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{{Multiple issues|
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{{New Imperialism}}
'''Western imperialism in Asia''' refers to the influence of [[Western Europe]] and associated states (such as [[Russia]], [[Japan]] and the [[United States]]) in Asian territories. It originated in the 15th-century search for [[trade route]]s to [[India]] and [[Southeast Asia]] that led directly to the [[Age of Discovery]], and additionally the introduction of [[early modern warfare]] into what Europeans first called the [[East Indies]] and later the [[Far East]]. By the early 16th century, the [[Age of Sail]] greatly expanded Western European influence and development of the [[Spice trade#Trade under colonialism|spice trade under colonialism]]. European-style [[colonial empire]]s and [[imperialism]] operated in Asia throughout six centuries of [[colonialism]], formally ending with the independence of the [[Portuguese Empire]]'s last colony [[East Timor]] in 2002. The empires introduced Western concepts of [[nation]] and the [[multinational state]]. This article attempts to outline the consequent development of the Western concept of the [[nation state]].
European political power, commerce, and culture in Asia gave rise to growing trade in [[commodity|commodities]]—a key development in the rise of today's modern world [[capitalism|free market]] economy. In the 16th century, the Portuguese broke the (overland) monopoly of the Arabs and Italians in trade between Asia and [[Europe]] by the [[discovery of the sea route to India]] around the Cape of Good Hope.<ref>M. Weisner-Hanks, Early Modern Europe 1450–1789 (Cambridge, 2006)</ref> The ensuing rise of the rival [[Dutch East India Company]] gradually eclipsed Portuguese influence in Asia.{{#tag:ref| For fifty or sixty years, the Portuguese enjoyed the exclusive trade to China and Japan. In 1717, and again in 1732, the Chinese government offered to make [[Macao]] the emporium for all its foreign trade, and to receive all duties on imports; but, by a strange infatuation, the Portuguese government refused, and the decline in Portuguese influence dates from that period.<ref name="Roberts">
{{cite book
|last= Roberts|first=Edmund
|author-link=Edmund Roberts (diplomat)
|title=Embassy to the Eastern courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat : in the U. S. sloop-of-war Peacock ... during the years 1832-3-4
|year=1837
|url=https://archive.org/details/embassytoeaster00unkngoog
|orig-year=First published in 1837 |publisher=Harper & brothers
|oclc=12212199 |at=image 173, p.166}}
</ref>|group="nb"}} Dutch forces first established independent bases in the East (most significantly [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]], the heavily fortified headquarters of the Dutch East India Company) and then between 1640 and 1660 wrested [[Malacca]], [[Ceylon]], some southern Indian ports, and the lucrative [[Japan]] trade from the Portuguese. Later, the English and the French established settlements in [[India]] and trade with [[China]] and their acquisitions would gradually surpass those of the Dutch. Following the end of the [[Seven Years' War]] in 1763, the British eliminated French influence in India and established the [[British East India Company]] (founded in 1600) as the most important political force on the [[Indian subcontinent]].
Before the [[Industrial Revolution]] in the mid-to-late 19th century, demand for oriental goods such as [[porcelain]], [[silk]], [[spice]]s and [[tea]]<nowiki/>remained the driving force behind European imperialism. The Western European stake in Asia remained confined largely to trading stations and strategic outposts necessary to protect trade. Industrialization, however, dramatically increased European demand for Asian raw materials; with the severe [[Long Depression]] of the 1870s provoking a scramble for new markets for European industrial products and financial services in Africa, the Americas, Eastern Europe, and especially in Asia. This scramble coincided with a new era in global [[colonialism|colonial]] expansion known as "the [[New Imperialism]]", which saw a shift in focus from trade and [[indirect rule]] to formal colonial control of vast overseas territories ruled as political extensions of their mother countries. Between the 1870s and the beginning of [[World War I]] in 1914, the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], and the [[Netherlands]]—the established colonial powers in Asia—added to their empires vast expanses of territory in the [[Middle East]], the Indian Subcontinent, and [[Southeast Asia]]. In the same period, the [[Empire of Japan]], following the [[Meiji Restoration]]; the [[German Empire]], following the end of the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in 1871; [[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]]; and the [[United States]], following the [[Spanish–American War]] in 1898, quickly emerged as new imperial powers in [[East Asia]] and in the Pacific Ocean area.
In [[Asia]], [[World War I]] and [[World War II]] were played out as struggles among several key imperial power, with conflicts involving the European powers along with Russia and the rising American and Japanese. None of the colonial powers, however, possessed the resources to withstand the strains of both World Wars and maintain their direct rule in Asia. Although nationalist movements throughout the colonial world led to the political independence of nearly all of Asia's remaining colonies, [[decolonization]] was intercepted by the [[Cold War]]. South East Asia, [[South Asia]], the Middle East, and East Asia remained embedded in a world economic, financial, and military system in which the great powers compete to extend their influence. However, the rapid post-war economic development and rise of the [[industrialized]] [[developed country|developed countries]] of [[Taiwan]], [[Singapore]], [[South Korea]], [[Japan]] and the developing countries of [[India]], the [[People's Republic of China]] and its autonomous territory of [[Hong Kong]], along with the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]], have greatly diminished Western [[Europe]]an influence in Asia. The United States remains influential with trade and military bases in Asia.
==Early European exploration of Asia==
European exploration of Asia started in [[Ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] times along the [[Silk Road]]. Knowledge of lands as distant as China were held by the Romans. Trade with India through the Roman Egyptian [[Red Sea]] ports was significant in the first centuries of the [[Common Era]].
===Medieval European exploration of Asia===
[[File:Marco Polo traveling.JPG|thumb|Illustration of [[Marco Polo]]'s arrival in a [[China|Chinese]] city]]
In the 13th and 14th centuries, a number of Europeans, many of them Christian [[missionary|missionaries]], had sought to penetrate into China. The most famous of these travelers was [[Marco Polo]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Marco Polo, Il Milione|date=1965|language=it|newspaper=[[De Agostini|Istituto Geografico DeAgostini]]|last=Benedetto|first=Luigi Foscolo}}</ref> But these journeys had little permanent effect on east–west trade because of a series of political developments in Asia in the last decades of the 14th century, which put an end to further European exploration of Asia. The [[Yuan dynasty]] in China, which had been receptive to European missionaries and merchants, was overthrown, and the new [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] rulers were found to be unreceptive of religious proselytism. Meanwhile, the [[Turkish people|Turks]] consolidated control over the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], closing off key overland trade routes. Thus, until the 15th century, only minor trade and cultural exchanges between Europe and Asia continued at certain terminals controlled by Muslim traders.
===Oceanic voyages to Asia===
Western European rulers determined to find new trade routes of their own. The Portuguese spearheaded the drive to find oceanic routes that would provide cheaper and easier access to South and East Asian goods. This chartering of oceanic routes between East and West began with the unprecedented voyages of Portuguese and Spanish sea captains. Their voyages were influenced by medieval European adventurers, who had journeyed overland to the Far East and contributed to geographical knowledge of parts of Asia upon their return.
In 1488, [[Bartolomeu Dias]] rounded the southern tip of Africa under the sponsorship of Portugal's [[John II of Portugal|John II]], from which point he noticed that the coast swung northeast ([[Cape of Good Hope]]). While Dias' crew forced him to turn back, by 1497, Portuguese navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] made the first open voyage from Europe to India. In 1520, [[Ferdinand Magellan]], a Portuguese navigator in the service of the [[Crown of Castile]] ('[[Spain]]'), found a sea route into the [[Pacific Ocean]].
==Portuguese and Spanish trade and colonization in Asia==
{{further|Portuguese Empire|Portuguese India Armadas|Manila galleon|Treaty of Tordesillas|Treaty of Zaragoza}}
===Portuguese monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean and Asia===
[[File:Retrato de Afonso de Albuquerque (após 1545) - Autor desconhecido.png|thumb|left|upright|[[Afonso de Albuquerque]]]]
In 1509, the Portuguese under [[Francisco de Almeida]] won the decisive [[battle of Diu]] against a joint [[Burji dynasty|Mamluk]] and Arab fleet sent to expel the Portuguese of the Arabian Sea. The victory enabled Portugal to implement its strategy of controlling the Indian Ocean.
Early in the 16th century [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] (left) emerged as the Portuguese colonial viceroy most instrumental in consolidating Portugal's holdings in Africa and in Asia. He understood that Portugal could wrest commercial supremacy from the Arabs only by force, and therefore devised a plan to establish forts at strategic sites which would dominate the trade routes and also protect Portuguese interests on land. In 1510, he [[Portuguese Conquest of Goa (1510)|conquered Goa]] in India, which enabled him to gradually consolidate control of most of the commercial traffic between Europe and Asia, largely through trade; Europeans started to carry on trade from forts, acting as foreign merchants rather than as settlers. In contrast, early European expansion in the "[[West Indies]]", (later known to Europeans as a separate continent from Asia that they would call the "[[Americas]]") following the 1492 voyage of [[Christopher Columbus]], involved heavy settlement in colonies that were treated as political extensions of the mother countries.
Lured by the potential of high profits from another expedition, the Portuguese established a permanent base in [[History of Kochi|Cochin]], south of the Indian trade port of [[History of Kozhikode|Calicut]] in the early 16th century. In 1510, the Portuguese, led by [[Afonso de Albuquerque]], seized Goa on the coast of India, which [[Portugal]] held until 1961, along with [[Diu, India|Diu]] and [[Daman district, India|Daman]] (the remaining territory and enclaves in India from a former network of coastal towns and smaller fortified trading ports added and abandoned or lost centuries before). The Portuguese soon acquired a monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean.
Portuguese viceroy Albuquerque (1509–1515) resolved to consolidate Portuguese holdings in Africa and Asia, and secure control of trade with the [[East Indies]] and China. His first objective was [[Malacca]], which controlled the narrow strait through which most Far Eastern trade moved. [[Capture of Malacca (1511)|Captured in 1511]], Malacca became the springboard for further eastward penetration, starting with the voyage of [[António de Abreu]] and [[Francisco Serrão]] in 1512, ordered by Albuquerque, to the Moluccas. Years later the first trading posts were established in the [[Moluccas]], or "Spice Islands", which was the source for some of the world's most hotly demanded spices, and from there, in [[Makassar]] and some others, but smaller, in the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]. By 1513–1516, the first Portuguese ships had reached [[Guangdong|Canton]] on the southern coasts of China.
[[File:Portuguese discoveries and explorationsV2en.png|thumb|upright=2.8|[[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese expeditions]] 1415–1542: arrival places and dates; Portuguese [[spice trade]] routes in the [[Indian Ocean]] (blue); territories of the [[Portuguese empire]] under [[King John III of Portugal|King John III]] rule (green)]]
In 1513, after the failed attempt to conquer [[Aden]], Albuquerque entered with an armada, for the first time for Europeans by the ocean via, on the [[Red Sea]]; and in 1515, Albuquerque consolidated the Portuguese hegemony in the [[Persian Gulf]] gates, already begun by him in 1507, with the domain of [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]] and [[Ormuz]]. Shortly after, other fortified bases and forts were annexed and built along the Gulf, and in 1521, through a military campaign, the Portuguese annexed [[Bahrain]].
The Portuguese conquest of Malacca triggered the [[Malayan–Portuguese war]]. In 1521, [[Ming dynasty]] China defeated the Portuguese at the [[Battle of Tunmen]] and then defeated the Portuguese again at the [[Battle of Xicaowan]]. The Portuguese tried to establish trade with China by illegally smuggling with the pirates on the offshore islands{{Which|date=August 2016}} off the coast of [[Zhejiang]] and [[Fujian]], but they were driven away by the [[Ming]] navy in the 1530s-1540s.
In 1557, China decided to lease [[Portuguese Macau|Macau]] to the Portuguese as a place where they could dry goods they transported on their ships, which they held until 1999. The Portuguese, based at Goa and Malacca, had now established a lucrative maritime empire in the Indian Ocean meant to monopolize the [[spice trade]]. The Portuguese also began a channel of trade with the Japanese, becoming the first recorded Westerners to have visited Japan. This contact introduced Christianity and firearms into Japan.
In 1505, (also possibly before, in 1501), the Portuguese, through [[Lourenço de Almeida]], the son of Francisco de Almeida, reached [[Ceylon]]. The Portuguese founded a fort at the city of [[Colombo]] in 1517 and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas and inland. In a series of military conflicts and political maneuvers, the Portuguese extended their control over the [[Sinhala Kingdom|Sinhalese kingdoms]], including [[Jaffna Kingdom|Jaffna]] (1591), [[Kingdom of Raigama|Raigama]] (1593), [[Kingdom of Sitawaka|Sitawaka]] (1593), and [[Kingdom of Kotte|Kotte]] (1594)- However, the aim of unifying the entire island under Portuguese control faced the [[Kingdom of Kandy]]`s fierce resistance.<ref name="Fernando2013">{{cite book|author=Jude Lal Fernando|title=Religion, Conflict and Peace in Sri Lanka: The Politics of Interpretation of Nationhoods|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWInAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA135|date=11 June 2013|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-643-90428-7|page=135}}</ref> The Portuguese, led by [[Pedro Lopes de Sousa]], launched a full-scale military invasion of the kingdom of Kandy in the [[Campaign of Danture]] of 1594. The invasion was a disaster for the Portuguese, with their entire army, wiped out by Kandyan [[guerrilla warfare]].<ref name="Perera2007">{{cite book|author=C. Gaston Perera|title=Kandy fights the Portuguese: a military history of Kandyan resistance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgtuAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Danture%22%20%221594%22|year=2007|publisher=Vijitha Yapa Publications|isbn=978-955-1266-77-6|page=148}}</ref><ref name="Obeyesekere1999">{{cite book|author=Donald Obeyesekere|title=Outlines of Ceylon History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cDwvQF_OgvMC&pg=PA232|year=1999|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1363-8|page=232}}</ref> [[Constantino de Sá de Noronha|Constantino de Sá]], romantically celebrated in the 17th century Sinhalese Epic (also for its greater humanism and tolerance compared to other governors) led the last military operation that also ended in disaster. He died in the [[Battle of Randeniwela]], refusing to abandon his troops in the face of total annihilation.<ref>[http://www.ceylontoday.lk/64-92267-news-detail-rasin-deviyo.html Rasin Deviyo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222130125/http://www.ceylontoday.lk/64-92267-news-detail-rasin-deviyo.html |date=2015-12-22 }} - Chandra Tilake Edirisuriya (Ceylon Today) Accessed 2015-12-13</ref>
The energies of Castile (later, the ''unified'' Spain), the other major colonial power of the 16th century, were largely concentrated on the Americas, not South and East Asia, but the Spanish did establish a footing in the Far East in the Philippines. After fighting with the Portuguese by the Spice Islands since 1522 and the agreement between the two powers in 1529 (in the treaty of Zaragoza), the Spanish, led by [[Miguel López de Legazpi]], settled and conquered gradually the Philippines since 1564. After the discovery of the return voyage to the Americas by [[Andres de Urdaneta]] in 1565, cargoes of Chinese goods were transported from the [[Philippines]] to [[Mexico]] and from there to [[Spain]]. By this long route, Spain reaped some of the profits of Far Eastern commerce. Spanish officials converted the islands to Christianity and established some settlements, permanently establishing the Philippines as the area of East Asia most oriented toward the West in terms of culture and commerce. The Moro Muslims fought against the Spanish for over three centuries in the [[Spanish–Moro conflict]].
===Decline of Portugal's Asian empire since the 17th century===
The lucrative trade was vastly expanded when the Portuguese began to export [[Slavery|slave]]s from Africa in 1541; however, over time, the rise of the slave trade left Portugal over-extended, and vulnerable to competition from other Western European powers. Envious of Portugal's control of trade routes, other Western European nations—mainly the [[Netherlands]], France, and England—began to send in rival expeditions to Asia. In 1642, the Dutch drove the Portuguese out of the [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]] in Africa, the source of the bulk of Portuguese slave laborers, leaving this rich slaving area to other Europeans, especially the Dutch and the English.
Rival European powers began to make inroads in Asia as the Portuguese and Spanish trade in the Indian Ocean declined primarily because they had become hugely over-stretched financially due to the limitations on their investment capacity and contemporary naval technology. Both of these factors worked in tandem, making control over Indian Ocean trade extremely expensive.
The existing Portuguese interests in Asia proved sufficient to finance further colonial expansion and entrenchment in areas regarded as of greater strategic importance in [[Africa]] and [[Colonial Brazil|Brazil]]. Portuguese maritime supremacy was lost to the Dutch in the 17th century, and with this came serious challenges for the Portuguese. However, they still clung to Macau and settled a new colony on the island of [[Timor]]. It was as recent as the 1960s and 1970s that the Portuguese began to relinquish their colonies in Asia. Goa was invaded by India in 1961 and became an Indian state in 1987; [[Portuguese Timor]] was abandoned in 1975 and was then invaded by [[Indonesia]]. It became an independent country in 2002, and Macau was handed back to the Chinese as per a treaty in 1999.
===Holy wars===
The arrival of the Portuguese and Spanish and their holy wars against Muslim states in the [[Malayan–Portuguese war]], [[Spanish–Moro conflict]] and [[Castilian War]] inflamed religious tensions and turned Southeast Asia into an arena of conflict between Muslims and Christians. The Brunei Sultanate's capital at Kota Batu was assaulted by Governor Sande who led the 1578 Spanish attack.<ref>{{cite book|title=Philippine Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zphuAAAAMAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+...|year=1986|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|page=260}}</ref>
The word "savages" in Spanish, cafres, was from the word "infidel" in Arabic - Kafir, and was used by the Spanish to refer to their own "Christian savages" who were arrested in Brunei.<ref>{{cite book|title=Brunei Museum journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ASIAAAAIAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish|year=1985|page=67|last1 = Brunei|first1 = Muzium}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Brunei Museum Journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S7RwAAAAMAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish|year=1986|publisher=The Museum|page=67}}</ref> It was said ''Castilians are kafir, men who have no souls, who are condemned by fire when they die, and that too because they eat pork'' by the Brunei Sultan after the term ''accursed doctrine'' was used to attack Islam by the Spaniards which fed into hatred between Muslims and Christians sparked by their 1571 war against Brunei.<ref name="AndayaAndaya2015">{{cite book|author1=Barbara Watson Andaya|author2=Leonard Y. Andaya|title=A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1830|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rh2BgAAQBAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish&pg=PA145|date=19 February 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-88992-6|pages=145–}}</ref> The Sultan's words were in response to insults coming from the Spanish at Manila in 1578, other Muslims from Champa, Java, Borneo, Luzon, Pahang, Demak, Aceh, and the Malays echoed the rhetoric of holy war against the Spanish and Iberian Portuguese, calling them kafir enemies which was a contrast to their earlier nuanced views of the Portuguese in the Hikayat Tanah Hitu and Sejarah Melayu.<ref name="Reid1993">{{cite book|author=Anthony Reid|title=Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680: Expansion and crisis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vxgHExnla4MC&q=brunei+kafir+spanish&pg=PA148|date=1 January 1993|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-05412-5|pages=148–}}</ref><ref name="Reid1993 2">{{cite book|author=Anthony Reid|title=Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era: Trade, Power, and Belief|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h2SSpt4YuKwC&q=brunei+kafir+spanish&pg=PA166|year=1993|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=0-8014-8093-0|pages=166–}}</ref> The war by Spain against Brunei was defended in an apologia written by Doctor De Sande.<ref name="Nicholl1975">{{cite book|author=Robert Nicholl|title=European Sources for the History of the Sultanate of Brunei in the 16th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CmweAAAAMAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish|year=1975|publisher=Muzium Brunei|page=43}}</ref> The British eventually partitioned and took over Brunei while Sulu was attacked by the British, Americans, and Spanish which caused its breakdown and downfall after both of them thrived from 1500 to 1900 for four centuries.<ref name="CasiñoCasiño1976">{{cite book|author1=Eric Casiño|author2=Eric S. Casiño|title=The Jama Mapun: a changing Samal society in the southern Philippines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2P0eAAAAMAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish|year=1976|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|page=30|isbn=9780686094326}}</ref> Dar al-Islam was seen as under invasion by "kafirs" by the Atjehnese led by Zayn al-din and by Muslims in the Philippines as they saw the Spanish invasion, since the Spanish brought the idea of a crusader holy war against Muslim Moros just as the Portuguese did in Indonesia and India against what they called "Moors" in their political and commercial conquests which they saw through the lens of religion in the 16th century.<ref name="Dale1980">{{cite book|author=Stephen Frederic Dale|title=Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: The Māppiḷas of Malabar, 1498-1922|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=22JuAAAAMAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish|year=1980|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-821571-4|page=58}}</ref>
In 1578, an attack was launched by the Spanish against Jolo, and in 1875 it was destroyed at their hands, and once again in 1974 it was destroyed by the Philippines.<ref name="Ooi2004">{{cite book|author=Keat Gin Ooi|title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&q=brunei+kafir+spanish&pg=PA1705|date=1 January 2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-770-2|pages=1705–}}</ref> The Spanish first set foot on Borneo in Brunei.<ref name="Ober1907">{{cite book|author=Frederick Albion Ober|title=Ferdinand Magellan|url=https://archive.org/details/ferdinandmagella00ober|quote=brunei kafir spanish.|year=1907|publisher=Harper and brothers|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ferdinandmagella00ober/page/295 295]–}}</ref>
The Spanish war against Brunei failed to conquer Brunei but it totally cut off the Philippines from Brunei's influence, the Spanish then started colonizing Mindanao and building fortresses. In response, the Bisayas, where Spanish forces were stationed, were subjected to retaliatory attacks by the Magindanao in 1599-1600 due to the Spanish attacks on Mindanao.<ref>{{cite book|title=Filipino Heritage: The Spanish colonial period (16th century)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1sYRAQAAMAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+...|year=1977|publisher=Lahing Pilipino Pub.|location=Manila|page=1083}}</ref>
The Brunei royal family was related to the Muslim Rajahs who in ruled the principality in 1570 of Manila ([[Kingdom of Maynila]]) and this was what the Spaniards came across on their initial arrival to Manila, Spain uprooted Islam out of areas where it was shallow after they began to force Christianity on the Philippines in their conquests after 1521 while Islam was already widespread in the 16th century Philippines.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Criterion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XlMkAQAAIAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+...|year=1971|publisher=K.Siddique|page=51}}</ref> In the Philippines in the Cebu islands the natives killed the Spanish fleet leader Magellan. Borneo's western coastal areas at Landak, Sukadana, and Sambas saw the growth of Muslim states in the sixteenth century, in the 15th century at Nanking, the capital of China, the death and burial of the Borneo Bruneian king Maharaja Kama took place upon his visit to China with Zheng He's fleet.<ref name="Payne2000">{{cite book|author=Junaidi Payne|title=This is Borneo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zPhvAAAAMAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+...|year=2000|publisher=New Holland|isbn=978-1-85974-106-1|page=28}}</ref>
The Spanish were expelled from Brunei in 1579 after they attacked in 1578.<ref name="RingSalkin1994">{{cite book|author1=Trudy Ring|author2=Robert M. Salkin|author3=Sharon La Boda|title=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC&q=1599+spanish+cambodia+malay&pg=PA158|year=1994|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-04-6|pages=158–}}</ref><ref name="RingWatson2012">{{cite book|author1=Trudy Ring|author2=Noelle Watson|author3=Paul Schellinger|title=Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voerPYsAB5wC&q=1599+spanish+cambodia+malay&pg=PA158|date=12 November 2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-63979-1|pages=158–}}</ref> There were fifty thousand inhabitants before the 1597 attack by the Spanish in Brunei.<ref name="Tarling1999">{{cite book|author=Nicholas Tarling|author-link=Nicholas Tarling|title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jtsMLNmMzbkC&q=1599+spanish+cambodia+malay&pg=PA129|year=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-66370-0|pages=129–}}</ref><ref name="Tarling1999 2">{{cite book|author=Nicholas Tarling|title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIz4CDTCOwcC&q=1599+spanish+cambodia+malay&pg=PA129|year=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-66370-0|pages=129–}}</ref>
During first contact with China, numerous aggressions and provocations were undertaken by the Portuguese<ref name="Zhang1934">{{cite book|author=Tianze Zhang|title=Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AAVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA48|year=1934|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=48–|id=GGKEY:0671BSWDRPY}}</ref><ref name="Zhang1934 2">{{cite book|author=Tianze Zhang|title=Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnUaAAAAMAAJ&q=behavior+abhorred|year=1934|publisher=Late E. J. Brill Limited|page=48}}</ref> They believed they could mistreat the non-Christians because they themselves were Christians and acted in the name of their religion in committing crimes and atrocities.<ref name="Zhang1934 3">{{cite book|author=Tianze Zhang|title=Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AAVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA67|year=1934|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=67–|id=GGKEY:0671BSWDRPY}}</ref><ref name="Zhang1934 4">{{cite book|author=Tianze Zhang|title=Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnUaAAAAMAAJ&q=Christian+heathens|year=1934|publisher=Late E. J. Brill Limited|page=67}}</ref> This resulted in the [[Battle of Xicaowan]] where the local Chinese navy defeated and captured a fleet of Portuguese caravels.
