaliphilic bacterial consortium supplemented with iron oxide nanoparticles". Philippine Science Letters. 12 – via Research Gate.
  63. ^ a b Yang, Y., Yang, J., Wu, W.-M., Zhao, J., Song, Y., Gao, L., ... Jiang, L. (2015). Yang SS, Brandon AM, Andrew Flanagan JC, Yang J, Ning D, Cai SY, Fan HQ, Wang ZY, Ren J, Benbow E, Ren NQ, Waymouth RM, Zhou J, Criddle CS, Wu WM (2018-01-01). "Biodegradation of polystyrene wastes in yellow mealworms (larvae of Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus): Factors affecting biodegradation rates and the ability of polystyrene-fed larvae to complete their life cycle". Chemosphere. 191: 979–989. Bibcode:2018Chmsp.191..979Y. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.10.117. ISSN 0045-6535. PMID 29145143.
  64. ^ Yoshida S, Hiraga K, Takehana T, Taniguchi I, Yamaji H, Maeda Y, Toyohara K, Miyamoto K, Kimura Y, Oda K (2016-03-11). "A bacterium that degrades and assimilates poly(ethylene terephthalate)". Science. 351 (6278): 1196–1199. Bibcode:2016Sci...351.1196Y. doi:10.1126/science.aad6359. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 26965627. S2CID 31146235.
  65. ^ Hermanová S, Smejkalová P, Merna J, Zarevucka M (2015-01-01). "Biodegradation of waste PET based copolyesters in thermophilic anaerobic sludge". Polymer Degradation and Stability. 111: 176–184. doi:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2014.11.007. ISSN 0141-3910.
  66. ^ a b c Bombelli P, Howe CJ, Bertocchini F (2017-04-24). "Polyethylene bio-degradation by caterpillars of the wax moth Galleria mellonella". Current Biology. 27 (8): R292–R293. Bibcode:2017CBio...27.R292B. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.02.060. hdl:10261/164618. ISSN 1879-0445. PMID 28441558.
  67. ^ Paço, A., Duarte, K., da Costa, J. P., Santos, P. S. M., Pereira, R., Pereira, M. E., ... Rocha- Santos, T. A. P. (2017). Biodegradation of polyethylene microplastics by the marine fun- gus Zalerion maritimum. The Science of the Total Environment, 586, 10–15. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.017
  68. ^ Knott BC, Erickson E, Allen MD, Gado JE, Graham R, Kearns FL, Pardo I, Topuzlu E, Anderson JJ, Austin HP, Dominick G (2020-10-13). "Characterization and engineering of a two-enzyme system for plastics depolymerization". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 117 (41): 25476–25485. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11725476K. doi:10.1073/pnas.2006753117. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 7568301. PMID 32989159.

Further reading

[edit]