==Dutch trade and colonization in Asia==
{{main|Dutch colonial empire}}
===Rise of Dutch control over Asian trade in the 17th century===
[[File:AMH-4804-KB The spinning house at Batavia.jpg|left|thumb|Dutch settlement in the East Indies. [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] (now [[Jakarta]]), [[Java]], c. 1665.]]
The Portuguese decline in Asia was accelerated by attacks on their commercial empire by the Dutch and the English, which began a global struggle over the empire in Asia that lasted until the end of the [[Seven Years' War]] in 1763. The [[Dutch Revolt|Netherlands revolt against Spanish rule]] facilitated Dutch encroachment on the Portuguese monopoly over South and East Asian trade. The Dutch looked on Spain's trade and colonies as potential spoils of war. When the two crowns of the Iberian peninsula were joined in 1581, the Dutch felt free to attack Portuguese territories in Asia.
By the 1590s, a number of Dutch companies were formed to finance trading expeditions in Asia. Because competition lowered their profits, and because of the doctrines of [[mercantilism]], in 1602 the companies united into a [[cartel]] and formed the [[Dutch East India Company]], and received from the government the right to trade and colonize territory in the area stretching from the [[Cape of Good Hope]] eastward to the [[Strait of Magellan]].
In 1605, armed Dutch merchants captured the Portuguese fort at [[Ambon, Maluku|Amboyna]] in the Moluccas, which was developed into the company's first secure base. Over time, the Dutch gradually consolidated control over the great trading ports of the East Indies. This control allowed the company to monopolise the world [[spice trade]] for decades. Their monopoly over the spice trade became complete after they drove the Portuguese from [[Malacca]] in 1641 and [[Ceylon]] in 1658.
[[File:Colombo, after Kip.jpg|thumb|Colombo, [[Dutch Ceylon]], based on an engraving of circa 1680]]
Dutch East India Company colonies or outposts were later established in Atjeh ([[Aceh]]), 1667; [[Macassar, Mozambique|Macassar]], 1669; and [[Bantam (city)|Bantam]], 1682. The company established its headquarters at [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] (today [[Jakarta]]) on the island of [[Java (island)|Java]]. Outside the East Indies, the Dutch East India Company colonies or outposts were also established in [[Persia]] ([[Iran]]), [[Bengal]] (now [[Bangladesh]] and part of India), [[Mauritius]] (1638-1658/1664-1710), [[Ayutthaya kingdom|Siam]] (now [[Thailand]]), [[Guangzhou]] (Canton, China), [[Taiwan]] (1624–1662), and southern India (1616–1795).
Ming dynasty China defeated the Dutch East India Company in the [[Sino-Dutch conflicts]]. The Chinese first [[Penghu#Ming-Dutch War|defeated and drove the Dutch out of the Pescadores in 1624]]. The Ming navy under [[Zheng Zhilong]] defeated the Dutch East India Company's fleet at the 1633 [[Battle of Liaoluo Bay]]. In 1662, Zheng Zhilong's son [[Koxinga|Zheng Chenggong]] (also known as Koxinga) expelled the Dutch from Taiwan after defeating them in the [[Siege of Fort Zeelandia]]. (''see'' [[History of Taiwan]]) Further, the Dutch East India Company trade post on [[Dejima]] (1641–1857), an artificial island off the coast of [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], was for a long time the only place where Europeans could trade with Japan.
The Vietnamese [[Nguyễn lords]] defeated the Dutch [[Trịnh–Nguyễn War#Later campaigns|in a naval battle in 1643]].
The Cambodians defeated the Dutch in the [[Cambodian–Dutch War]] in 1644.
In 1652, [[Jan van Riebeeck]] established an outpost at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] (the southwestern tip of Africa, currently in [[South Africa]]) to restock company ships on their journey to East Asia. This post later became a fully-fledged colony, the [[Dutch Cape Colony|Cape Colony]] (1652–1806). As Cape Colony attracted increasing Dutch and European settlement, the Dutch founded the city of Kaapstad ([[Cape Town]]).
By 1669, the Dutch East India Company was the richest private company in history, with a huge fleet of merchant ships and warships, tens of thousands of employees, a private army consisting of thousands of soldiers, and a reputation on the part of its stockholders for high dividend payments.
===Dutch New Imperialism in Asia===
{{main|Dutch East Indies}}
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Gouverneur Bijleveld met Sultan Hamengkoe Boewono VIII tijdens een bezoek aan de Kraton van de Sultan van Jogjakarta TMnr 60033546.jpg|thumb|upright|The Dutch Governor-General, highest authority in the colony and the Sultan of Jogjakarta.]]
The company was in almost constant conflict with the English; relations were particularly tense following the [[Amboyna Massacre]] in 1623. During the 18th century, [[Dutch East India Company]] possessions were increasingly focused on the East Indies. After [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War|the fourth war]] between the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] and England (1780–1784), the company suffered increasing financial difficulties. In 1799, the company was dissolved, commencing official colonisation of the [[East Indies]]. During the era of New Imperialism the territorial claims of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) expanded into a fully fledged colony named the [[Dutch East Indies]]. Partly driven by re-newed colonial aspirations of fellow European nation states the Dutch strived to establish unchallenged control of the [[archipelago]] now known as [[Indonesia]].
Six years into formal colonisation of the East Indies, in Europe the [[Dutch Republic]] was occupied by the French forces of [[Napoleon]]. The Dutch government went into exile in England and formally ceded its colonial possessions to Great Britain. The pro-French Governor General of Java [[Jan Willem Janssens]], resisted [[Invasion of Java (1811)|a British invasion force in 1811]] until forced to surrender. British Governor [[Stamford Raffles|Raffles]], who the later founded the city of [[Singapore]], ruled the colony the following 10 years of the British [[interregnum]] (1806–1816).
After the defeat of [[Napoleon]] and the [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814]] colonial government of the East Indies was ceded back to the Dutch in 1817. The loss of South Africa and the continued scramble for Africa stimulated the Dutch to secure unchallenged dominion over its colony in the East Indies. The Dutch started to consolidate its power base through extensive military campaigns and elaborate diplomatic alliances with indigenous rulers ensuring the Dutch [[Triband (flag)|tricolor]] was firmly planted in all corners of the [[Archipelago]]. These military campaigns included: the [[Padri War]] (1821–1837), the [[Java War]] (1825–1830) and the [[Aceh War]] (1873–1904). This raised the need for a considerable military buildup of the colonial army ([[KNIL]]). From all over Europe soldiers were recruited to join the KNIL.<ref>Note: In 1819 the standing army consisted of over 7,000 European and 5,000 indigenous troops. See: Willems, Wim ''Sporen van een Indisch verleden (1600-1942)''. (COMT, Leiden, 1994). Chapter I, P.24 {{ISBN|90-71042-44-8}}</ref>
The Dutch concentrated their colonial enterprise in the [[Dutch East Indies]] (Indonesia) throughout the 19th century. The Dutch lost control over the East Indies to the Japanese during much of World War II.<ref>{{cite web|last=Klemen |first=L |url=https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html |title=Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941-1942}}</ref> Following the war, the Dutch fought Indonesian independence forces after Japan surrendered to the Allies in 1945. In 1949, most of what was known as the Dutch East Indies was ceded to the independent Republic of Indonesia. In 1962, also [[Dutch New Guinea]] was annexed by Indonesia de facto ending Dutch imperialism in Asia.
==British in India==
===Portuguese, French, and British competition in India (1600–1763)===
[[File:Clive.jpg|thumb|Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive]]
The English sought to stake out claims in India at the expense of the Portuguese dating back to the [[Elizabethan era]]. In 1600, [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]] incorporated the [[British East India Company|English East India Company]] (later the British East India Company), granting it a monopoly of trade from the Cape of Good Hope eastward to the Strait of Magellan. In 1639, it acquired [[Madras]] on the east coast of India, where it quickly surpassed Portuguese Goa as the principal European trading centre on the Indian Subcontinent.
Through bribes, diplomacy, and manipulation of weak native rulers, the company prospered in India, where it became the most powerful political force, and outrivaled its Portuguese and French competitors. For more than one hundred years, English and French trading companies had fought one another for supremacy, and, by the middle of the 18th century, competition between the British and the French had heated up. French defeat by the British under the command of [[Robert Clive]] during the [[Seven Years' War]] (1756–1763) marked the end of the French stake in India.
===Collapse of Mughal India===
{{main|Company rule in India}}
The British East India Company, although still in direct competition with French and Dutch interests until 1763, was able to extend its control over almost the whole of India in the century following the subjugation of Bengal at the 1757 [[Battle of Plassey]]. The British East India Company made great advances at the expense of the [[Mughal Empire]].
The reign of Aurangzeb had marked the height of Mughal power. By 1690 Mughal territorial expansion reached its greatest extent encompassing the entire Indian Subcontinent. But this period of power was followed by one of decline. Fifty years after the death of Aurangzeb, the great Mughal empire had crumbled. Meanwhile, marauding warlords, nobles, and others bent on gaining power left the [[Subcontinent]] increasingly anarchic. Although the Mughals kept the imperial title until 1858, the central government had collapsed, creating a power vacuum.
===From Company to Crown===
{{main|British Raj}}
[[File:British Empire 1921.png|thumb|upright=1.75|The [[British Empire]] in 1920]]
Aside from defeating the French during the Seven Years' War, [[Robert Clive]], the leader of the Company in India, defeated a key Indian ruler of Bengal at the decisive [[Battle of Plassey]] (1757), a victory that ushered in the beginning of a new period in Indian history, that of informal British rule. While still nominally the sovereign, the Mughal Indian emperor became more and more of a puppet ruler, and anarchy spread until the company stepped into the role of policeman of India. The transition to formal imperialism, characterised by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] being crowned "Empress of India" in the 1870s was a gradual process. The first step toward cementing formal British control extended back to the late 18th century. The British Parliament, disturbed by the idea that a great business concern, interested primarily in profit, was controlling the destinies of millions of people, passed acts in 1773 and 1784 that gave itself the power to control company policies and to appoint the highest company official in India, the [[Governor-General]]. (This system of dual control lasted until 1858.) By 1818, the East India Company was master of all of India. Some local rulers were forced to accept its overlordship; others were deprived of their territories. Some portions of India were administered by the British directly; in others native dynasties were retained under British supervision.
[[File:Battle of ferozeshah(H Martens).jpg|thumb|The [[First Anglo-Sikh War]], 1845-46]]
Until 1858, however, much of India was still officially the dominion of the Mughal emperor. Anger among some social groups, however, was seething under the governor-generalship of [[James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 10th Earl of Dalhousie|James Dalhousie]] (1847–1856), who annexed the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] (1849) after victory in the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War|Second Sikh War]], annexed seven princely states using the [[doctrine of lapse]], annexed the key state of [[Oudh]] on the basis of misgovernment, and upset cultural sensibilities by banning Hindu practices such as [[Sati (practice)|sati]].
The 1857 [[Indian Mutiny|Sepoy Rebellion]], or Indian Mutiny, an uprising initiated by Indian troops, called sepoys, who formed the bulk of the company's armed forces, was the key turning point. Rumour had spread among them that their bullet cartridges were lubricated with pig and cow fat. The cartridges had to be bit open, so this upset the [[Hindu]] and [[Muslim]] soldiers. The [[Hindu]] religion held cows sacred, and for Muslims pork was considered [[haraam]]. In one camp, 85 out of 90 sepoys would not accept the cartridges from their garrison officer. The British harshly punished those who would not by jailing them. The Indian people were outraged, and on May 10, 1857, sepoys marched to [[Delhi]], and, with the help of soldiers stationed there, captured it. Fortunately for the British, many areas remained loyal and quiescent, allowing the revolt to be crushed after fierce fighting. One important consequence of the revolt was the final collapse of the Mughal dynasty. The mutiny also ended the system of dual control under which the British government and the British East India Company shared authority. The government relieved the company of its political responsibilities, and in 1858, after 258 years of existence, the company relinquished its role. Trained civil servants were recruited from graduates of British universities, and these men set out to rule India. Lord Canning (created earl in 1859), appointed Governor-General of India in 1856, became known as "Clemency Canning" as a term of derision for his efforts to restrain revenge against the Indians during the Indian Mutiny. When the Government of India was transferred from the company to the Crown, Canning became the first [[viceroy]] of India.
The Company initiated the first of the [[Anglo-Burmese wars]] in 1824, which led to total annexation of Burma by the Crown in 1885. The [[British rule in Burma|British ruled Burma]] as a [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|province of British India]] until 1937, then administered her separately under the [[Burma Office]] except during the [[Japanese occupation of Burma]], 1942–1945, until granted independence on 4 January 1948. (Unlike India, Burma opted not to join the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].)
===Rise of Indian nationalism===
{{main|Indian independence movement}}
The denial of equal status to Indians was the immediate stimulus for the formation in 1885 of the [[Indian National Congress]], initially loyal to the Empire but committed from 1905 to increased self-government and by 1930 to outright independence. The "Home charges", payments transferred from India for administrative costs, were a lasting source of nationalist grievance, though the flow declined in relative importance over the decades to independence in 1947.
Although majority [[Hindu]] and minority [[Muslim]] political leaders were able to collaborate closely in their criticism of British policy into the 1920s, British support for a distinct Muslim political organisation, the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]] from 1906 and insistence from the 1920s on separate electorates for religious minorities, is seen by many in India as having contributed to Hindu-Muslim discord and the country's eventual [[Partition of India|Partition]].
==France in Indochina==
{{main|French Indochina}}
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[File:Frenchindochina.jpg|thumb|French soldiers appear with local residents at a military post in French Indochina in the early 1900s.]] -->
[[File:CaptureOfLang-Son.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The capture of [[Lạng Sơn]] in 1885]]
France, which had lost its empire to the [[Great Britain|British]] by the end of the 18th century, had little geographical or commercial basis for expansion in Southeast Asia. After the 1850s, French imperialism was initially impelled by a [[nationalistic]] need to rival the United Kingdom and was supported intellectually by the notion that French culture was superior to that of the people of [[Name of Vietnam|Annam]] (Vietnam), and its ''[[mission civilisatrice]]''—or its "civilizing mission" of the Annamese through their assimilation to French culture and the Catholic religion. The pretext for French expansionism in [[Indochina]] was the protection of French religious missions in the area, coupled with a desire to find a southern route to China through [[Tonkin]], the European name for a region of northern [[Vietnam]].
French religious and commercial interests were established in Indochina as early as the 17th century, but no concerted effort at stabilizing the French position was possible in the face of British strength in the Indian Ocean and [[Napoleonic Wars|French defeat]] in Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. A mid-19th century religious revival under the [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]] provided the atmosphere within which interest in Indochina grew. Anti-Christian persecutions in the Far East provided the pretext for the bombardment of Tourane (Danang) in 1847, and invasion and occupation of Danang in 1857 and Saigon in 1858. Under [[Napoleon III]], France decided that French trade with China would be surpassed by the British, and accordingly the French joined the British against China in the [[Second Opium War]] from 1857 to 1860, and occupied parts of Vietnam as its gateway to China.
By the [[Treaty of Saigon (1862)|Treaty of Saigon]] in 1862, on June 5, the Vietnamese emperor ceded France three provinces of southern Vietnam to form the French colony of [[French Cochinchina|Cochinchina]]; France also secured trade and religious privileges in the rest of Vietnam and a protectorate over Vietnam's foreign relations. Gradually French power spread through exploration, the establishment of protectorates, and outright annexations. Their seizure of [[Hanoi]] in 1882 led directly to war with China (1883–1885), and the French victory confirmed French supremacy in the region. France governed [[French Cochinchina|Cochinchina]] as a direct colony, and central and northern Vietnam under the protectorates of [[Annam (French colony)|Annam]] and [[Tonkin (French protectorate)|Tonkin]], and [[French Protectorate of Cambodia|Cambodia]] as protectorates in one degree or another. [[Laos]] too was soon brought under [[French colonial administration of Laos|French "protection"]].
By the beginning of the 20th century, France had created an empire in [[Indochina]] nearly 50 percent larger than the mother country. A Governor-General in [[Hanoi]] ruled [[French Cochinchina|Cochinchina]] directly and the other regions through a system of residents. Theoretically, the French maintained the precolonial rulers and administrative structures in [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]], [[Tonkin (French protectorate)|Tonkin]], [[French Cochinchina|Cochinchina]], [[French Protectorate of Cambodia|Cambodia]], and [[French Protectorate of Laos|Laos]], but in fact the governor-generalship was a centralised fiscal and administrative regime ruling the entire region. Although the surviving native institutions were preserved in order to make French rule more acceptable, they were almost completely deprived of any independence of action. The ethnocentric French colonial administrators sought to assimilate the upper classes into France's "superior culture." While the French improved public services and provided commercial stability, the native standard of living declined and precolonial social structures eroded. Indochina, which had a population of over eighteen million in 1914, was important to France for its [[tin]], [[black pepper|pepper]], [[coal]], [[cotton]], and [[rice]]. It is still a matter of debate, however, whether the colony was commercially profitable.
==Russia and "The Great Game"==
{{main|The Great Game}}
{{see also|Russian conquest of Siberia|Russian conquest of Turkestan}}
[[File:Karazin - Entry of Russian troops into Samarkand 1868.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Russian troops taking [[Samarkand]] in 1868.]]
[[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]] is not often regarded as a colonial power such as the United Kingdom or France because of the manner of Russian expansions: unlike the United Kingdom, which expanded overseas, the Russian empire grew from the centre outward by a process of accretion, like the United States. In the 19th century, Russian expansion took the form of a struggle of an effectively [[landlocked]] country for access to a [[warm water port]].
Qing China defeated Russia in the [[Sino-Russian border conflicts]].
While the British were consolidating their hold on India, Russian expansion had moved steadily eastward to the Pacific, then toward the Middle East. In the early 19th century it succeeded in conquering the [[South Caucasus]] and [[Dagestan]] from [[Qajar Iran]] following the [[Russo-Persian War (1804–13)]], the [[Russo-Persian War (1826–28)]] and the out coming treaties of [[Treaty of Gulistan|Gulistan]] and [[Treaty of Turkmenchay|Turkmenchay]],<ref>Allen F. Chew. ''An Atlas of Russian History: Eleven Centuries of Changing Borders''. Yale University Press, 1967. pp 74.</ref> giving Russia direct borders with both Persia's as well as [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turkey's]] heartlands. Later, they eventually reached the frontiers of [[Afghanistan]] as well (which had the largest foreign border adjacent to British holdings in India). In response to Russian expansion, the defense of India's land frontiers and the control of all sea approaches to the [[Subcontinent]] via the [[Suez Canal]], the [[Red Sea]], and the [[Persian Gulf]] became preoccupations of British foreign policy in the 19th century.
Anglo-Russian rivalry in the Middle East and Central Asia led to a brief confrontation over [[Afghanistan]] in the 1870s. In [[Persia]] ([[Iran]]), both nations set up banks to extend their economic influence. The United Kingdom went so far as to invade [[Tibet]], a land subordinate to the Chinese empire, in 1904, but withdrew when it became clear that Russian influence was insignificant and when Chinese resistance proved tougher than expected.
In 1907, the United Kingdom and [[Russia]] signed an agreement which — on the surface —ended their rivalry in Central Asia. (''see'' [[Anglo-Russian Entente]]) As part of the entente, Russia agreed to deal with the sovereign of [[Afghanistan]] only through British intermediaries. In turn, the United Kingdom would not annex or occupy [[Afghanistan]]. Chinese suzerainty over [[Tibet]] also was recognised by both Russia and the United Kingdom, since nominal control by a weak China was preferable to control by either power. Persia was divided into Russian and British spheres of influence and an intervening "neutral" zone. The United Kingdom and Russia chose to reach these uneasy compromises because of growing concern on the part of both powers over German expansion in strategic areas of China and Africa.
Following the entente, Russia increasingly intervened in Persian domestic politics and suppressed nationalist movements that threatened both [[St. Petersburg]] and [[London]]. After the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], Russia gave up its claim to a sphere of influence, though [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] involvement persisted alongside the United Kingdom's until the 1940s.
In the [[Middle East]], in [[Qajar dynasty|Persia]] (Iran) and the [[Ottoman Empire]], a German company built a railroad from [[Constantinople]] to [[Baghdad]] and the [[Persian Gulf]] in the latter, while it built [[Trans-Iranian Railway|a railroad]] from the north of the country to the south, connecting the [[Caucasus]] with the Persian Gulf in the former.<ref>Mohammad Gholi Majd. ''August 1941: The Anglo-Russian Occupation of Iran and Change of Shahs''. pp 239–240 University Press of America, 2012 {{ISBN|0761859403}}</ref> [[Germany]] wanted to gain economic influence in the region and then, perhaps, move on to India. This was met with bitter resistance by the United Kingdom, Russia, and France who divided the region among themselves.
==Western European and Russian intrusions into China==
[[File:China imperialism cartoon.jpg|left|upright=0.9|thumb|A shocked [[mandarin (bureaucrat)|mandarin]] in [[Manchu people|Manchu]] robe in the back, with [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] (UK), [[Wilhelm II of Germany|William II]] (Germany), [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] (Russia), [[Marianne]] (France), and [[Mutsuhito]] (Japan) cutting up a [[king cake]] with ''Chine'' ("China" in [[French language|French]]) written on it.]]
{{main|List of foreign enclaves in China}}
The 16th century brought many [[Jesuit]] missionaries to China, such as [[Matteo Ricci]], who established missions where Western science was introduced, and where Europeans gathered knowledge of Chinese society, history, culture, and science. During the 18th century, merchants from Western Europe came to China in increasing numbers. However, merchants were confined to Guangzhou and the Portuguese colony of Macau, as they had been since the 16th century. European traders were increasingly irritated by what they saw as the relatively high customs duties they had to pay and by the attempts to curb the growing import trade in [[opium]]. By 1800, its importation was forbidden by the imperial government. However, the opium trade continued to boom.
Early in the 19th century, serious internal weaknesses developed in the [[Qing dynasty]] that left China vulnerable to Western, [[Meiji period]] Japanese, and [[History of Russia (1855–92)|Russian]] imperialism. In 1839, China found itself fighting the [[First Opium War]] with Britain. China was defeated, and in 1842, signed the provisions of the [[Treaty of Nanking]] which were first of the [[Unequal treaty|unequal treaties]] signed during the Qing Dynasty. [[Hong Kong Island]] was ceded to Britain, and certain ports, including [[Shanghai]] and [[Guangzhou]], were opened to British trade and residence. In 1856, the [[Second Opium War]] broke out. The Chinese were again defeated, and now forced to the terms of the 1858 [[Treaty of Tientsin]]. The treaty opened new ports to trade and allowed foreigners to travel in the interior. In addition, Christians gained the right to propagate their religion. The United States [[Treaty of Wanghia]] and Russia later obtained the same prerogatives in separate treaties.
Toward the end of the 19th century, China appeared on the way to territorial dismemberment and economic vassalage—the fate of India's rulers that played out much earlier. Several provisions of these treaties caused long-standing bitterness and humiliation among the Chinese: extraterritoriality (meaning that in a dispute with a Chinese person, a Westerner had the right to be tried in a court under the laws of his own country), customs regulation, and the right to station foreign warships in Chinese waters, including its navigable rivers.
Jane E. Elliott criticized the allegation that China refused to modernize or was unable to defeat Western armies as simplistic, noting that China embarked on a massive military modernization in the late 1800s after several defeats, buying weapons from Western countries and manufacturing their own at arsenals, such as the [[Hanyang Arsenal]] during the [[Boxer Rebellion]]. In addition, Elliott questioned the claim that Chinese society was traumatized by the Western victories, as many Chinese peasants (90% of the population at that time) living outside the concessions continued about their daily lives, uninterrupted and without any feeling of "humiliation".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWvl9O4Gn1UC&q=defeat+peasants+not+humiliated+at+all|title=Some did it for civilisation, some did it for their country: a revised view of the boxer war|author=Jane E. Elliott|year=2002|publisher=Chinese University Press|page=143|isbn=962-996-066-4|access-date=2010-06-28}}</ref>
Historians have judged the Qing dynasty's vulnerability and weakness to foreign imperialism in the 19th century to be based mainly on its maritime naval weakness while it achieved military success against westerners on land, the historian Edward L. Dreyer said that "China’s nineteenth-century humiliations were strongly related to her weakness and failure at sea. At the start of the Opium War, China had no unified navy and no sense of how vulnerable she was to attack from the sea; British forces sailed and steamed wherever they wanted to go......In the Arrow War (1856-60), the Chinese had no way to prevent the Anglo-French expedition of 1860 from sailing into the Gulf of Zhili and landing as near as possible to Beijing. Meanwhile, new but not exactly modern Chinese armies suppressed the midcentury rebellions, [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)|bluffed Russia into a peaceful settlement of disputed frontiers in Central Asia]], and [[Battle of Bang Bo (Zhennan Pass)|defeated the French forces on land in the Sino-French War (1884-85)]]. But the defeat of the fleet, and the resulting threat to steamship traffic to Taiwan, forced China to conclude peace on unfavorable terms."<ref>{{cite thesis |last=PO |first=Chung-yam |date=28 June 2013 |publisher=Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg |title=Conceptualizing the Blue Frontier: The Great Qing and the Maritime World in the Long Eighteenth Century |page=11 |url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/18877/1/PhD_Dissertation_CyPO.pdf }}</ref>
During the [[Sino-French War]], Chinese forces defeated the French at the [[Battle of Cầu Giấy (Paper Bridge)]], [[Bắc Lệ ambush]], [[Battle of Phu Lam Tao]], [[Battle of Zhenhai]], the [[Battle of Tamsui]] in the [[Keelung Campaign]] and in the last battle which ended the war, the [[Battle of Bang Bo (Zhennan Pass)]], which triggered the French [[Retreat from Lạng Sơn]] and resulted in the collapse of the French [[Jules Ferry]] government in the [[Tonkin Affair]].
The Qing dynasty forced Russia to hand over disputed territory in Ili in the [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)]], in what was widely seen by the west as a diplomatic victory for the Qing.<ref>{{cite book|author=John King Fairbank|title=The Cambridge History of China: Late Chʻing, 1800-1911, pt. 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pEfWaxPhdnIC&pg=PA96|year=1978|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-22029-3|pages=96–}}</ref> Russia acknowledged that Qing China potentially posed a serious military threat.<ref name="Scott2008">{{cite book|author=David Scott|title=China and the International System, 1840-1949: Power, Presence, and Perceptions in a Century of Humiliation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6U_DPS4vfO0C&pg=PA104|date=7 November 2008|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-7742-7|pages=104–105}}</ref> Mass media in the west during this era portrayed China as a rising military power due to its modernization programs and as a major threat to the western world, invoking fears that China would successfully conquer western colonies like Australia.<ref>{{cite book|author=David Scott|title=China and the International System, 1840-1949: Power, Presence, and Perceptions in a Century of Humiliation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6U_DPS4vfO0C&pg=PA111|date=7 November 2008|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-7742-7|pages=111–112}}</ref>
The British observer Demetrius Charles de Kavanagh Boulger suggested a British-Chinese alliance to check Russian expansion in Central Asia.
During the Ili crisis when Qing China threatened to go to war against Russia over the Russian occupation of Ili, the British officer [[Charles George Gordon]] was sent to China by Britain to advise China on military options against Russia should a potential war break out between China and Russia.<ref>{{cite book|author=John King Fairbank|title=The Cambridge History of China: Late Chʻing, 1800-1911, pt. 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pEfWaxPhdnIC&pg=PA94|year=1978|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-22029-3|pages=94–}}</ref>
The Russians observed the Chinese building up their arsenal of modern weapons during the Ili crisis, the Chinese bought thousands of rifles from Germany.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alex Marshall|title=The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860-1917|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDXfGErwPtsC&pg=PA78|date=22 November 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-25379-1|pages=78–}}</ref> In 1880, massive amounts of military equipment and rifles were shipped via boats to China from Antwerp as China purchased torpedoes, artillery, and 260,260 modern rifles from Europe.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alex Marshall|title=The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860-1917|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDXfGErwPtsC&pg=PA79|date=22 November 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-25379-1|pages=79–}}</ref>
The Russian military observer D. V. Putiatia visited China in 1888 and found that in Northeastern China (Manchuria) along the Chinese-Russian border, the Chinese soldiers were potentially able to become adept at "European tactics" under certain circumstances, and the Chinese soldiers were armed with modern weapons like Krupp artillery, Winchester carbines, and Mauser rifles.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alex Marshall|title=The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860-1917|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDXfGErwPtsC&pg=PA80|date=22 November 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-25379-1|pages=80–}}</ref>
Compared to Russian controlled areas, more benefits were given to the Muslim Kirghiz on the Chinese controlled areas. Russian settlers fought against the Muslim nomadic Kirghiz, which led the Russians to believe that the Kirghiz would be a liability in any conflict against China. The Muslim Kirghiz were sure that in an upcoming war, that China would defeat Russia.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alex Marshall|title=The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860-1917|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDXfGErwPtsC&pg=PA85|date=22 November 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-25379-1|pages=85–}}</ref>
Russian sinologists, the Russian media, threat of internal rebellion, the pariah status inflicted by the Congress of Berlin, the negative state of the Russian economy all led Russia to concede and negotiate with China in St Petersburg, and return most of Ili to China.<ref>{{cite book|author=John King Fairbank|title=The Cambridge History of China: Late Chʻing, 1800-1911, pt. 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pEfWaxPhdnIC&pg=PA95|year=1978|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-22029-3|pages=95–}}</ref>
[[File:Japanese Beheading 1894.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Japanese illustration depicting the beheading of Chinese captives. [[First Sino-Japanese War]] of 1894–5]]
The rise of Japan since the [[Meiji Restoration]] as an imperial power led to further subjugation of China. In a dispute over China's longstanding claim of suzerainty in [[Korea]], war broke out between China and Japan, resulting in humiliating defeat for the Chinese. By the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]] (1895), China was forced to recognize effective Japanese rule of Korea and Taiwan was ceded to Japan until its recovery in 1945 at the end of the WWII by the Republic of China.
China's defeat at the hands of [[Japan]] was another trigger for future aggressive actions by Western powers. In 1897, [[Germany]] demanded and was given a set of exclusive mining and railroad rights in [[Shandong]] province. Russia obtained access to [[Dairen]] and [[Lüshunkou|Port Arthur]] and the right to build a railroad across Manchuria, thereby achieving complete domination over a large portion of northwestern China. The United Kingdom and France also received a number of [[Concession (territory)|concessions]]. At this time, much of China was divided up into "spheres of influence": Germany had influence in [[Jiaozhou Bay|Jiaozhou (Kiaochow) Bay]], [[Shandong]], and the [[Yellow River]] valley; Russia had influence in the [[Liaodong Peninsula]] and Manchuria; the United Kingdom had influence in [[Weihaiwei under British rule|Weihaiwei]] and the [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] Valley; and France had influence in the [[Guangzhou Bay]] and the provinces of Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi
[[File:Boxer Rebellion.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|British and Japanese forces engage [[Fists of Righteous Harmony|Boxers]] in battle, 1900]]
China continued to be divided up into these spheres until the United States, which had no sphere of influence, grew alarmed at the possibility of its businessmen being excluded from Chinese markets. In 1899, [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[John Hay]] asked the major powers to agree to a policy of equal trading privileges. In 1900, several powers agreed to the U.S.-backed scheme, giving rise to the "[[Open Door Policy|Open Door]]" policy, denoting freedom of commercial access and non-annexation of Chinese territory. In any event, it was in the European powers' interest to have a weak but independent Chinese government. The privileges of the Europeans in China were guaranteed in the form of treaties with the Qing government. In the event that the Qing government totally collapsed, each power risked losing the privileges that it already had negotiated.
The erosion of Chinese sovereignty and seizures of land from Chinese by foreigners contributed to a spectacular anti-foreign outbreak in June 1900, when the "[[Fists of Righteous Harmony|Boxers]]" (properly the society of the "righteous and harmonious fists") attacked foreigners around [[Beijing]]. The Imperial Court was divided into anti-foreign and pro-foreign factions, with the pro-foreign faction led by [[Ronglu]] and [[Prince Qing]] hampering any military effort by the anti-foreign faction led by [[Prince Duan]] and [[Dong Fuxiang]]. The Qing Empress Dowager ordered all diplomatic ties to be cut off and all foreigners to leave the legations in Beijing to go to [[Tianjin]]. The foreigners refused to leave. [[Siege of the International Legations#False propaganda|Fueled by entirely false reports that the foreigners in the legations were massacred]], the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] decided to launch an expedition on Beijing to reach the legations but they underestimated the Qing military. The Qing and Boxers defeated the foreigners at the [[Seymour Expedition]], forcing them to turn back at the [[Battle of Langfang]]. In response to the foreign attack [[Battle of Dagu Forts (1900)|on Dagu Forts]] the Qing responded by declaring war against the foreigners. the Qing forces and foreigners fought a fierce battle at the [[Battle of Tientsin]] before the foreigners could launch a second expedition. On their second try [[Gaselee Expedition]], with a much larger force, the foreigners managed to reach Beijing and fight the [[Battle of Peking (1900)]]. British and French forces looted, plundered and burned the [[Old Summer Palace]] to the ground for the second time (the first time being in 1860, following the Second Opium War). German forces were particularly severe in exacting revenge for the killing of their ambassador due to the orders of Kaiser Wilhelm II, who held anti-Asian sentiments, while Russia tightened its hold on Manchuria in the northeast until its crushing defeat by Japan in the war of 1904–1905. The Qing court evacuated to [[Xi'an]] and threatened to continue the war against foreigners, until the foreigners tempered their demands in the [[Boxer Protocol]], promising that China would not have to give up any land and gave up the demands for the execution of Dong Fuxiang and Prince Duan.
The correspondent Douglas Story observed Chinese troops in 1907 and praised their abilities and military skill.<ref name="Story1907">{{cite book|author=Douglas Story|title=To-morrow in the East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbRGAAAAIAAJ&q=In+the+hunting-park%2C+three+miles+to+the+south+of+Peking%2C+is+quartered+the+Sixth+Division%2C+which+supplies+the+Guards+for+the+Imperial+Palace%2C+consisting+of+a+battalion+of+infantry+and+a+squadron+of+cavalry.+With+this+Division+Yuan+Shi+Kai+retains+twenty-six+modified+Krupp+guns%2C+which+are+the+best+of+his+artillery+arm%2C+and+excel+any+guns+possessed+by+the+foreign+legations+in+Peking.&pg=PA224|year=1907|publisher=Chapman & Hall, Limited|pages=224–}}</ref>
Extraterritorial jurisdiction was abandoned by the United Kingdom and the United States in 1943. [[Chiang Kai-shek#Refusal of French Indochina|Chiang Kai-shek forced the French to hand over]] all their concessions back to China control after World War II. Foreign political control over leased parts of China ended with the incorporation of Hong Kong and the small Portuguese territory of Macau into the [[China|People's Republic of China]] in 1997 and 1999 respectively.
==U.S. imperialism in Asia==
{{Main|History of United States overseas expansion}}
[[File:Editorial cartoon about Jacob Smith's retaliation for Balangiga.gif|thumb|One of the ''New York Journal''{{'}}s most infamous cartoons, depicting [[Philippine–American War]] General [[Jacob H. Smith]]'s order "Kill Everyone over Ten", from the front page on May 5, 1902.]]
Some Americans in the Nineteenth Century advocated for the annexation of Taiwan from China.<ref name="Gordon2009">{{cite book|author=Leonard H. D. Gordon|title=Confrontation Over Taiwan: Nineteenth-Century China and the Powers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pPiE96EYPCkC&pg=PA32|year=2009|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-1869-6|pages=32–}}</ref><ref name="Hao2015">{{cite book|author=Shiyuan Hao|title=How the Communist Party of China Manages the Issue of Nationality: An Evolving Topic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LfcUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA165|date=15 December 2015|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-662-48462-3|pages=165–}}</ref> [[Taiwanese aborigines|Aboriginals on Taiwan]] often attacked and massacred shipwrecked western sailors.<ref name="Martin1949">{{cite book|author=Harris Inwood Martin|title=The Japanese Demand for Formosa in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, 1895|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aL0UAAAAIAAJ&q=rocky+death|year=1949|publisher=Stanford Univ.|page=23}}</ref><ref name="Anderson1946">{{cite book|author=Ronald Stone Anderson|title=Formosa Under the Japanese: A Record of Fifty Years' Occupation ...|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_5QOAAAAIAAJ&q=crews+murdered|year=1946|publisher=Stanford University|page=63}}</ref><ref name="Grad1942">{{cite book|author=Andrew Jonah Grad|title=Formosa Today: An Analysis of the Economic Development and Strategic Importance of Japan's Tropical Colony|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5OdHAAAAYAAJ&q=aborigines+killed+shipwrecked+sailors+formosa|year=1942|publisher=AMS Press|isbn=978-0-404-59526-5|page=16}}</ref><ref name="FisherBest2011">{{cite book|author1=John Fisher|author2=Antony Best|title=On the Fringes of Diplomacy: Influences on British Foreign Policy, 1800-1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwQeBlF4YQwC&pg=PA185|year=2011|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4094-0120-9|pages=185–}}</ref> In 1867, during the [[Rover incident]], [[Taiwanese aborigines]] attacked shipwrecked American sailors, killing the entire crew.<ref>{{cite book|title=Japan Weekly Mail|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWQvAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA263|year=1874|publisher=Jappan Meru Shinbunsha|pages=263–}}</ref> They subsequently defeated a retaliatory [[Formosa Expedition|expedition by the American military]] and killed another American during the battle.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Nation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQwcAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA256|year=1889|publisher=J.H. Richards|pages=256–}}</ref>
As the United States emerged as a new imperial power in the Pacific and Asia, one of the two oldest Western imperialist powers in the regions, [[Spain]], was finding it increasingly difficult to maintain control of territories it had held in the regions since the 16th century. In 1896, a widespread revolt against Spanish rule broke out in the Philippines. Meanwhile, the recent string of U.S. territorial gains in the Pacific posed an even greater threat to Spain's remaining colonial holdings.
As the U.S. continued to expand its economic and military power in the Pacific, it declared war against Spain in 1898. During the [[Spanish–American War]], U.S. Admiral Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at [[Manila]] and U.S. troops landed in the Philippines. Spain later agreed by treaty to cede the Philippines in Asia and [[Guam]] in the Pacific. In the Caribbean, Spain ceded [[Puerto Rico]] to the U.S. The war also marked the end of Spanish rule in Cuba, which was to be granted nominal independence but remained heavily influenced by the U.S. government and U.S. business interests. One year following its treaty with Spain, the U.S. occupied the small Pacific outpost of [[Wake Island]].
The Filipinos, who assisted U.S. troops in fighting the Spanish, wished to establish an independent state and, on June 12, 1898, [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|declared independence]] from Spain. In 1899, fighting between the Filipino nationalists and the U.S. broke out; it took the U.S. almost fifteen years to fully subdue the [[Philippine–American War|insurgency]]. The U.S. sent 70,000 troops and suffered thousands of casualties. The Filipinos insurgents, however, suffered considerably higher casualties than the Americans. Most casualties in the war were civilians dying primarily from disease.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www3.wooster.edu/History/jgates/book-ch3.html|author=John M. Gates|title=The U.S. Army and Irregular Warfare|chapter=The Pacification of the Philippines|publisher=wooster.edu|access-date=2012-06-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629045949/http://www3.wooster.edu/History/jgates/book-ch3.html|archive-date=2014-06-29|url-status=dead}}</ref>
U.S. attacks into the countryside often included scorched earth campaigns where entire villages were burned and destroyed, and concentrated civilians into camps known as "protected zones". Most of these civilian casualties resulted from disease and famine. Reports of the execution of U.S. soldiers taken prisoner by the Filipinos led to disproportionate reprisals by American forces.
The Moro Muslims fought against the Americans in the [[Moro Rebellion]].
In 1914, [[Dean C. Worcester]], U.S. Secretary of the Interior for the Philippines (1901–1913) described "the regime of civilisation and improvement which started with American occupation and resulted in developing naked savages into cultivated and educated men". Nevertheless, some Americans, such as [[Mark Twain]], deeply opposed American involvement/imperialism in the Philippines, leading to the abandonment of attempts to construct a permanent U.S. naval base and using it as an entry point to the Chinese market. In 1916, Congress guaranteed the independence of the Philippines by 1945.
==World War I: Changes in Imperialism==
World War I brought about the fall of several empires in Europe. This had repercussions around the world. The defeated [[Central Powers]] included [[Germany]] and the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] [[Ottoman Empire]]. [[Germany]] lost all of its colonies in Asia. German New Guinea, a part of [[Papua New Guinea]], became administered by [[Australia]]. German possessions and concessions in China, including [[Qingdao]], became the subject of a controversy during the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]] when the [[Beiyang government]] in China agreed to cede these interests to [[Japan]], to the anger of many Chinese people. Although the Chinese diplomats refused to sign the agreement, these interests were ceded to [[Japan]] with the support of the United States and the United Kingdom.
[[Turkey]] gave up her provinces; [[Syria]], [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]], and [[Mesopotamia]] (now [[Iraq]]) came under French and British control as [[League of Nations Mandates]]. The discovery of [[petroleum]] first in [[Iran]] and then in the Arab lands in the interbellum provided a new focus for activity on the part of the United Kingdom, France, and the United States.
==Japan==
{{main|Japanese imperialism|Japanese expansionism}}
[[File:Dutch personnel and Japanese women watching an incoming towed Dutch sailing ship at Dejima by Kawahara Keiga.jpg|thumb|Europeans in [[Dejima]], the Dutch trading colony in the harbor of Nagasaki, early 19th century.]]
In 1641, all Westerners were thrown out of Japan. For the next two centuries, Japan was free from Western contact, except for at the port of [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], which Japan allowed Dutch merchant vessels to enter on a limited basis.
Japan's freedom from Western contact ended on 8 July 1853, when [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)|Commodore Matthew Perry]] of the [[U.S. Navy]] sailed a squadron of black-hulled warships into [[Edo]] (modern [[Tokyo]]) harbor. The Japanese told Perry to sail to [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]] but he refused. Perry sought to present a letter from U.S. President [[Millard Fillmore]] to the emperor which demanded concessions from Japan. Japanese authorities responded by stating that they could not present the letter directly to the emperor, but scheduled a meeting on 14 July with a representative of the emperor. On 14 July, the squadron sailed towards the shore, giving a demonstration of their cannon's firepower thirteen times. Perry landed with a large detachment of Marines and presented the emperor's representative with Fillmore's letter. Perry said he would return, and did so, this time with even more war ships. The U.S. show of force led to Japan's concession to the [[Convention of Kanagawa]] on 31 March 1854. This treaty conferred extraterritoriality on American nationals, as well as, opening up further treaty ports beyond Nagasaki. This treaty was followed up by similar treaties with the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Russia and France. These events made Japanese authorities aware that the country was lacking technologically and needed the strength of industrialism in order to keep their power. This realisation eventually led to a civil war and political reform known the [[Meiji Restoration]].
The [[Meiji Restoration]] of 1868 led to administrative overhaul, deflation and subsequent rapid economic development. Japan had limited natural resources of her own and sought both overseas markets and sources of raw materials, fuelling a drive for imperial conquest which began with the defeat of China in 1895.
[[File:Martial law, Korea 1900s.jpg|thumb|Three [[Korea under Japanese rule|Koreans]] shot for pulling up rails as a protest against seizure of land without payment by Japanese.]]
Taiwan, ceded by [[Qing dynasty]] China, became the first Japanese colony. In 1899, Japan won agreements from the [[great powers]]' to abandon extraterritoriality for their citizens, and an alliance with the United Kingdom established it in 1902 as an international power. Its spectacular defeat of Russia's navy in 1905 gave it the southern half of the island of [[Sakhalin]]; exclusive Japanese influence over Korea (propinquity); the former Russian lease of the [[Liaodong Peninsula]] with Port Arthur ([[Lüshunkou]]); and extensive rights in Manchuria (see the [[Russo-Japanese War]]).
The Empire of Japan and the [[Joseon Dynasty]] in Korea formed bilateral diplomatic relations in 1876. China lost its suzerainty of Korea after defeat in the Sino-Japanese War in 1894. Russia also lost influence on the Korean peninsula with the [[Treaty of Portsmouth]] as a result of the [[Russo-Japanese war]] in 1904. The Joseon Dynasty became increasingly dependent on Japan. Korea became a protectorate of Japan with the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905]]. Korea was then ''de jure'' annexed to Japan with the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910]].
Japan was now one of the most powerful forces in the [[Far East]], and in 1914, it entered World War I on the side of the Allies, seizing German-occupied [[Jiaozhou Bay|Kiaochow]] and subsequently demanding Chinese acceptance of Japanese political influence and territorial acquisitions ([[Twenty-One Demands]], 1915). [[May Fourth Movement|Mass protests in Peking]] in 1919 which sparked widespread Chinese nationalism, coupled with Allied (and particularly U.S.) opinion led to Japan's abandonment of most of the demands and Kiaochow's 1922 return to China. Japan received the German territory from the Treaty of Versailles.
Tensions with China increased over the 1920s, and in 1931 Japanese [[Kwantung Army]] based in Manchuria seized control of the region without admission from Tokyo. Intermittent conflict with China led to full-scale war in mid-1937, drawing Japan toward an overambitious bid for Asian hegemony ([[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]]), which ultimately led to defeat and the loss of all its overseas territories after World War II (see [[Japanese expansionism]] and [[Japanese nationalism]]).
== After World War II ==
===Decolonisation and the rise of nationalism in Asia===
In the aftermath of World War II, European colonies, controlling more than one billion people throughout the world, still ruled most of the Middle East, South East Asia, and the Indian Subcontinent. However, the image of European pre-eminence was shattered by the wartime Japanese occupations of large portions of British, French, and Dutch territories in the Pacific. The destabilisation of European rule led to the rapid growth of nationalist movements in Asia—especially in Indonesia, [[British Malaya|Malaya]], [[Myanmar|Burma]], and [[French Indochina]] ([[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]], and [[Laos]]).
[[File:Aden7-1967.jpg|thumb|[[British Forces Aden|British Army]]'s counter-insurgency campaign in the British controlled territories of [[Federation of South Arabia|South Arabia]], 1967]]
The war, however, only accelerated forces already in existence undermining Western imperialism in Asia. Throughout the colonial world, the processes of urbanisation and capitalist investment created professional merchant classes that emerged as new Westernised elites. While imbued with Western political and economic ideas, these classes increasingly grew to resent their unequal status under European rule.
====British in India and the Middle East====
In India, the westward movement of Japanese forces towards Bengal during World War II had led to major concessions on the part of British authorities to Indian nationalist leaders. In 1947, the United Kingdom, devastated by war and embroiled in economic crisis at home, granted [[British India]] its independence as two nations: [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. Myanmar ([[British rule in Burma|Burma]]) and [[Sri Lanka]] ([[British Ceylon|Ceylon]]), which is also part of British India, also gained their independence from the United Kingdom the following year, in 1948. In the Middle East, the United Kingdom granted independence to [[Jordan]] in 1946 and two years later, in 1948, ended its mandate of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] becoming the independent nation of [[Israel]].[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Nederlandse militairen controleren de papieren van Javaanse vrouwen bij het transitkamp van de Zeven December Divisie bij Tandjong Priok of het hierna door de divisie betrokken Kamp Doeri Batavia TMnr 10029000.jpg|thumb|Dutch soldiers control the papers of [[Java]]nese women, 1946]]
Following the end of the war, nationalists in Indonesia demanded complete independence from the Netherlands. A brutal conflict ensued, and finally, in 1949, through [[United Nations]] mediation, the Dutch East Indies achieved independence, becoming the new nation of Indonesia. Dutch imperialism moulded this new multi-ethnic state comprising roughly 3,000 islands of the Indonesian archipelago with a population at the time of over 100 million.
The end of Dutch rule opened up latent tensions between the roughly 300 distinct ethnic groups of the islands, with the major ethnic fault line being between the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] and the non-Javanese.
[[Netherlands New Guinea]] was under the Dutch administration until 1962 (see also [[West New Guinea dispute]]).
====United States in Asia====
In the Philippines, the U.S. remained committed to its previous pledges to grant the islands their independence, and the Philippines became the first of the Western-controlled Asian colonies to be granted independence post-World War II. However, the Philippines remained under pressure to adopt a political and economic system similar to the U.S.
This aim was greatly complicated by the rise of new political forces. During the war, the ''[[Hukbalahap]]'' (People's Army), which had strong ties to the [[Communist Party of the Philippines]] (PKP), fought against the Japanese occupation of the Philippines and won strong popularity among many sectors of the Filipino working class and peasantry. In 1946, the PKP participated in elections as part of the Democratic Alliance. However, with the onset of the [[Cold War]], its growing political strength drew a reaction from the ruling government and the United States, resulting in the repression of the PKP and its associated organisations. In 1948, the PKP began organizing an armed struggle against the government and continued U.S. military presence. In 1950, the PKP created the People's Liberation Army (''Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan''), which mobilised thousands of troops throughout the islands. The insurgency lasted until 1956, when the PKP gave up armed struggle.
In 1968, the PKP underwent a split, and in 1969 the [[Maoist]] faction of the PKP created the [[New People's Army]]. Maoist rebels re-launched an armed struggle against the government and the U.S. military presence in the Philippines, which continues to this day.
====France in Indochina====
=====Post-war resistance to French rule=====
[[File:1stIndochinaWar001.jpg|thumb|French Marine commandos wade ashore off the [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]] coast in July 1950]]
France remained determined to retain its control of [[Indochina]]. However, in [[Hanoi]], in 1945, a broad front of nationalists and communists led by [[Ho Chi Minh]] declared an independent Republic of Vietnam, commonly referred to as the [[Viet Minh]] regime by Western outsiders. France, seeking to regain control of Vietnam, countered with a vague offer of self-government under French rule. France's offers were unacceptable to Vietnamese nationalists; and in December 1946 the Việt Minh launched a rebellion against the French authority governing the colonies of French Indochina. The first few years of the war involved a low-level rural insurgency against French authority. However, after the Chinese communists reached the Northern border of Vietnam in 1949, the conflict turned into a conventional war between two armies equipped with modern weapons supplied by the United States and the Soviet Union.<ref>Fall, ''Street Without Joy'', p. 17.</ref> Meanwhile, the France granted the [[State of Vietnam]] based in [[Saigon]] independence in 1949 while [[Laos]] and [[Cambodia]] received independence in 1953. The US recognized the regime in Saigon, and provided the French military effort with military aid.
Meanwhile, in Vietnam, the French war against the Viet Minh continued for nearly eight years. The French were gradually worn down by guerrilla and jungle fighting. The turning point for France occurred at [[Dien Bien Phu]] in 1954, which resulted in the surrender of ten thousand French troops. [[Paris]] was forced to accept a political settlement that year at the [[Geneva Conference (1954)|Geneva Conference]], which led to a precarious set of agreements regarding the future political status of Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
==List of European colonies in Asia==
British colonies in [[South Asia]], [[East Asia]], And [[Southeast Asia]]:
*{{Flagicon|British Burma}}[[British Burma]] (1824–1948, merged with [[British Raj|India]] by the British from 1886 to 1937)
*{{Flagicon|British Ceylon}}[[British Ceylon]] (1815–1948, now [[Sri Lanka]])
* {{Flagicon|Portuguese Timor}}[[Portuguese Timor]] (1702–1975, now [[East Timor]])
* {{Flagicon|British Hong Kong}}[[British Hong Kong]] (1842–1997)
* {{Flagicon|British India}}[[Colonial India]] (includes the territory of present-day [[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh]])
:{{Flagicon|Danish India}}[[Danish India]] (1696–1869)
:{{Flagicon|Sweden}}[[Swedish East India Company#The first octroi (1731–1746)|Swedish Parangipettai]] (1733)
:{{Flagicon|British India}}[[British India]] (1613–1947)
::{{Flagicon|East India Company}}[[Company rule in India|British East India Company]] (1757–1858)
::{{Flagicon|British Raj}}[[British Raj]] (1858–1947)
French colonies in South and Southeast Asia:
* {{Flagicon|French India}}[[French India]] (1769–1954)
* {{Flagicon|French Indochina}}[[French Indochina]] (1887–1953), including:
:*[[History of Laos to 1945#French Laos|French Laos]] (1893–1953)
:* [[French protectorate of Cambodia|French Cambodia]] (1863–1953)
:* [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]] (now [[Vietnam]]) (1883–1953)
Dutch, British, Portuguese colonies and Russian territories in Asia:
* {{Flagicon|Dutch India}}[[Dutch India]] (1605–1825)
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Dutch East India Company.svg}}[[Dutch Bengal]]
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Dutch East India Company.svg}}[[Dutch Ceylon]] (1656–1796)
* {{Flagicon|Portuguese Ceylon}}[[Portuguese Ceylon]] (1505–1658)
* {{Flagicon|Dutch East Indies}}[[Dutch East Indies]] (now [[Indonesia]]) – Dutch colony from 1602 to 1949 (included [[Netherlands New Guinea]] until 1962)
* {{Flagicon|Portuguese India}}[[Portuguese India]] (1510–1961)
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Government of Portuguese Macau (1976–1999).svg}}[[Portuguese Macau]] – Portuguese colony, the first European colony in [[China]] (1557–1999)
* {{Flagicon|British Empire}}[[British Malaya|Malaya]] (now part of [[Malaysia]]):
:{{Flagicon|Portuguese Empire}}[[Portuguese Malacca]] (1511–1641)
:{{Flagicon|Dutch Empire}}[[Dutch Malacca]] (1641–1824)
:{{Flagicon|British Empire}}[[British Malaya]], included:
::*[[Straits Settlements]] (1826–1946)
::* [[Federated Malay States]] (1895–1946)
::* [[Unfederated Malay States]] (1885–1946)
:{{Flagicon|Malaya}}[[Federation of Malaya]] (under British rule, 1948–1963)
* {{Flagicon|British Empire}}[[British Borneo]] (now part of [[Malaysia]]), including:
:* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Labuan_(1912–1946).svg}}[[Crown Colony of Labuan|Labuan]] (1848–1946)h
:* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_North_Borneo_(1902–1946).svg}}[[North Borneo]] (1882–1941)
::* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_North_Borneo_(1948–1963).svg}}[[Crown Colony of North Borneo]] (1946–1963)
:* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Sarawak_(1946–1963).svg}}[[Crown Colony of Sarawak]] (1946–1963)
* [[Brunei]]
:* {{Flagicon|Brunei}}[[Brunei#History|British Brunei (1888–1984)]] (British protectorate)
* {{Flagicon|Russian Empire}}[[Outer Manchuria]] – ceded to [[Russian Empire]] through [[Treaty of Aigun]] (1858) and [[Treaty of Peking]] (1860)
* [[Philippines]]:
:{{Flagicon|Spanish Empire}}[[Spanish Philippines]] (1565–1898, 3rd longest European occupation in Asia, 333 years),
:{{flagicon|First Mexican Empire}}[[Mexican]] [[Manila]] (1821-1824)
:{{Flagicon|British Empire}}[[British invasion of Manila|British Manila]] (1762–1764, Shortly British occupation in Philippines, 2 years)
:{{Flagicon|US}}{{Flagicon|Philippines}}[[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands]] and [[Commonwealth of the Philippines]], [[United States]] colony (1898–1946)
* {{Flagicon|British Empire}}[[Singapore]] – British colony (1819–1959)
* [[Taiwan]]:
:{{Flagicon|Spanish Empire}}[[Spanish Formosa]] (1626–1642)
:{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Dutch East India Company.svg}}[[Dutch Formosa]] (1624–1662)
*[[Bahrain]]
:*{{Flagicon|Portuguese Empire}}[[History of Bahrain#Portuguese rule|Portuguese Bahrain (1521–1602)]]
:* {{Flagicon image|Flag of Bahrain (1820–1932).svg}}{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Bahrain_(1932–1972).svg}}[[History of Bahrain (1783–1971)|British Protectorate (1861 - 1971)]]
*[[Iraq]]
:*{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Iraq_(1924–1959).svg}}[[Mandatory Iraq]] (1920–1932) (British protectorate)
:*{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Iraq_(1924–1959).svg}}[[Kingdom of Iraq]] (1932–1958)
*[[Israel]] and [[State of Palestine|Palestine]]
:*{{Flagicon|Mandatory Palestine}}[[Mandatory Palestine]] (1920–1948) (British Mandate)
*[[Jordan]]
:*{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Transjordan.svg}}[[Emirate of Transjordan]] (1921–1946) (British protectorate)
*[[Kuwait]]
:*{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Kuwait_1940-1961.png}}[[Sheikhdom of Kuwait]] (1899–1961) (British protectorate)
*[[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]]
:*{{Flagicon|France}}[[French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon]] (1923–1946)
*[[Oman]]
:*{{Flagicon|Portuguese Empire}}[[Oman#Portuguese occupation|Portuguese Oman (1507–1650)]]
:*{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Muscat.svg}}[[Muscat and Oman]] (1892–1971) (British protectorate)
*[[Qatar]]
:*{{Flagicon|Qatar}}[[History of Qatar#British protectorate (1916–1971)|British protectorate of Qatar (1916–1971)]]
*[[United Arab Emirates]]
:*{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Trucial_States_(1968–1971).svg}}[[Trucial States]] (1820–1971) (British protectorate)
*[[Yemen]]
:*{{Flagicon|Aden}}[[Aden Protectorate]] (1869–1963)
:*{{Flagicon|Colony of Aden}}[[Colony of Aden]] (1937–1963)
:*{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Federation_of_South_Arabia.svg}}[[Federation of South Arabia]] (1962–1967)
:*{{Flagicon|British Empire}}[[Protectorate of South Arabia]] (1963–1967)
===Independent states===
* [[Afghanistan]] – founded by the [[Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919]] of the [[United Kingdom]] and declared independence in 1919
:* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Afghanistan_(1919–1921).svg}}[[Emirate of Afghanistan]] (1879 - 1919) (British protectorate)
* {{Flagicon|ROC}}{{Flagicon|China}}[[China]] – independent, but within European cultures of influence which were largely limited to the colonised ports except for Manchuria.
:* [[Concessions in China]]
:* [[Shanghai International Settlement]] (1863 - 1941)
:* [[Shanghai French Concession]] (1849 - 1943)
:* [[Concessions in Tianjin]] (1860 - 1947)
* {{Flagicon|Bhutan}}[[Bhutan]] – in British sphere of influence
* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Agha_Mohammad_Khan.svg}}[[Iran]] – in Russian sphere of influence in the north and British in the south
* {{Flagicon|Japanese Empire}}[[Japan]] – a [[Great power]] that had its own [[Japanese empire|colonial empire]] (including [[Korea under Japanese rule|Korea]] and [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Taiwan]])
* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg}}{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_China_(1912–1928).svg}}{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People's_Republic_(1924–1940).svg}}[[Mongolia]] – in Russian sphere of influence and later Soviet controlled
* {{Flagicon|Nepal}}[[Nepal]] – in British sphere of influence
* {{Flagicon|Thailand}}[[Thailand]] – the only independent state in [[Southeast Asia]], but bordered by a British sphere of influence in the north and south and French influence in the northeast and east
* {{Flagicon|Turkey}}[[Turkey]] – successor to the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1923; the Ottoman Empire itself could be considered a colonial empire
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}
==Citations==
{{reflist}}
==References==
* {{cite web |first= Klemen |last= L |date= 2000 |title= Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942 |url= https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html }}
==Further reading==
* "Asia Reborn: A Continent Rises from the Ravages of Colonialism and War to a New Dynamism" by Prasenjit K. Basu,Publisher: Aleph Book Company
*[[K. M. Panikkar|Panikkar, K. M.]] (1953). Asia and Western dominance, 1498–1945, by K.M. Panikkar. London: G. Allen and Unwin.
{{commons category|Colonial Asia}}
* {{cite book
|last = Ringmar
|first = Erik
|title = Liberal Barbarism: The European Destruction of the Palace of the Emperor of China
|url = https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/5277315/my%20writings/liberal%20barbarism/Erik%20Ringmar%2C%20Liberal%20Barbarism%2C%20published%20pdf.pdf
|year = 2013
|publisher = Palgrave Macmillan
|location = New York
}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [http://www.vgweb.org/unethicalconversion/port_rep.htm Senaka Weeraratna, Repression of Buddhism in Sri Lanka by the Portuguese (1505 - 1658)]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Imperialism In Asia}}
[[Category:European colonisation in Asia| ]]
[[Category:New Imperialism]]
[[Category:The Great Game]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|none}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{lead rewrite|date=September 2016}}
{{More footnotes|date=October 2013}}
}}
{{New Imperialism}}
'''Western imperialism in Asia''' refers to the influence of [[Western Europe]] and associated states (such as [[Russia]], [[Japan]] and the [[United States]]) in Asian territories. It originated in the 15th-century search for [[trade route]]s to [[India]] and [[Southeast Asia]] that led directly to the [[Age of Discovery]], and additionally the introduction of [[early modern warfare]] into what Europeans first called the [[East Indies]] and later the [[Far East]]. By the early 16th century, the [[Age of Sail]] greatly expanded Western European influence and development of the [[Spice trade#Trade under colonialism|spice trade under colonialism]]. European-style [[colonial empire]]s and [[imperialism]] operated in Asia throughout six centuries of [[colonialism]], formally ending with the independence of the [[Portuguese Empire]]'s last colony [[East Timor]] in 2002. The empires introduced Western concepts of [[nation]] and the [[multinational state]]. This article attempts to outline the consequent development of the Western concept of the [[nation state]].
European political power, commerce, and culture in Asia gave rise to growing trade in [[commodity|commodities]]—a key development in the rise of today's modern world [[capitalism|free market]] economy. In the 16th century, the Portuguese broke the (overland) monopoly of the Arabs and Italians in trade between Asia and [[Europe]] by the [[discovery of the sea route to India]] around the Cape of Good Hope.<ref>M. Weisner-Hanks, Early Modern Europe 1450–1789 (Cambridge, 2006)</ref> The ensuing rise of the rival [[Dutch East India Company]] gradually eclipsed Portuguese influence in Asia.{{#tag:ref| For fifty or sixty years, the Portuguese enjoyed the exclusive trade to China and Japan. In 1717, and again in 1732, the Chinese government offered to make [[Macao]] the emporium for all its foreign trade, and to receive all duties on imports; but, by a strange infatuation, the Portuguese government refused, and the decline in Portuguese influence dates from that period.<ref name="Roberts">
{{cite book
|last= Roberts|first=Edmund
|author-link=Edmund Roberts (diplomat)
|title=Embassy to the Eastern courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat : in the U. S. sloop-of-war Peacock ... during the years 1832-3-4
|year=1837
|url=https://archive.org/details/embassytoeaster00unkngoog
|orig-year=First published in 1837 |publisher=Harper & brothers
|oclc=12212199 |at=image 173, p.166}}
</ref>|group="nb"}} Dutch forces first established independent bases in the East (most significantly [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]], the heavily fortified headquarters of the Dutch East India Company) and then between 1640 and 1660 wrested [[Malacca]], [[Ceylon]], some southern Indian ports, and the lucrative [[Japan]] trade from the Portuguese. Later, the English and the French established settlements in [[India]] and trade with [[China]] and their acquisitions would gradually surpass those of the Dutch. Following the end of the [[Seven Years' War]] in 1763, the British eliminated French influence in India and established the [[British East India Company]] (founded in 1600) as the most important political force on the [[Indian subcontinent]].
Before the [[Industrial Revolution]] in the mid-to-late 19th century, demand for oriental goods such as [[porcelain]], [[silk]], [[spice]]s and [[tea]]<nowiki/>remained the driving force behind European imperialism. The Western European stake in Asia remained confined largely to trading stations and strategic outposts necessary to protect trade. Industrialization, however, dramatically increased European demand for Asian raw materials; with the severe [[Long Depression]] of the 1870s provoking a scramble for new markets for European industrial products and financial services in Africa, the Americas, Eastern Europe, and especially in Asia. This scramble coincided with a new era in global [[colonialism|colonial]] expansion known as "the [[New Imperialism]]", which saw a shift in focus from trade and [[indirect rule]] to formal colonial control of vast overseas territories ruled as political extensions of their mother countries. Between the 1870s and the beginning of [[World War I]] in 1914, the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], and the [[Netherlands]]—the established colonial powers in Asia—added to their empires vast expanses of territory in the [[Middle East]], the Indian Subcontinent, and [[Southeast Asia]]. In the same period, the [[Empire of Japan]], following the [[Meiji Restoration]]; the [[German Empire]], following the end of the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in 1871; [[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]]; and the [[United States]], following the [[Spanish–American War]] in 1898, quickly emerged as new imperial powers in [[East Asia]] and in the Pacific Ocean area.
In [[Asia]], [[World War I]] and [[World War II]] were played out as struggles among several key imperial power, with conflicts involving the European powers along with Russia and the rising American and Japanese. None of the colonial powers, however, possessed the resources to withstand the strains of both World Wars and maintain their direct rule in Asia. Although nationalist movements throughout the colonial world led to the political independence of nearly all of Asia's remaining colonies, [[decolonization]] was intercepted by the [[Cold War]]. South East Asia, [[South Asia]], the Middle East, and East Asia remained embedded in a world economic, financial, and military system in which the great powers compete to extend their influence. However, the rapid post-war economic development and rise of the [[industrialized]] [[developed country|developed countries]] of [[Taiwan]], [[Singapore]], [[South Korea]], [[Japan]] and the developing countries of [[India]], the [[People's Republic of China]] and its autonomous territory of [[Hong Kong]], along with the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]], have greatly diminished Western [[Europe]]an influence in Asia. The United States remains influential with trade and military bases in Asia.
==Early European exploration of Asia==
European exploration of Asia started in [[Ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] times along the [[Silk Road]]. Knowledge of lands as distant as China were held by the Romans. Trade with India through the Roman Egyptian [[Red Sea]] ports was significant in the first centuries of the [[Common Era]].
===Medieval European exploration of Asia===
[[File:Marco Polo traveling.JPG|thumb|Illustration of [[Marco Polo]]'s arrival in a [[China|Chinese]] city]]
In the 13th and 14th centuries, a number of Europeans, many of them Christian [[missionary|missionaries]], had sought to penetrate into China. The most famous of these travelers was [[Marco Polo]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Marco Polo, Il Milione|date=1965|language=it|newspaper=[[De Agostini|Istituto Geografico DeAgostini]]|last=Benedetto|first=Luigi Foscolo}}</ref> But these journeys had little permanent effect on east–west trade because of a series of political developments in Asia in the last decades of the 14th century, which put an end to further European exploration of Asia. The [[Yuan dynasty]] in China, which had been receptive to European missionaries and merchants, was overthrown, and the new [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] rulers were found to be unreceptive of religious proselytism. Meanwhile, the [[Turkish people|Turks]] consolidated control over the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], closing off key overland trade routes. Thus, until the 15th century, only minor trade and cultural exchanges between Europe and Asia continued at certain terminals controlled by Muslim traders.
===Oceanic voyages to Asia===
Western European rulers determined to find new trade routes of their own. The Portuguese spearheaded the drive to find oceanic routes that would provide cheaper and easier access to South and East Asian goods. This chartering of oceanic routes between East and West began with the unprecedented voyages of Portuguese and Spanish sea captains. Their voyages were influenced by medieval European adventurers, who had journeyed overland to the Far East and contributed to geographical knowledge of parts of Asia upon their return.
In 1488, [[Bartolomeu Dias]] rounded the southern tip of Africa under the sponsorship of Portugal's [[John II of Portugal|John II]], from which point he noticed that the coast swung northeast ([[Cape of Good Hope]]). While Dias' crew forced him to turn back, by 1497, Portuguese navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] made the first open voyage from Europe to India. In 1520, [[Ferdinand Magellan]], a Portuguese navigator in the service of the [[Crown of Castile]] ('[[Spain]]'), found a sea route into the [[Pacific Ocean]].
==Portuguese and Spanish trade and colonization in Asia==
{{further|Portuguese Empire|Portuguese India Armadas|Manila galleon|Treaty of Tordesillas|Treaty of Zaragoza}}
===Portuguese monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean and Asia===
[[File:Retrato de Afonso de Albuquerque (após 1545) - Autor desconhecido.png|thumb|left|upright|[[Afonso de Albuquerque]]]]
In 1509, the Portuguese under [[Francisco de Almeida]] won the decisive [[battle of Diu]] against a joint [[Burji dynasty|Mamluk]] and Arab fleet sent to expel the Portuguese of the Arabian Sea. The victory enabled Portugal to implement its strategy of controlling the Indian Ocean.
Early in the 16th century [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] (left) emerged as the Portuguese colonial viceroy most instrumental in consolidating Portugal's holdings in Africa and in Asia. He understood that Portugal could wrest commercial supremacy from the Arabs only by force, and therefore devised a plan to establish forts at strategic sites which would dominate the trade routes and also protect Portuguese interests on land. In 1510, he [[Portuguese Conquest of Goa (1510)|conquered Goa]] in India, which enabled him to gradually consolidate control of most of the commercial traffic between Europe and Asia, largely through trade; Europeans started to carry on trade from forts, acting as foreign merchants rather than as settlers. In contrast, early European expansion in the "[[West Indies]]", (later known to Europeans as a separate continent from Asia that they would call the "[[Americas]]") following the 1492 voyage of [[Christopher Columbus]], involved heavy settlement in colonies that were treated as political extensions of the mother countries.
Lured by the potential of high profits from another expedition, the Portuguese established a permanent base in [[History of Kochi|Cochin]], south of the Indian trade port of [[History of Kozhikode|Calicut]] in the early 16th century. In 1510, the Portuguese, led by [[Afonso de Albuquerque]], seized Goa on the coast of India, which [[Portugal]] held until 1961, along with [[Diu, India|Diu]] and [[Daman district, India|Daman]] (the remaining territory and enclaves in India from a former network of coastal towns and smaller fortified trading ports added and abandoned or lost centuries before). The Portuguese soon acquired a monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean.
Portuguese viceroy Albuquerque (1509–1515) resolved to consolidate Portuguese holdings in Africa and Asia, and secure control of trade with the [[East Indies]] and China. His first objective was [[Malacca]], which controlled the narrow strait through which most Far Eastern trade moved. [[Capture of Malacca (1511)|Captured in 1511]], Malacca became the springboard for further eastward penetration, starting with the voyage of [[António de Abreu]] and [[Francisco Serrão]] in 1512, ordered by Albuquerque, to the Moluccas. Years later the first trading posts were established in the [[Moluccas]], or "Spice Islands", which was the source for some of the world's most hotly demanded spices, and from there, in [[Makassar]] and some others, but smaller, in the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]. By 1513–1516, the first Portuguese ships had reached [[Guangdong|Canton]] on the southern coasts of China.
[[File:Portuguese discoveries and explorationsV2en.png|thumb|upright=2.8|[[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese expeditions]] 1415–1542: arrival places and dates; Portuguese [[spice trade]] routes in the [[Indian Ocean]] (blue); territories of the [[Portuguese empire]] under [[King John III of Portugal|King John III]] rule (green)]]
In 1513, after the failed attempt to conquer [[Aden]], Albuquerque entered with an armada, for the first time for Europeans by the ocean via, on the [[Red Sea]]; and in 1515, Albuquerque consolidated the Portuguese hegemony in the [[Persian Gulf]] gates, already begun by him in 1507, with the domain of [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]] and [[Ormuz]]. Shortly after, other fortified bases and forts were annexed and built along the Gulf, and in 1521, through a military campaign, the Portuguese annexed [[Bahrain]].
The Portuguese conquest of Malacca triggered the [[Malayan–Portuguese war]]. In 1521, [[Ming dynasty]] China defeated the Portuguese at the [[Battle of Tunmen]] and then defeated the Portuguese again at the [[Battle of Xicaowan]]. The Portuguese tried to establish trade with China by illegally smuggling with the pirates on the offshore islands{{Which|date=August 2016}} off the coast of [[Zhejiang]] and [[Fujian]], but they were driven away by the [[Ming]] navy in the 1530s-1540s.
In 1557, China decided to lease [[Portuguese Macau|Macau]] to the Portuguese as a place where they could dry goods they transported on their ships, which they held until 1999. The Portuguese, based at Goa and Malacca, had now established a lucrative maritime empire in the Indian Ocean meant to monopolize the [[spice trade]]. The Portuguese also began a channel of trade with the Japanese, becoming the first recorded Westerners to have visited Japan. This contact introduced Christianity and firearms into Japan.
In 1505, (also possibly before, in 1501), the Portuguese, through [[Lourenço de Almeida]], the son of Francisco de Almeida, reached [[Ceylon]]. The Portuguese founded a fort at the city of [[Colombo]] in 1517 and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas and inland. In a series of military conflicts and political maneuvers, the Portuguese extended their control over the [[Sinhala Kingdom|Sinhalese kingdoms]], including [[Jaffna Kingdom|Jaffna]] (1591), [[Kingdom of Raigama|Raigama]] (1593), [[Kingdom of Sitawaka|Sitawaka]] (1593), and [[Kingdom of Kotte|Kotte]] (1594)- However, the aim of unifying the entire island under Portuguese control faced the [[Kingdom of Kandy]]`s fierce resistance.<ref name="Fernando2013">{{cite book|author=Jude Lal Fernando|title=Religion, Conflict and Peace in Sri Lanka: The Politics of Interpretation of Nationhoods|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWInAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA135|date=11 June 2013|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-643-90428-7|page=135}}</ref> The Portuguese, led by [[Pedro Lopes de Sousa]], launched a full-scale military invasion of the kingdom of Kandy in the [[Campaign of Danture]] of 1594. The invasion was a disaster for the Portuguese, with their entire army, wiped out by Kandyan [[guerrilla warfare]].<ref name="Perera2007">{{cite book|author=C. Gaston Perera|title=Kandy fights the Portuguese: a military history of Kandyan resistance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgtuAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Danture%22%20%221594%22|year=2007|publisher=Vijitha Yapa Publications|isbn=978-955-1266-77-6|page=148}}</ref><ref name="Obeyesekere1999">{{cite book|author=Donald Obeyesekere|title=Outlines of Ceylon History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cDwvQF_OgvMC&pg=PA232|year=1999|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1363-8|page=232}}</ref> [[Constantino de Sá de Noronha|Constantino de Sá]], romantically celebrated in the 17th century Sinhalese Epic (also for its greater humanism and tolerance compared to other governors) led the last military operation that also ended in disaster. He died in the [[Battle of Randeniwela]], refusing to abandon his troops in the face of total annihilation.<ref>[http://www.ceylontoday.lk/64-92267-news-detail-rasin-deviyo.html Rasin Deviyo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222130125/http://www.ceylontoday.lk/64-92267-news-detail-rasin-deviyo.html |date=2015-12-22 }} - Chandra Tilake Edirisuriya (Ceylon Today) Accessed 2015-12-13</ref>
The energies of Castile (later, the ''unified'' Spain), the other major colonial power of the 16th century, were largely concentrated on the Americas, not South and East Asia, but the Spanish did establish a footing in the Far East in the Philippines. After fighting with the Portuguese by the Spice Islands since 1522 and the agreement between the two powers in 1529 (in the treaty of Zaragoza), the Spanish, led by [[Miguel López de Legazpi]], settled and conquered gradually the Philippines since 1564. After the discovery of the return voyage to the Americas by [[Andres de Urdaneta]] in 1565, cargoes of Chinese goods were transported from the [[Philippines]] to [[Mexico]] and from there to [[Spain]]. By this long route, Spain reaped some of the profits of Far Eastern commerce. Spanish officials converted the islands to Christianity and established some settlements, permanently establishing the Philippines as the area of East Asia most oriented toward the West in terms of culture and commerce. The Moro Muslims fought against the Spanish for over three centuries in the [[Spanish–Moro conflict]].
===Decline of Portugal's Asian empire since the 17th century===
The lucrative trade was vastly expanded when the Portuguese began to export [[Slavery|slave]]s from Africa in 1541; however, over time, the rise of the slave trade left Portugal over-extended, and vulnerable to competition from other Western European powers. Envious of Portugal's control of trade routes, other Western European nations—mainly the [[Netherlands]], France, and England—began to send in rival expeditions to Asia. In 1642, the Dutch drove the Portuguese out of the [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]] in Africa, the source of the bulk of Portuguese slave laborers, leaving this rich slaving area to other Europeans, especially the Dutch and the English.
Rival European powers began to make inroads in Asia as the Portuguese and Spanish trade in the Indian Ocean declined primarily because they had become hugely over-stretched financially due to the limitations on their investment capacity and contemporary naval technology. Both of these factors worked in tandem, making control over Indian Ocean trade extremely expensive.
The existing Portuguese interests in Asia proved sufficient to finance further colonial expansion and entrenchment in areas regarded as of greater strategic importance in [[Africa]] and [[Colonial Brazil|Brazil]]. Portuguese maritime supremacy was lost to the Dutch in the 17th century, and with this came serious challenges for the Portuguese. However, they still clung to Macau and settled a new colony on the island of [[Timor]]. It was as recent as the 1960s and 1970s that the Portuguese began to relinquish their colonies in Asia. Goa was invaded by India in 1961 and became an Indian state in 1987; [[Portuguese Timor]] was abandoned in 1975 and was then invaded by [[Indonesia]]. It became an independent country in 2002, and Macau was handed back to the Chinese as per a treaty in 1999.
===Holy wars===
The arrival of the Portuguese and Spanish and their holy wars against Muslim states in the [[Malayan–Portuguese war]], [[Spanish–Moro conflict]] and [[Castilian War]] inflamed religious tensions and turned Southeast Asia into an arena of conflict between Muslims and Christians. The Brunei Sultanate's capital at Kota Batu was assaulted by Governor Sande who led the 1578 Spanish attack.<ref>{{cite book|title=Philippine Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zphuAAAAMAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+...|year=1986|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|page=260}}</ref>
The word "savages" in Spanish, cafres, was from the word "infidel" in Arabic - Kafir, and was used by the Spanish to refer to their own "Christian savages" who were arrested in Brunei.<ref>{{cite book|title=Brunei Museum journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ASIAAAAIAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish|year=1985|page=67|last1 = Brunei|first1 = Muzium}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Brunei Museum Journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S7RwAAAAMAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish|year=1986|publisher=The Museum|page=67}}</ref> It was said ''Castilians are kafir, men who have no souls, who are condemned by fire when they die, and that too because they eat pork'' by the Brunei Sultan after the term ''accursed doctrine'' was used to attack Islam by the Spaniards which fed into hatred between Muslims and Christians sparked by their 1571 war against Brunei.<ref name="AndayaAndaya2015">{{cite book|author1=Barbara Watson Andaya|author2=Leonard Y. Andaya|title=A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1830|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rh2BgAAQBAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish&pg=PA145|date=19 February 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-88992-6|pages=145–}}</ref> The Sultan's words were in response to insults coming from the Spanish at Manila in 1578, other Muslims from Champa, Java, Borneo, Luzon, Pahang, Demak, Aceh, and the Malays echoed the rhetoric of holy war against the Spanish and Iberian Portuguese, calling them kafir enemies which was a contrast to their earlier nuanced views of the Portuguese in the Hikayat Tanah Hitu and Sejarah Melayu.<ref name="Reid1993">{{cite book|author=Anthony Reid|title=Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680: Expansion and crisis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vxgHExnla4MC&q=brunei+kafir+spanish&pg=PA148|date=1 January 1993|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-05412-5|pages=148–}}</ref><ref name="Reid1993 2">{{cite book|author=Anthony Reid|title=Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era: Trade, Power, and Belief|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h2SSpt4YuKwC&q=brunei+kafir+spanish&pg=PA166|year=1993|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=0-8014-8093-0|pages=166–}}</ref> The war by Spain against Brunei was defended in an apologia written by Doctor De Sande.<ref name="Nicholl1975">{{cite book|author=Robert Nicholl|title=European Sources for the History of the Sultanate of Brunei in the 16th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CmweAAAAMAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish|year=1975|publisher=Muzium Brunei|page=43}}</ref> The British eventually partitioned and took over Brunei while Sulu was attacked by the British, Americans, and Spanish which caused its breakdown and downfall after both of them thrived from 1500 to 1900 for four centuries.<ref name="CasiñoCasiño1976">{{cite book|author1=Eric Casiño|author2=Eric S. Casiño|title=The Jama Mapun: a changing Samal society in the southern Philippines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2P0eAAAAMAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish|year=1976|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|page=30|isbn=9780686094326}}</ref> Dar al-Islam was seen as under invasion by "kafirs" by the Atjehnese led by Zayn al-din and by Muslims in the Philippines as they saw the Spanish invasion, since the Spanish brought the idea of a crusader holy war against Muslim Moros just as the Portuguese did in Indonesia and India against what they called "Moors" in their political and commercial conquests which they saw through the lens of religion in the 16th century.<ref name="Dale1980">{{cite book|author=Stephen Frederic Dale|title=Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: The Māppiḷas of Malabar, 1498-1922|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=22JuAAAAMAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish|year=1980|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-821571-4|page=58}}</ref>
In 1578, an attack was launched by the Spanish against Jolo, and in 1875 it was destroyed at their hands, and once again in 1974 it was destroyed by the Philippines.<ref name="Ooi2004">{{cite book|author=Keat Gin Ooi|title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&q=brunei+kafir+spanish&pg=PA1705|date=1 January 2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-770-2|pages=1705–}}</ref> The Spanish first set foot on Borneo in Brunei.<ref name="Ober1907">{{cite book|author=Frederick Albion Ober|title=Ferdinand Magellan|url=https://archive.org/details/ferdinandmagella00ober|quote=brunei kafir spanish.|year=1907|publisher=Harper and brothers|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ferdinandmagella00ober/page/295 295]–}}</ref>
The Spanish war against Brunei failed to conquer Brunei but it totally cut off the Philippines from Brunei's influence, the Spanish then started colonizing Mindanao and building fortresses. In response, the Bisayas, where Spanish forces were stationed, were subjected to retaliatory attacks by the Magindanao in 1599-1600 due to the Spanish attacks on Mindanao.<ref>{{cite book|title=Filipino Heritage: The Spanish colonial period (16th century)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1sYRAQAAMAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+...|year=1977|publisher=Lahing Pilipino Pub.|location=Manila|page=1083}}</ref>
The Brunei royal family was related to the Muslim Rajahs who in ruled the principality in 1570 of Manila ([[Kingdom of Maynila]]) and this was what the Spaniards came across on their initial arrival to Manila, Spain uprooted Islam out of areas where it was shallow after they began to force Christianity on the Philippines in their conquests after 1521 while Islam was already widespread in the 16th century Philippines.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Criterion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XlMkAQAAIAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+...|year=1971|publisher=K.Siddique|page=51}}</ref> In the Philippines in the Cebu islands the natives killed the Spanish fleet leader Magellan. Borneo's western coastal areas at Landak, Sukadana, and Sambas saw the growth of Muslim states in the sixteenth century, in the 15th century at Nanking, the capital of China, the death and burial of the Borneo Bruneian king Maharaja Kama took place upon his visit to China with Zheng He's fleet.<ref name="Payne2000">{{cite book|author=Junaidi Payne|title=This is Borneo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zPhvAAAAMAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+...|year=2000|publisher=New Holland|isbn=978-1-85974-106-1|page=28}}</ref>
The Spanish were expelled from Brunei in 1579 after they attacked in 1578.<ref name="RingSalkin1994">{{cite book|author1=Trudy Ring|author2=Robert M. Salkin|author3=Sharon La Boda|title=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC&q=1599+spanish+cambodia+malay&pg=PA158|year=1994|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-04-6|pages=158–}}</ref><ref name="RingWatson2012">{{cite book|author1=Trudy Ring|author2=Noelle Watson|author3=Paul Schellinger|title=Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voerPYsAB5wC&q=1599+spanish+cambodia+malay&pg=PA158|date=12 November 2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-63979-1|pages=158–}}</ref> There were fifty thousand inhabitants before the 1597 attack by the Spanish in Brunei.<ref name="Tarling1999">{{cite book|author=Nicholas Tarling|author-link=Nicholas Tarling|title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jtsMLNmMzbkC&q=1599+spanish+cambodia+malay&pg=PA129|year=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-66370-0|pages=129–}}</ref><ref name="Tarling1999 2">{{cite book|author=Nicholas Tarling|title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIz4CDTCOwcC&q=1599+spanish+cambodia+malay&pg=PA129|year=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-66370-0|pages=129–}}</ref>
During first contact with China, numerous aggressions and provocations were undertaken by the Portuguese<ref name="Zhang1934">{{cite book|author=Tianze Zhang|title=Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AAVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA48|year=1934|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=48–|id=GGKEY:0671BSWDRPY}}</ref><ref name="Zhang1934 2">{{cite book|author=Tianze Zhang|title=Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnUaAAAAMAAJ&q=behavior+abhorred|year=1934|publisher=Late E. J. Brill Limited|page=48}}</ref> They believed they could mistreat the non-Christians because they themselves were Christians and acted in the name of their religion in committing crimes and atrocities.<ref name="Zhang1934 3">{{cite book|author=Tianze Zhang|title=Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AAVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA67|year=1934|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=67–|id=GGKEY:0671BSWDRPY}}</ref><ref name="Zhang1934 4">{{cite book|author=Tianze Zhang|title=Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnUaAAAAMAAJ&q=Christian+heathens|year=1934|publisher=Late E. J. Brill Limited|page=67}}</ref> This resulted in the [[Battle of Xicaowan]] where the local Chinese navy defeated and captured a fleet of Portuguese caravels.
==Dutch trade and colonization in Asia==
{{main|Dutch colonial empire}}
===Rise of Dutch control over Asian trade in the 17th century===
[[File:AMH-4804-KB The spinning house at Batavia.jpg|left|thumb|Dutch settlement in the East Indies. [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] (now [[Jakarta]]), [[Java]], c. 1665.]]
The Portuguese decline in Asia was accelerated by attacks on their commercial empire by the Dutch and the English, which began a global struggle over the empire in Asia that lasted until the end of the [[Seven Years' War]] in 1763. The [[Dutch Revolt|Netherlands revolt against Spanish rule]] facilitated Dutch encroachment on the Portuguese monopoly over South and East Asian trade. The Dutch looked on Spain's trade and colonies as potential spoils of war. When the two crowns of the Iberian peninsula were joined in 1581, the Dutch felt free to attack Portuguese territories in Asia.
By the 1590s, a number of Dutch companies were formed to finance trading expeditions in Asia. Because competition lowered their profits, and because of the doctrines of [[mercantilism]], in 1602 the companies united into a [[cartel]] and formed the [[Dutch East India Company]], and received from the government the right to trade and colonize territory in the area stretching from the [[Cape of Good Hope]] eastward to the [[Strait of Magellan]].
In 1605, armed Dutch merchants captured the Portuguese fort at [[Ambon, Maluku|Amboyna]] in the Moluccas, which was developed into the company's first secure base. Over time, the Dutch gradually consolidated control over the great trading ports of the East Indies. This control allowed the company to monopolise the world [[spice trade]] for decades. Their monopoly over the spice trade became complete after they drove the Portuguese from [[Malacca]] in 1641 and [[Ceylon]] in 1658.
[[File:Colombo, after Kip.jpg|thumb|Colombo, [[Dutch Ceylon]], based on an engraving of circa 1680]]
Dutch East India Company colonies or outposts were later established in Atjeh ([[Aceh]]), 1667; [[Macassar, Mozambique|Macassar]], 1669; and [[Bantam (city)|Bantam]], 1682. The company established its headquarters at [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] (today [[Jakarta]]) on the island of [[Java (island)|Java]]. Outside the East Indies, the Dutch East India Company colonies or outposts were also established in [[Persia]] ([[Iran]]), [[Bengal]] (now [[Bangladesh]] and part of India), [[Mauritius]] (1638-1658/1664-1710), [[Ayutthaya kingdom|Siam]] (now [[Thailand]]), [[Guangzhou]] (Canton, China), [[Taiwan]] (1624–1662), and southern India (1616–1795).
Ming dynasty China defeated the Dutch East India Company in the [[Sino-Dutch conflicts]]. The Chinese first [[Penghu#Ming-Dutch War|defeated and drove the Dutch out of the Pescadores in 1624]]. The Ming navy under [[Zheng Zhilong]] defeated the Dutch East India Company's fleet at the 1633 [[Battle of Liaoluo Bay]]. In 1662, Zheng Zhilong's son [[Koxinga|Zheng Chenggong]] (also known as Koxinga) expelled the Dutch from Taiwan after defeating them in the [[Siege of Fort Zeelandia]]. (''see'' [[History of Taiwan]]) Further, the Dutch East India Company trade post on [[Dejima]] (1641–1857), an artificial island off the coast of [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], was for a long time the only place where Europeans could trade with Japan.
The Vietnamese [[Nguyễn lords]] defeated the Dutch [[Trịnh–Nguyễn War#Later campaigns|in a naval battle in 1643]].
The Cambodians defeated the Dutch in the [[Cambodian–Dutch War]] in 1644.
In 1652, [[Jan van Riebeeck]] established an outpost at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] (the southwestern tip of Africa, currently in [[South Africa]]) to restock company ships on their journey to East Asia. This post later became a fully-fledged colony, the [[Dutch Cape Colony|Cape Colony]] (1652–1806). As Cape Colony attracted increasing Dutch and European settlement, the Dutch founded the city of Kaapstad ([[Cape Town]]).
By 1669, the Dutch East India Company was the richest private company in history, with a huge fleet of merchant ships and warships, tens of thousands of employees, a private army consisting of thousands of soldiers, and a reputation on the part of its stockholders for high dividend payments.
===Dutch New Imperialism in Asia===
{{main|Dutch East Indies}}
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Gouverneur Bijleveld met Sultan Hamengkoe Boewono VIII tijdens een bezoek aan de Kraton van de Sultan van Jogjakarta TMnr 60033546.jpg|thumb|upright|The Dutch Governor-General, highest authority in the colony and the Sultan of Jogjakarta.]]
The company was in almost constant conflict with the English; relations were particularly tense following the [[Amboyna Massacre]] in 1623. During the 18th century, [[Dutch East India Company]] possessions were increasingly focused on the East Indies. After [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War|the fourth war]] between the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] and England (1780–1784), the company suffered increasing financial difficulties. In 1799, the company was dissolved, commencing official colonisation of the [[East Indies]]. During the era of New Imperialism the territorial claims of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) expanded into a fully fledged colony named the [[Dutch East Indies]]. Partly driven by re-newed colonial aspirations of fellow European nation states the Dutch strived to establish unchallenged control of the [[archipelago]] now known as [[Indonesia]].
Six years into formal colonisation of the East Indies, in Europe the [[Dutch Republic]] was occupied by the French forces of [[Napoleon]]. The Dutch government went into exile in England and formally ceded its colonial possessions to Great Britain. The pro-French Governor General of Java [[Jan Willem Janssens]], resisted [[Invasion of Java (1811)|a British invasion force in 1811]] until forced to surrender. British Governor [[Stamford Raffles|Raffles]], who the later founded the city of [[Singapore]], ruled the colony the following 10 years of the British [[interregnum]] (1806–1816).
After the defeat of [[Napoleon]] and the [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814]] colonial government of the East Indies was ceded back to the Dutch in 1817. The loss of South Africa and the continued scramble for Africa stimulated the Dutch to secure unchallenged dominion over its colony in the East Indies. The Dutch started to consolidate its power base through extensive military campaigns and elaborate diplomatic alliances with indigenous rulers ensuring the Dutch [[Triband (flag)|tricolor]] was firmly planted in all corners of the [[Archipelago]]. These military campaigns included: the [[Padri War]] (1821–1837), the [[Java War]] (1825–1830) and the [[Aceh War]] (1873–1904). This raised the need for a considerable military buildup of the colonial army ([[KNIL]]). From all over Europe soldiers were recruited to join the KNIL.<ref>Note: In 1819 the standing army consisted of over 7,000 European and 5,000 indigenous troops. See: Willems, Wim ''Sporen van een Indisch verleden (1600-1942)''. (COMT, Leiden, 1994). Chapter I, P.24 {{ISBN|90-71042-44-8}}</ref>
The Dutch concentrated their colonial enterprise in the [[Dutch East Indies]] (Indonesia) throughout the 19th century. The Dutch lost control over the East Indies to the Japanese during much of World War II.<ref>{{cite web|last=Klemen |first=L |url=https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html |title=Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941-1942}}</ref> Following the war, the Dutch fought Indonesian independence forces after Japan surrendered to the Allies in 1945. In 1949, most of what was known as the Dutch East Indies was ceded to the independent Republic of Indonesia. In 1962, also [[Dutch New Guinea]] was annexed by Indonesia de facto ending Dutch imperialism in Asia.
==British in India==
===Portuguese, French, and British competition in India (1600–1763)===
[[File:Clive.jpg|thumb|Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive]]
The English sought to stake out claims in India at the expense of the Portuguese dating back to the [[Elizabethan era]]. In 1600, [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]] incorporated the [[British East India Company|English East India Company]] (later the British East India Company), granting it a monopoly of trade from the Cape of Good Hope eastward to the Strait of Magellan. In 1639, it acquired [[Madras]] on the east coast of India, where it quickly surpassed Portuguese Goa as the principal European trading centre on the Indian Subcontinent.
Through bribes, diplomacy, and manipulation of weak native rulers, the company prospered in India, where it became the most powerful political force, and outrivaled its Portuguese and French competitors. For more than one hundred years, English and French trading companies had fought one another for supremacy, and, by the middle of the 18th century, competition between the British and the French had heated up. French defeat by the British under the command of [[Robert Clive]] during the [[Seven Years' War]] (1756–1763) marked the end of the French stake in India.
===Collapse of Mughal India===
{{main|Company rule in India}}
The British East India Company, although still in direct competition with French and Dutch interests until 1763, was able to extend its control over almost the whole of India in the century following the subjugation of Bengal at the 1757 [[Battle of Plassey]]. The British East India Company made great advances at the expense of the [[Mughal Empire]].
The reign of Aurangzeb had marked the height of Mughal power. By 1690 Mughal territorial expansion reached its greatest extent encompassing the entire Indian Subcontinent. But this period of power was followed by one of decline. Fifty years after the death of Aurangzeb, the great Mughal empire had crumbled. Meanwhile, marauding warlords, nobles, and others bent on gaining power left the [[Subcontinent]] increasingly anarchic. Although the Mughals kept the imperial title until 1858, the central government had collapsed, creating a power vacuum.
===From Company to Crown===
{{main|British Raj}}
[[File:British Empire 1921.png|thumb|upright=1.75|The [[British Empire]] in 1920]]
Aside from defeating the French during the Seven Years' War, [[Robert Clive]], the leader of the Company in India, defeated a key Indian ruler of Bengal at the decisive [[Battle of Plassey]] (1757), a victory that ushered in the beginning of a new period in Indian history, that of informal British rule. While still nominally the sovereign, the Mughal Indian emperor became more and more of a puppet ruler, and anarchy spread until the company stepped into the role of policeman of India. The transition to formal imperialism, characterised by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] being crowned "Empress of India" in the 1870s was a gradual process. The first step toward cementing formal British control extended back to the late 18th century. The British Parliament, disturbed by the idea that a great business concern, interested primarily in profit, was controlling the destinies of millions of people, passed acts in 1773 and 1784 that gave itself the power to control company policies and to appoint the highest company official in India, the [[Governor-General]]. (This system of dual control lasted until 1858.) By 1818, the East India Company was master of all of India. Some local rulers were forced to accept its overlordship; others were deprived of their territories. Some portions of India were administered by the British directly; in others native dynasties were retained under British supervision.
[[File:Battle of ferozeshah(H Martens).jpg|thumb|The [[First Anglo-Sikh War]], 1845-46]]
Until 1858, however, much of India was still officially the dominion of the Mughal emperor. Anger among some social groups, however, was seething under the governor-generalship of [[James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 10th Earl of Dalhousie|James Dalhousie]] (1847–1856), who annexed the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] (1849) after victory in the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War|Second Sikh War]], annexed seven princely states using the [[doctrine of lapse]], annexed the key state of [[Oudh]] on the basis of misgovernment, and upset cultural sensibilities by banning Hindu practices such as [[Sati (practice)|sati]].
The 1857 [[Indian Mutiny|Sepoy Rebellion]], or Indian Mutiny, an uprising initiated by Indian troops, called sepoys, who formed the bulk of the company's armed forces, was the key turning point. Rumour had spread among them that their bullet cartridges were lubricated with pig and cow fat. The cartridges had to be bit open, so this upset the [[Hindu]] and [[Muslim]] soldiers. The [[Hindu]] religion held cows sacred, and for Muslims pork was considered [[haraam]]. In one camp, 85 out of 90 sepoys would not accept the cartridges from their garrison officer. The British harshly punished those who would not by jailing them. The Indian people were outraged, and on May 10, 1857, sepoys marched to [[Delhi]], and, with the help of soldiers stationed there, captured it. Fortunately for the British, many areas remained loyal and quiescent, allowing the revolt to be crushed after fierce fighting. One important consequence of the revolt was the final collapse of the Mughal dynasty. The mutiny also ended the system of dual control under which the British government and the British East India Company shared authority. The government relieved the company of its political responsibilities, and in 1858, after 258 years of existence, the company relinquished its role. Trained civil servants were recruited from graduates of British universities, and these men set out to rule India. Lord Canning (created earl in 1859), appointed Governor-General of India in 1856, became known as "Clemency Canning" as a term of derision for his efforts to restrain revenge against the Indians during the Indian Mutiny. When the Government of India was transferred from the company to the Crown, Canning became the first [[viceroy]] of India.
The Company initiated the first of the [[Anglo-Burmese wars]] in 1824, which led to total annexation of Burma by the Crown in 1885. The [[British rule in Burma|British ruled Burma]] as a [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|province of British India]] until 1937, then administered her separately under the [[Burma Office]] except during the [[Japanese occupation of Burma]], 1942–1945, until granted independence on 4 January 1948. (Unlike India, Burma opted not to join the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].)
===Rise of Indian nationalism===
{{main|Indian independence movement}}
The denial of equal status to Indians was the immediate stimulus for the formation in 1885 of the [[Indian National Congress]], initially loyal to the Empire but committed from 1905 to increased self-government and by 1930 to outright independence. The "Home charges", payments transferred from India for administrative costs, were a lasting source of nationalist grievance, though the flow declined in relative importance over the decades to independence in 1947.
Although majority [[Hindu]] and minority [[Muslim]] political leaders were able to collaborate closely in their criticism of British policy into the 1920s, British support for a distinct Muslim political organisation, the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]] from 1906 and insistence from the 1920s on separate electorates for religious minorities, is seen by many in India as having contributed to Hindu-Muslim discord and the country's eventual [[Partition of India|Partition]].
==France in Indochina==
{{main|French Indochina}}
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[File:Frenchindochina.jpg|thumb|French soldiers appear with local residents at a military post in French Indochina in the early 1900s.]] -->
[[File:CaptureOfLang-Son.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The capture of [[Lạng Sơn]] in 1885]]
France, which had lost its empire to the [[Great Britain|British]] by the end of the 18th century, had little geographical or commercial basis for expansion in Southeast Asia. After the 1850s, French imperialism was initially impelled by a [[nationalistic]] need to rival the United Kingdom and was supported intellectually by the notion that French culture was superior to that of the people of [[Name of Vietnam|Annam]] (Vietnam), and its ''[[mission civilisatrice]]''—or its "civilizing mission" of the Annamese through their assimilation to French culture and the Catholic religion. The pretext for French expansionism in [[Indochina]] was the protection of French religious missions in the area, coupled with a desire to find a southern route to China through [[Tonkin]], the European name for a region of northern [[Vietnam]].
French religious and commercial interests were established in Indochina as early as the 17th century, but no concerted effort at stabilizing the French position was possible in the face of British strength in the Indian Ocean and [[Napoleonic Wars|French defeat]] in Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. A mid-19th century religious revival under the [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]] provided the atmosphere within which interest in Indochina grew. Anti-Christian persecutions in the Far East provided the pretext for the bombardment of Tourane (Danang) in 1847, and invasion and occupation of Danang in 1857 and Saigon in 1858. Under [[Napoleon III]], France decided that French trade with China would be surpassed by the British, and accordingly the French joined the British against China in the [[Second Opium War]] from 1857 to 1860, and occupied parts of Vietnam as its gateway to China.
By the [[Treaty of Saigon (1862)|Treaty of Saigon]] in 1862, on June 5, the Vietnamese emperor ceded France three provinces of southern Vietnam to form the French colony of [[French Cochinchina|Cochinchina]]; France also secured trade and religious privileges in the rest of Vietnam and a protectorate over Vietnam's foreign relations. Gradually French power spread through exploration, the establishment of protectorates, and outright annexations. Their seizure of [[Hanoi]] in 1882 led directly to war with China (1883–1885), and the French victory confirmed French supremacy in the region. France governed [[French Cochinchina|Cochinchina]] as a direct colony, and central and northern Vietnam under the protectorates of [[Annam (French colony)|Annam]] and [[Tonkin (French protectorate)|Tonkin]], and [[French Protectorate of Cambodia|Cambodia]] as protectorates in one degree or another. [[Laos]] too was soon brought under [[French colonial administration of Laos|French "protection"]].
By the beginning of the 20th century, France had created an empire in [[Indochina]] nearly 50 percent larger than the mother country. A Governor-General in [[Hanoi]] ruled [[French Cochinchina|Cochinchina]] directly and the other regions through a system of residents. Theoretically, the French maintained the precolonial rulers and administrative structures in [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]], [[Tonkin (French protectorate)|Tonkin]], [[French Cochinchina|Cochinchina]], [[French Protectorate of Cambodia|Cambodia]], and [[French Protectorate of Laos|Laos]], but in fact the governor-generalship was a centralised fiscal and administrative regime ruling the entire region. Although the surviving native institutions were preserved in order to make French rule more acceptable, they were almost completely deprived of any independence of action. The ethnocentric French colonial administrators sought to assimilate the upper classes into France's "superior culture." While the French improved public services and provided commercial stability, the native standard of living declined and precolonial social structures eroded. Indochina, which had a population of over eighteen million in 1914, was important to France for its [[tin]], [[black pepper|pepper]], [[coal]], [[cotton]], and [[rice]]. It is still a matter of debate, however, whether the colony was commercially profitable.
==Russia and "The Great Game"==
{{main|The Great Game}}
{{see also|Russian conquest of Siberia|Russian conquest of Turkestan}}
[[File:Karazin - Entry of Russian troops into Samarkand 1868.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Russian troops taking [[Samarkand]] in 1868.]]
[[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]] is not often regarded as a colonial power such as the United Kingdom or France because of the manner of Russian expansions: unlike the United Kingdom, which expanded overseas, the Russian empire grew from the centre outward by a process of accretion, like the United States. In the 19th century, Russian expansion took the form of a struggle of an effectively [[landlocked]] country for access to a [[warm water port]].
Qing China defeated Russia in the [[Sino-Russian border conflicts]].
While the British were consolidating their hold on India, Russian expansion had moved steadily eastward to the Pacific, then toward the Middle East. In the early 19th century it succeeded in conquering the [[South Caucasus]] and [[Dagestan]] from [[Qajar Iran]] following the [[Russo-Persian War (1804–13)]], the [[Russo-Persian War (1826–28)]] and the out coming treaties of [[Treaty of Gulistan|Gulistan]] and [[Treaty of Turkmenchay|Turkmenchay]],<ref>Allen F. Chew. ''An Atlas of Russian History: Eleven Centuries of Changing Borders''. Yale University Press, 1967. pp 74.</ref> giving Russia direct borders with both Persia's as well as [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turkey's]] heartlands. Later, they eventually reached the frontiers of [[Afghanistan]] as well (which had the largest foreign border adjacent to British holdings in India). In response to Russian expansion, the defense of India's land frontiers and the control of all sea approaches to the [[Subcontinent]] via the [[Suez Canal]], the [[Red Sea]], and the [[Persian Gulf]] became preoccupations of British foreign policy in the 19th century.
Anglo-Russian rivalry in the Middle East and Central Asia led to a brief confrontation over [[Afghanistan]] in the 1870s. In [[Persia]] ([[Iran]]), both nations set up banks to extend their economic influence. The United Kingdom went so far as to invade [[Tibet]], a land subordinate to the Chinese empire, in 1904, but withdrew when it became clear that Russian influence was insignificant and when Chinese resistance proved tougher than expected.
In 1907, the United Kingdom and [[Russia]] signed an agreement which — on the surface —ended their rivalry in Central Asia. (''see'' [[Anglo-Russian Entente]]) As part of the entente, Russia agreed to deal with the sovereign of [[Afghanistan]] only through British intermediaries. In turn, the United Kingdom would not annex or occupy [[Afghanistan]]. Chinese suzerainty over [[Tibet]] also was recognised by both Russia and the United Kingdom, since nominal control by a weak China was preferable to control by either power. Persia was divided into Russian and British spheres of influence and an intervening "neutral" zone. The United Kingdom and Russia chose to reach these uneasy compromises because of growing concern on the part of both powers over German expansion in strategic areas of China and Africa.
Following the entente, Russia increasingly intervened in Persian domestic politics and suppressed nationalist movements that threatened both [[St. Petersburg]] and [[London]]. After the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], Russia gave up its claim to a sphere of influence, though [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] involvement persisted alongside the United Kingdom's until the 1940s.
In the [[Middle East]], in [[Qajar dynasty|Persia]] (Iran) and the [[Ottoman Empire]], a German company built a railroad from [[Constantinople]] to [[Baghdad]] and the [[Persian Gulf]] in the latter, while it built [[Trans-Iranian Railway|a railroad]] from the north of the country to the south, connecting the [[Caucasus]] with the Persian Gulf in the former.<ref>Mohammad Gholi Majd. ''August 1941: The Anglo-Russian Occupation of Iran and Change of Shahs''. pp 239–240 University Press of America, 2012 {{ISBN|0761859403}}</ref> [[Germany]] wanted to gain economic influence in the region and then, perhaps, move on to India. This was met with bitter resistance by the United Kingdom, Russia, and France who divided the region among themselves.
==Western European and Russian intrusions into China==
[[File:China imperialism cartoon.jpg|left|upright=0.9|thumb|A shocked [[mandarin (bureaucrat)|mandarin]] in [[Manchu people|Manchu]] robe in the back, with [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] (UK), [[Wilhelm II of Germany|William II]] (Germany), [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] (Russia), [[Marianne]] (France), and [[Mutsuhito]] (Japan) cutting up a [[king cake]] with ''Chine'' ("China" in [[French language|French]]) written on it.]]
{{main|List of foreign enclaves in China}}
The 16th century brought many [[Jesuit]] missionaries to China, such as [[Matteo Ricci]], who established missions where Western science was introduced, and where Europeans gathered knowledge of Chinese society, history, culture, and science. During the 18th century, merchants from Western Europe came to China in increasing numbers. However, merchants were confined to Guangzhou and the Portuguese colony of Macau, as they had been since the 16th century. European traders were increasingly irritated by what they saw as the relatively high customs duties they had to pay and by the attempts to curb the growing import trade in [[opium]]. By 1800, its importation was forbidden by the imperial government. However, the opium trade continued to boom.
Early in the 19th century, serious internal weaknesses developed in the [[Qing dynasty]] that left China vulnerable to Western, [[Meiji period]] Japanese, and [[History of Russia (1855–92)|Russian]] imperialism. In 1839, China found itself fighting the [[First Opium War]] with Britain. China was defeated, and in 1842, signed the provisions of the [[Treaty of Nanking]] which were first of the [[Unequal treaty|unequal treaties]] signed during the Qing Dynasty. [[Hong Kong Island]] was ceded to Britain, and certain ports, including [[Shanghai]] and [[Guangzhou]], were opened to British trade and residence. In 1856, the [[Second Opium War]] broke out. The Chinese were again defeated, and now forced to the terms of the 1858 [[Treaty of Tientsin]]. The treaty opened new ports to trade and allowed foreigners to travel in the interior. In addition, Christians gained the right to propagate their religion. The United States [[Treaty of Wanghia]] and Russia later obtained the same prerogatives in separate treaties.
Toward the end of the 19th century, China appeared on the way to territorial dismemberment and economic vassalage—the fate of India's rulers that played out much earlier. Several provisions of these treaties caused long-standing bitterness and humiliation among the Chinese: extraterritoriality (meaning that in a dispute with a Chinese person, a Westerner had the right to be tried in a court under the laws of his own country), customs regulation, and the right to station foreign warships in Chinese waters, including its navigable rivers.
Jane E. Elliott criticized the allegation that China refused to modernize or was unable to defeat Western armies as simplistic, noting that China embarked on a massive military modernization in the late 1800s after several defeats, buying weapons from Western countries and manufacturing their own at arsenals, such as the [[Hanyang Arsenal]] during the [[Boxer Rebellion]]. In addition, Elliott questioned the claim that Chinese society was traumatized by the Western victories, as many Chinese peasants (90% of the population at that time) living outside the concessions continued about their daily lives, uninterrupted and without any feeling of "humiliation".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWvl9O4Gn1UC&q=defeat+peasants+not+humiliated+at+all|title=Some did it for civilisation, some did it for their country: a revised view of the boxer war|author=Jane E. Elliott|year=2002|publisher=Chinese University Press|page=143|isbn=962-996-066-4|access-date=2010-06-28}}</ref>
Historians have judged the Qing dynasty's vulnerability and weakness to foreign imperialism in the 19th century to be based mainly on its maritime naval weakness while it achieved military success against westerners on land, the historian Edward L. Dreyer said that "China’s nineteenth-century humiliations were strongly related to her weakness and failure at sea. At the start of the Opium War, China had no unified navy and no sense of how vulnerable she was to attack from the sea; British forces sailed and steamed wherever they wanted to go......In the Arrow War (1856-60), the Chinese had no way to prevent the Anglo-French expedition of 1860 from sailing into the Gulf of Zhili and landing as near as possible to Beijing. Meanwhile, new but not exactly modern Chinese armies suppressed the midcentury rebellions, [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)|bluffed Russia into a peaceful settlement of disputed frontiers in Central Asia]], and [[Battle of Bang Bo (Zhennan Pass)|defeated the French forces on land in the Sino-French War (1884-85)]]. But the defeat of the fleet, and the resulting threat to steamship traffic to Taiwan, forced China to conclude peace on unfavorable terms."<ref>{{cite thesis |last=PO |first=Chung-yam |date=28 June 2013 |publisher=Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg |title=Conceptualizing the Blue Frontier: The Great Qing and the Maritime World in the Long Eighteenth Century |page=11 |url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/18877/1/PhD_Dissertation_CyPO.pdf }}</ref>
During the [[Sino-French War]], Chinese forces defeated the French at the [[Battle of Cầu Giấy (Paper Bridge)]], [[Bắc Lệ ambush]], [[Battle of Phu Lam Tao]], [[Battle of Zhenhai]], the [[Battle of Tamsui]] in the [[Keelung Campaign]] and in the last battle which ended the war, the [[Battle of Bang Bo (Zhennan Pass)]], which triggered the French [[Retreat from Lạng Sơn]] and resulted in the collapse of the French [[Jules Ferry]] government in the [[Tonkin Affair]].
The Qing dynasty forced Russia to hand over disputed territory in Ili in the [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)]], in what was widely seen by the west as a diplomatic victory for the Qing.<ref>{{cite book|author=John King Fairbank|title=The Cambridge History of China: Late Chʻing, 1800-1911, pt. 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pEfWaxPhdnIC&pg=PA96|year=1978|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-22029-3|pages=96–}}</ref> Russia acknowledged that Qing China potentially posed a serious military threat.<ref name="Scott2008">{{cite book|author=David Scott|title=China and the International System, 1840-1949: Power, Presence, and Perceptions in a Century of Humiliation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6U_DPS4vfO0C&pg=PA104|date=7 November 2008|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-7742-7|pages=104–105}}</ref> Mass media in the west during this era portrayed China as a rising military power due to its modernization programs and as a major threat to the western world, invoking fears that China would successfully conquer western colonies like Australia.<ref>{{cite book|author=David Scott|title=China and the International System, 1840-1949: Power, Presence, and Perceptions in a Century of Humiliation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6U_DPS4vfO0C&pg=PA111|date=7 November 2008|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-7742-7|pages=111–112}}</ref>
The British observer Demetrius Charles de Kavanagh Boulger suggested a British-Chinese alliance to check Russian expansion in Central Asia.
During the Ili crisis when Qing China threatened to go to war against Russia over the Russian occupation of Ili, the British officer [[Charles George Gordon]] was sent to China by Britain to advise China on military options against Russia should a potential war break out between China and Russia.<ref>{{cite book|author=John King Fairbank|title=The Cambridge History of China: Late Chʻing, 1800-1911, pt. 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pEfWaxPhdnIC&pg=PA94|year=1978|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-22029-3|pages=94–}}</ref>
The Russians observed the Chinese building up their arsenal of modern weapons during the Ili crisis, the Chinese bought thousands of rifles from Germany.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alex Marshall|title=The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860-1917|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDXfGErwPtsC&pg=PA78|date=22 November 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-25379-1|pages=78–}}</ref> In 1880, massive amounts of military equipment and rifles were shipped via boats to China from Antwerp as China purchased torpedoes, artillery, and 260,260 modern rifles from Europe.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alex Marshall|title=The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860-1917|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDXfGErwPtsC&pg=PA79|date=22 November 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-25379-1|pages=79–}}</ref>
The Russian military observer D. V. Putiatia visited China in 1888 and found that in Northeastern China (Manchuria) along the Chinese-Russian border, the Chinese soldiers were potentially able to become adept at "European tactics" under certain circumstances, and the Chinese soldiers were armed with modern weapons like Krupp artillery, Winchester carbines, and Mauser rifles.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alex Marshall|title=The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860-1917|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDXfGErwPtsC&pg=PA80|date=22 November 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-25379-1|pages=80–}}</ref>
Compared to Russian controlled areas, more benefits were given to the Muslim Kirghiz on the Chinese controlled areas. Russian settlers fought against the Muslim nomadic Kirghiz, which led the Russians to believe that the Kirghiz would be a liability in any conflict against China. The Muslim Kirghiz were sure that in an upcoming war, that China would defeat Russia.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alex Marshall|title=The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860-1917|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDXfGErwPtsC&pg=PA85|date=22 November 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-25379-1|pages=85–}}</ref>
Russian sinologists, the Russian media, threat of internal rebellion, the pariah status inflicted by the Congress of Berlin, the negative state of the Russian economy all led Russia to concede and negotiate with China in St Petersburg, and return most of Ili to China.<ref>{{cite book|author=John King Fairbank|title=The Cambridge History of China: Late Chʻing, 1800-1911, pt. 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pEfWaxPhdnIC&pg=PA95|year=1978|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-22029-3|pages=95–}}</ref>
[[File:Japanese Beheading 1894.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Japanese illustration depicting the beheading of Chinese captives. [[First Sino-Japanese War]] of 1894–5]]
The rise of Japan since the [[Meiji Restoration]] as an imperial power led to further subjugation of China. In a dispute over China's longstanding claim of suzerainty in [[Korea]], war broke out between China and Japan, resulting in humiliating defeat for the Chinese. By the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]] (1895), China was forced to recognize effective Japanese rule of Korea and Taiwan was ceded to Japan until its recovery in 1945 at the end of the WWII by the Republic of China.
China's defeat at the hands of [[Japan]] was another trigger for future aggressive actions by Western powers. In 1897, [[Germany]] demanded and was given a set of exclusive mining and railroad rights in [[Shandong]] province. Russia obtained access to [[Dairen]] and [[Lüshunkou|Port Arthur]] and the right to build a railroad across Manchuria, thereby achieving complete domination over a large portion of northwestern China. The United Kingdom and France also received a number of [[Concession (territory)|concessions]]. At this time, much of China was divided up into "spheres of influence": Germany had influence in [[Jiaozhou Bay|Jiaozhou (Kiaochow) Bay]], [[Shandong]], and the [[Yellow River]] valley; Russia had influence in the [[Liaodong Peninsula]] and Manchuria; the United Kingdom had influence in [[Weihaiwei under British rule|Weihaiwei]] and the [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] Valley; and France had influence in the [[Guangzhou Bay]] and the provinces of Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi
[[File:Boxer Rebellion.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|British and Japanese forces engage [[Fists of Righteous Harmony|Boxers]] in battle, 1900]]
China continued to be divided up into these spheres until the United States, which had no sphere of influence, grew alarmed at the possibility of its businessmen being excluded from Chinese markets. In 1899, [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[John Hay]] asked the major powers to agree to a policy of equal trading privileges. In 1900, several powers agreed to the U.S.-backed scheme, giving rise to the "[[Open Door Policy|Open Door]]" policy, denoting freedom of commercial access and non-annexation of Chinese territory. In any event, it was in the European powers' interest to have a weak but independent Chinese government. The privileges of the Europeans in China were guaranteed in the form of treaties with the Qing government. In the event that the Qing government totally collapsed, each power risked losing the privileges that it already had negotiated.
The erosion of Chinese sovereignty and seizures of land from Chinese by foreigners contributed to a spectacular anti-foreign outbreak in June 1900, when the "[[Fists of Righteous Harmony|Boxers]]" (properly the society of the "righteous and harmonious fists") attacked foreigners around [[Beijing]]. The Imperial Court was divided into anti-foreign and pro-foreign factions, with the pro-foreign faction led by [[Ronglu]] and [[Prince Qing]] hampering any military effort by the anti-foreign faction led by [[Prince Duan]] and [[Dong Fuxiang]]. The Qing Empress Dowager ordered all diplomatic ties to be cut off and all foreigners to leave the legations in Beijing to go to [[Tianjin]]. The foreigners refused to leave. [[Siege of the International Legations#False propaganda|Fueled by entirely false reports that the foreigners in the legations were massacred]], the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] decided to launch an expedition on Beijing to reach the legations but they underestimated the Qing military. The Qing and Boxers defeated the foreigners at the [[Seymour Expedition]], forcing them to turn back at the [[Battle of Langfang]]. In response to the foreign attack [[Battle of Dagu Forts (1900)|on Dagu Forts]] the Qing responded by declaring war against the foreigners. the Qing forces and foreigners fought a fierce battle at the [[Battle of Tientsin]] before the foreigners could launch a second expedition. On their second try [[Gaselee Expedition]], with a much larger force, the foreigners managed to reach Beijing and fight the [[Battle of Peking (1900)]]. British and French forces looted, plundered and burned the [[Old Summer Palace]] to the ground for the second time (the first time being in 1860, following the Second Opium War). German forces were particularly severe in exacting revenge for the killing of their ambassador due to the orders of Kaiser Wilhelm II, who held anti-Asian sentiments, while Russia tightened its hold on Manchuria in the northeast until its crushing defeat by Japan in the war of 1904–1905. The Qing court evacuated to [[Xi'an]] and threatened to continue the war against foreigners, until the foreigners tempered their demands in the [[Boxer Protocol]], promising that China would not have to give up any land and gave up the demands for the execution of Dong Fuxiang and Prince Duan.
The correspondent Douglas Story observed Chinese troops in 1907 and praised their abilities and military skill.<ref name="Story1907">{{cite book|author=Douglas Story|title=To-morrow in the East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbRGAAAAIAAJ&q=In+the+hunting-park%2C+three+miles+to+the+south+of+Peking%2C+is+quartered+the+Sixth+Division%2C+which+supplies+the+Guards+for+the+Imperial+Palace%2C+consisting+of+a+battalion+of+infantry+and+a+squadron+of+cavalry.+With+this+Division+Yuan+Shi+Kai+retains+twenty-six+modified+Krupp+guns%2C+which+are+the+best+of+his+artillery+arm%2C+and+excel+any+guns+possessed+by+the+foreign+legations+in+Peking.&pg=PA224|year=1907|publisher=Chapman & Hall, Limited|pages=224–}}</ref>
Extraterritorial jurisdiction was abandoned by the United Kingdom and the United States in 1943. [[Chiang Kai-shek#Refusal of French Indochina|Chiang Kai-shek forced the French to hand over]] all their concessions back to China control after World War II. Foreign political control over leased parts of China ended with the incorporation of Hong Kong and the small Portuguese territory of Macau into the [[China|People's Republic of China]] in 1997 and 1999 respectively.
==U.S. imperialism in Asia==
{{Main|History of United States overseas expansion}}
[[File:Editorial cartoon about Jacob Smith's retaliation for Balangiga.gif|thumb|One of the ''New York Journal''{{'}}s most infamous cartoons, depicting [[Philippine–American War]] General [[Jacob H. Smith]]'s order "Kill Everyone over Ten", from the front page on May 5, 1902.]]
Some Americans in the Nineteenth Century advocated for the annexation of Taiwan from China.<ref name="Gordon2009">{{cite book|author=Leonard H. D. Gordon|title=Confrontation Over Taiwan: Nineteenth-Century China and the Powers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pPiE96EYPCkC&pg=PA32|year=2009|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-1869-6|pages=32–}}</ref><ref name="Hao2015">{{cite book|author=Shiyuan Hao|title=How the Communist Party of China Manages the Issue of Nationality: An Evolving Topic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LfcUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA165|date=15 December 2015|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-662-48462-3|pages=165–}}</ref> [[Taiwanese aborigines|Aboriginals on Taiwan]] often attacked and massacred shipwrecked western sailors.<ref name="Martin1949">{{cite book|author=Harris Inwood Martin|title=The Japanese Demand for Formosa in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, 1895|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aL0UAAAAIAAJ&q=rocky+death|year=1949|publisher=Stanford Univ.|page=23}}</ref><ref name="Anderson1946">{{cite book|author=Ronald Stone Anderson|title=Formosa Under the Japanese: A Record of Fifty Years' Occupation ...|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_5QOAAAAIAAJ&q=crews+murdered|year=1946|publisher=Stanford University|page=63}}</ref><ref name="Grad1942">{{cite book|author=Andrew Jonah Grad|title=Formosa Today: An Analysis of the Economic Development and Strategic Importance of Japan's Tropical Colony|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5OdHAAAAYAAJ&q=aborigines+killed+shipwrecked+sailors+formosa|year=1942|publisher=AMS Press|isbn=978-0-404-59526-5|page=16}}</ref><ref name="FisherBest2011">{{cite book|author1=John Fisher|author2=Antony Best|title=On the Fringes of Diplomacy: Influences on British Foreign Policy, 1800-1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwQeBlF4YQwC&pg=PA185|year=2011|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4094-0120-9|pages=185–}}</ref> In 1867, during the [[Rover incident]], [[Taiwanese aborigines]] attacked shipwrecked American sailors, killing the entire crew.<ref>{{cite book|title=Japan Weekly Mail|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWQvAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA263|year=1874|publisher=Jappan Meru Shinbunsha|pages=263–}}</ref> They subsequently defeated a retaliatory [[Formosa Expedition|expedition by the American military]] and killed another American during the battle.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Nation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQwcAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA256|year=1889|publisher=J.H. Richards|pages=256–}}</ref>
As the United States emerged as a new imperial power in the Pacific and Asia, one of the two oldest Western imperialist powers in the regions, [[Spain]], was finding it increasingly difficult to maintain control of territories it had held in the regions since the 16th century. In 1896, a widespread revolt against Spanish rule broke out in the Philippines. Meanwhile, the recent string of U.S. territorial gains in the Pacific posed an even greater threat to Spain's remaining colonial holdings.
As the U.S. continued to expand its economic and military power in the Pacific, it declared war against Spain in 1898. During the [[Spanish–American War]], U.S. Admiral Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at [[Manila]] and U.S. troops landed in the Philippines. Spain later agreed by treaty to cede the Philippines in Asia and [[Guam]] in the Pacific. In the Caribbean, Spain ceded [[Puerto Rico]] to the U.S. The war also marked the end of Spanish rule in Cuba, which was to be granted nominal independence but remained heavily influenced by the U.S. government and U.S. business interests. One year following its treaty with Spain, the U.S. occupied the small Pacific outpost of [[Wake Island]].
The Filipinos, who assisted U.S. troops in fighting the Spanish, wished to establish an independent state and, on June 12, 1898, [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|declared independence]] from Spain. In 1899, fighting between the Filipino nationalists and the U.S. broke out; it took the U.S. almost fifteen years to fully subdue the [[Philippine–American War|insurgency]]. The U.S. sent 70,000 troops and suffered thousands of casualties. The Filipinos insurgents, however, suffered considerably higher casualties than the Americans. Most casualties in the war were civilians dying primarily from disease.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www3.wooster.edu/History/jgates/book-ch3.html|author=John M. Gates|title=The U.S. Army and Irregular Warfare|chapter=The Pacification of the Philippines|publisher=wooster.edu|access-date=2012-06-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629045949/http://www3.wooster.edu/History/jgates/book-ch3.html|archive-date=2014-06-29|url-status=dead}}</ref>
U.S. attacks into the countryside often included scorched earth campaigns where entire villages were burned and destroyed, and concentrated civilians into camps known as "protected zones". Most of these civilian casualties resulted from disease and famine. Reports of the execution of U.S. soldiers taken prisoner by the Filipinos led to disproportionate reprisals by American forces.
The Moro Muslims fought against the Americans in the [[Moro Rebellion]].
In 1914, [[Dean C. Worcester]], U.S. Secretary of the Interior for the Philippines (1901–1913) described "the regime of civilisation and improvement which started with American occupation and resulted in developing naked savages into cultivated and educated men". Nevertheless, some Americans, such as [[Mark Twain]], deeply opposed American involvement/imperialism in the Philippines, leading to the abandonment of attempts to construct a permanent U.S. naval base and using it as an entry point to the Chinese market. In 1916, Congress guaranteed the independence of the Philippines by 1945.
==World War I: Changes in Imperialism==
World War I brought about the fall of several empires in Europe. This had repercussions around the world. The defeated [[Central Powers]] included [[Germany]] and the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] [[Ottoman Empire]]. [[Germany]] lost all of its colonies in Asia. German New Guinea, a part of [[Papua New Guinea]], became administered by [[Australia]]. German possessions and concessions in China, including [[Qingdao]], became the subject of a controversy during the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]] when the [[Beiyang government]] in China agreed to cede these interests to [[Japan]], to the anger of many Chinese people. Although the Chinese diplomats refused to sign the agreement, these interests were ceded to [[Japan]] with the support of the United States and the United Kingdom.
[[Turkey]] gave up her provinces; [[Syria]], [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]], and [[Mesopotamia]] (now [[Iraq]]) came under French and British control as [[League of Nations Mandates]]. The discovery of [[petroleum]] first in [[Iran]] and then in the Arab lands in the interbellum provided a new focus for activity on the part of the United Kingdom, France, and the United States.
==Japan==
{{main|Japanese imperialism|Japanese expansionism}}
[[File:Dutch personnel and Japanese women watching an incoming towed Dutch sailing ship at Dejima by Kawahara Keiga.jpg|thumb|Europeans in [[Dejima]], the Dutch trading colony in the harbor of Nagasaki, early 19th century.]]
In 1641, all Westerners were thrown out of Japan. For the next two centuries, Japan was free from Western contact, except for at the port of [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], which Japan allowed Dutch merchant vessels to enter on a limited basis.
Japan's freedom from Western contact ended on 8 July 1853, when [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)|Commodore Matthew Perry]] of the [[U.S. Navy]] sailed a squadron of black-hulled warships into [[Edo]] (modern [[Tokyo]]) harbor. The Japanese told Perry to sail to [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]] but he refused. Perry sought to present a letter from U.S. President [[Millard Fillmore]] to the emperor which demanded concessions from Japan. Japanese authorities responded by stating that they could not present the letter directly to the emperor, but scheduled a meeting on 14 July with a representative of the emperor. On 14 July, the squadron sailed towards the shore, giving a demonstration of their cannon's firepower thirteen times. Perry landed with a large detachment of Marines and presented the emperor's representative with Fillmore's letter. Perry said he would return, and did so, this time with even more war ships. The U.S. show of force led to Japan's concession to the [[Convention of Kanagawa]] on 31 March 1854. This treaty conferred extraterritoriality on American nationals, as well as, opening up further treaty ports beyond Nagasaki. This treaty was followed up by similar treaties with the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Russia and France. These events made Japanese authorities aware that the country was lacking technologically and needed the strength of industrialism in order to keep their power. This realisation eventually led to a civil war and political reform known the [[Meiji Restoration]].
The [[Meiji Restoration]] of 1868 led to administrative overhaul, deflation and subsequent rapid economic development. Japan had limited natural resources of her own and sought both overseas markets and sources of raw materials, fuelling a drive for imperial conquest which began with the defeat of China in 1895.
[[File:Martial law, Korea 1900s.jpg|thumb|Three [[Korea under Japanese rule|Koreans]] shot for pulling up rails as a protest against seizure of land without payment by Japanese.]]
Taiwan, ceded by [[Qing dynasty]] China, became the first Japanese colony. In 1899, Japan won agreements from the [[great powers]]' to abandon extraterritoriality for their citizens, and an alliance with the United Kingdom established it in 1902 as an international power. Its spectacular defeat of Russia's navy in 1905 gave it the southern half of the island of [[Sakhalin]]; exclusive Japanese influence over Korea (propinquity); the former Russian lease of the [[Liaodong Peninsula]] with Port Arthur ([[Lüshunkou]]); and extensive rights in Manchuria (see the [[Russo-Japanese War]]).
The Empire of Japan and the [[Joseon Dynasty]] in Korea formed bilateral diplomatic relations in 1876. China lost its suzerainty of Korea after defeat in the Sino-Japanese War in 1894. Russia also lost influence on the Korean peninsula with the [[Treaty of Portsmouth]] as a result of the [[Russo-Japanese war]] in 1904. The Joseon Dynasty became increasingly dependent on Japan. Korea became a protectorate of Japan with the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905]]. Korea was then ''de jure'' annexed to Japan with the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910]].
Japan was now one of the most powerful forces in the [[Far East]], and in 1914, it entered World War I on the side of the Allies, seizing German-occupied [[Jiaozhou Bay|Kiaochow]] and subsequently demanding Chinese acceptance of Japanese political influence and territorial acquisitions ([[Twenty-One Demands]], 1915). [[May Fourth Movement|Mass protests in Peking]] in 1919 which sparked widespread Chinese nationalism, coupled with Allied (and particularly U.S.) opinion led to Japan's abandonment of most of the demands and Kiaochow's 1922 return to China. Japan received the German territory from the Treaty of Versailles.
Tensions with China increased over the 1920s, and in 1931 Japanese [[Kwantung Army]] based in Manchuria seized control of the region without admission from Tokyo. Intermittent conflict with China led to full-scale war in mid-1937, drawing Japan toward an overambitious bid for Asian hegemony ([[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]]), which ultimately led to defeat and the loss of all its overseas territories after World War II (see [[Japanese expansionism]] and [[Japanese nationalism]]).
== After World War II ==
===Decolonisation and the rise of nationalism in Asia===
In the aftermath of World War II, European colonies, controlling more than one billion people throughout the world, still ruled most of the Middle East, South East Asia, and the Indian Subcontinent. However, the image of European pre-eminence was shattered by the wartime Japanese occupations of large portions of British, French, and Dutch territories in the Pacific. The destabilisation of European rule led to the rapid growth of nationalist movements in Asia—especially in Indonesia, [[British Malaya|Malaya]], [[Myanmar|Burma]], and [[French Indochina]] ([[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]], and [[Laos]]).
[[File:Aden7-1967.jpg|thumb|[[British Forces Aden|British Army]]'s counter-insurgency campaign in the British controlled territories of [[Federation of South Arabia|South Arabia]], 1967]]
The war, however, only accelerated forces already in existence undermining Western imperialism in Asia. Throughout the colonial world, the processes of urbanisation and capitalist investment created professional merchant classes that emerged as new Westernised elites. While imbued with Western political and economic ideas, these classes increasingly grew to resent their unequal status under European rule.
====British in India and the Middle East====
In India, the westward movement of Japanese forces towards Bengal during World War II had led to major concessions on the part of British authorities to Indian nationalist leaders. In 1947, the United Kingdom, devastated by war and embroiled in economic crisis at home, granted [[British India]] its independence as two nations: [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. Myanmar ([[British rule in Burma|Burma]]) and [[Sri Lanka]] ([[British Ceylon|Ceylon]]), which is also part of British India, also gained their independence from the United Kingdom the following year, in 1948. In the Middle East, the United Kingdom granted independence to [[Jordan]] in 1946 and two years later, in 1948, ended its mandate of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] becoming the independent nation of [[Israel]].[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Nederlandse militairen controleren de papieren van Javaanse vrouwen bij het transitkamp van de Zeven December Divisie bij Tandjong Priok of het hierna door de divisie betrokken Kamp Doeri Batavia TMnr 10029000.jpg|thumb|Dutch soldiers control the papers of [[Java]]nese women, 1946]]
Following the end of the war, nationalists in Indonesia demanded complete independence from the Netherlands. A brutal conflict ensued, and finally, in 1949, through [[United Nations]] mediation, the Dutch East Indies achieved independence, becoming the new nation of Indonesia. Dutch imperialism moulded this new multi-ethnic state comprising roughly 3,000 islands of the Indonesian archipelago with a population at the time of over 100 million.
The end of Dutch rule opened up latent tensions between the roughly 300 distinct ethnic groups of the islands, with the major ethnic fault line being between the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] and the non-Javanese.
[[Netherlands New Guinea]] was under the Dutch administration until 1962 (see also [[West New Guinea dispute]]).
====United States in Asia====
In the Philippines, the U.S. remained committed to its previous pledges to grant the islands their independence, and the Philippines became the first of the Western-controlled Asian colonies to be granted independence post-World War II. However, the Philippines remained under pressure to adopt a political and economic system similar to the U.S.
This aim was greatly complicated by the rise of new political forces. During the war, the ''[[Hukbalahap]]'' (People's Army), which had strong ties to the [[Communist Party of the Philippines]] (PKP), fought against the Japanese occupation of the Philippines and won strong popularity among many sectors of the Filipino working class and peasantry. In 1946, the PKP participated in elections as part of the Democratic Alliance. However, with the onset of the [[Cold War]], its growing political strength drew a reaction from the ruling government and the United States, resulting in the repression of the PKP and its associated organisations. In 1948, the PKP began organizing an armed struggle against the government and continued U.S. military presence. In 1950, the PKP created the People's Liberation Army (''Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan''), which mobilised thousands of troops throughout the islands. The insurgency lasted until 1956, when the PKP gave up armed struggle.
In 1968, the PKP underwent a split, and in 1969 the [[Maoist]] faction of the PKP created the [[New People's Army]]. Maoist rebels re-launched an armed struggle against the government and the U.S. military presence in the Philippines, which continues to this day.
====France in Indochina====
=====Post-war resistance to French rule=====
[[File:1stIndochinaWar001.jpg|thumb|French Marine commandos wade ashore off the [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]] coast in July 1950]]
France remained determined to retain its control of [[Indochina]]. However, in [[Hanoi]], in 1945, a broad front of nationalists and communists led by [[Ho Chi Minh]] declared an independent Republic of Vietnam, commonly referred to as the [[Viet Minh]] regime by Western outsiders. France, seeking to regain control of Vietnam, countered with a vague offer of self-government under French rule. France's offers were unacceptable to Vietnamese nationalists; and in December 1946 the Việt Minh launched a rebellion against the French authority governing the colonies of French Indochina. The first few years of the war involved a low-level rural insurgency against French authority. However, after the Chinese communists reached the Northern border of Vietnam in 1949, the conflict turned into a conventional war between two armies equipped with modern weapons supplied by the United States and the Soviet Union.<ref>Fall, ''Street Without Joy'', p. 17.</ref> Meanwhile, the France granted the [[State of Vietnam]] based in [[Saigon]] independence in 1949 while [[Laos]] and [[Cambodia]] received independence in 1953. The US recognized the regime in Saigon, and provided the French military effort with military aid.
Meanwhile, in Vietnam, the French war against the Viet Minh continued for nearly eight years. The French were gradually worn down by guerrilla and jungle fighting. The turning point for France occurred at [[Dien Bien Phu]] in 1954, which resulted in the surrender of ten thousand French troops. [[Paris]] was forced to accept a political settlement that year at the [[Geneva Conference (1954)|Geneva Conference]], which led to a precarious set of agreements regarding the future political status of Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
==List of European colonies in Asia==
British colonies in [[South Asia]], [[East Asia]], And [[Southeast Asia]]:
*{{Flagicon|British Burma}}[[British Burma]] (1824–1948, merged with [[British Raj|India]] by the British from 1886 to 1937)
*{{Flagicon|British Ceylon}}[[British Ceylon]] (1815–1948, now [[Sri Lanka]])
* {{Flagicon|Portuguese Timor}}[[Portuguese Timor]] (1702–1975, now [[East Timor]])
* {{Flagicon|British Hong Kong}}[[British Hong Kong]] (1842–1997)
* {{Flagicon|British India}}[[Colonial India]] (includes the territory of present-day [[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh]])
:{{Flagicon|Danish India}}[[Danish India]] (1696–1869)
:{{Flagicon|Sweden}}[[Swedish East India Company#The first octroi (1731–1746)|Swedish Parangipettai]] (1733)
:{{Flagicon|British India}}[[British India]] (1613–1947)
::{{Flagicon|East India Company}}[[Company rule in India|British East India Company]] (1757–1858)
::{{Flagicon|British Raj}}[[British Raj]] (1858–1947)
French colonies in South and Southeast Asia:
* {{Flagicon|French India}}[[French India]] (1769–1954)
* {{Flagicon|French Indochina}}[[French Indochina]] (1887–1953), including:
:*[[History of Laos to 1945#French Laos|French Laos]] (1893–1953)
:* [[French protectorate of Cambodia|French Cambodia]] (1863–1953)
:* [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]] (now [[Vietnam]]) (1883–1953)
Dutch, British, Portuguese colonies and Russian territories in Asia:
* {{Flagicon|Dutch India}}[[Dutch India]] (1605–1825)
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Dutch East India Company.svg}}[[Dutch Bengal]]
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Dutch East India Company.svg}}[[Dutch Ceylon]] (1656–1796)
* {{Flagicon|Portuguese Ceylon}}[[Portuguese Ceylon]] (1505–1658)
* {{Flagicon|Dutch East Indies}}[[Dutch East Indies]] (now [[Indonesia]]) – Dutch colony from 1602 to 1949 (included [[Netherlands New Guinea]] until 1962)
* {{Flagicon|Portuguese India}}[[Portuguese India]] (1510–1961)
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Government of Portuguese Macau (1976–1999).svg}}[[Portuguese Macau]] – Portuguese colony, the first European colony in [[China]] (1557–1999)
* {{Flagicon|British Empire}}[[British Malaya|Malaya]] (now part of [[Malaysia]]):
:{{Flagicon|Portuguese Empire}}[[Portuguese Malacca]] (1511–1641)
:{{Flagicon|Dutch Empire}}[[Dutch Malacca]] (1641–1824)
:{{Flagicon|British Empire}}[[British Malaya]], included:
::*[[Straits Settlements]] (1826–1946)
::* [[Federated Malay States]] (1895–1946)
::* [[Unfederated Malay States]] (1885–1946)
:{{Flagicon|Malaya}}[[Federation of Malaya]] (under British rule, 1948–1963)
* {{Flagicon|British Empire}}[[British Borneo]] (now part of [[Malaysia]]), including:
:* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Labuan_(1912–1946).svg}}[[Crown Colony of Labuan|Labuan]] (1848–1946)h
:* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_North_Borneo_(1902–1946).svg}}[[North Borneo]] (1882–1941)
::* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_North_Borneo_(1948–1963).svg}}[[Crown Colony of North Borneo]] (1946–1963)
:* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Sarawak_(1946–1963).svg}}[[Crown Colony of Sarawak]] (1946–1963)
* [[Brunei]]
:* {{Flagicon|Brunei}}[[Brunei#History|British Brunei (1888–1984)]] (British protectorate)
* {{Flagicon|Russian Empire}}[[Outer Manchuria]] – ceded to [[Russian Empire]] through [[Treaty of Aigun]] (1858) and [[Treaty of Peking]] (1860)
* [[Philippines]]:
:{{Flagicon|Spanish Empire}}[[Spanish Philippines]] (1565–1898, 3rd longest European occupation in Asia, 333 years),
:{{flagicon|First Mexican Empire}}[[Mexican]] [[Manila]] (1821-1824)
:{{Flagicon|British Empire}}[[British invasion of Manila|British Manila]] (1762–1764, Shortly British occupation in Philippines, 2 years)
:{{Flagicon|US}}{{Flagicon|Philippines}}[[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands]] and [[Commonwealth of the Philippines]], [[United States]] colony (1898–1946)
* {{Flagicon|British Empire}}[[Singapore]] – British colony (1819–1959)
* [[Taiwan]]:
:{{Flagicon|Spanish Empire}}[[Spanish Formosa]] (1626–1642)
:{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Dutch East India Company.svg}}[[Dutch Formosa]] (1624–1662)
*[[Bahrain]]
:*{{Flagicon|Portuguese Empire}}[[History of Bahrain#Portuguese rule|Portuguese Bahrain (1521–1602)]]
:* {{Flagicon image|Flag of Bahrain (1820–1932).svg}}{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Bahrain_(1932–1972).svg}}[[History of Bahrain (1783–1971)|British Protectorate (1861 - 1971)]]
*[[Iraq]]
:*{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Iraq_(1924–1959).svg}}[[Mandatory Iraq]] (1920–1932) (British protectorate)
:*{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Iraq_(1924–1959).svg}}[[Kingdom of Iraq]] (1932–1958)
*[[Israel]] and [[State of Palestine|Palestine]]
:*{{Flagicon|Mandatory Palestine}}[[Mandatory Palestine]] (1920–1948) (British Mandate)
*[[Jordan]]
:*{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Transjordan.svg}}[[Emirate of Transjordan]] (1921–1946) (British protectorate)
*[[Kuwait]]
:*{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Kuwait_1940-1961.png}}[[Sheikhdom of Kuwait]] (1899–1961) (British protectorate)
*[[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]]
:*{{Flagicon|France}}[[French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon]] (1923–1946)
*[[Oman]]
:*{{Flagicon|Portuguese Empire}}[[Oman#Portuguese occupation|Portuguese Oman (1507–1650)]]
:*{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Muscat.svg}}[[Muscat and Oman]] (1892–1971) (British protectorate)
*[[Qatar]]
:*{{Flagicon|Qatar}}[[History of Qatar#British protectorate (1916–1971)|British protectorate of Qatar (1916–1971)]]
*[[United Arab Emirates]]
:*{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Trucial_States_(1968–1971).svg}}[[Trucial States]] (1820–1971) (British protectorate)
*[[Yemen]]
:*{{Flagicon|Aden}}[[Aden Protectorate]] (1869–1963)
:*{{Flagicon|Colony of Aden}}[[Colony of Aden]] (1937–1963)
:*{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Federation_of_South_Arabia.svg}}[[Federation of South Arabia]] (1962–1967)
:*{{Flagicon|British Empire}}[[Protectorate of South Arabia]] (1963–1967)
===Independent states===
* [[Afghanistan]] – founded by the [[Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919]] of the [[United Kingdom]] and declared independence in 1919
:* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Afghanistan_(1919–1921).svg}}[[Emirate of Afghanistan]] (1879 - 1919) (British protectorate)
* {{Flagicon|ROC}}{{Flagicon|China}}[[China]] – independent, but within European cultures of influence which were largely limited to the colonised ports except for Manchuria.
:* [[Concessions in China]]
:* [[Shanghai International Settlement]] (1863 - 1941)
:* [[Shanghai French Concession]] (1849 - 1943)
:* [[Concessions in Tianjin]] (1860 - 1947)
* {{Flagicon|Bhutan}}[[Bhutan]] – in British sphere of influence
* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Agha_Mohammad_Khan.svg}}[[Iran]] – in Russian sphere of influence in the north and British in the south
* {{Flagicon|Japanese Empire}}[[Japan]] – a [[Great power]] that had its own [[Japanese empire|colonial empire]] (including [[Korea under Japanese rule|Korea]] and [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Taiwan]])
:* [[Allied-occupied Japan|American occupation of Japan]]
:* [[United States Army Military Government in Korea|American occupation of South Korea]]
* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg}}{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_China_(1912–1928).svg}}{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People's_Republic_(1924–1940).svg}}[[Mongolia]] – in Russian sphere of influence and later Soviet controlled
* {{Flagicon|Nepal}}[[Nepal]] – in British sphere of influence
* {{Flagicon|Thailand}}[[Thailand]] – the only independent state in [[Southeast Asia]], but bordered by a British sphere of influence in the north and south and French influence in the northeast and east
* {{Flagicon|Turkey}}[[Turkey]] – successor to the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1923; the Ottoman Empire itself could be considered a colonial empire
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}
==Citations==
{{reflist}}
==References==
* {{cite web |first= Klemen |last= L |date= 2000 |title= Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942 |url= https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html }}
==Further reading==
* "Asia Reborn: A Continent Rises from the Ravages of Colonialism and War to a New Dynamism" by Prasenjit K. Basu,Publisher: Aleph Book Company
*[[K. M. Panikkar|Panikkar, K. M.]] (1953). Asia and Western dominance, 1498–1945, by K.M. Panikkar. London: G. Allen and Unwin.
{{commons category|Colonial Asia}}
* {{cite book
|last = Ringmar
|first = Erik
|title = Liberal Barbarism: The European Destruction of the Palace of the Emperor of China
|url = https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/5277315/my%20writings/liberal%20barbarism/Erik%20Ringmar%2C%20Liberal%20Barbarism%2C%20published%20pdf.pdf
|year = 2013
|publisher = Palgrave Macmillan
|location = New York
}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [http://www.vgweb.org/unethicalconversion/port_rep.htm Senaka Weeraratna, Repression of Buddhism in Sri Lanka by the Portuguese (1505 - 1658)]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Imperialism In Asia}}
[[Category:European colonisation in Asia| ]]
[[Category:New Imperialism]]
[[Category:The Great Game]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -408,4 +408,6 @@
* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Agha_Mohammad_Khan.svg}}[[Iran]] – in Russian sphere of influence in the north and British in the south
* {{Flagicon|Japanese Empire}}[[Japan]] – a [[Great power]] that had its own [[Japanese empire|colonial empire]] (including [[Korea under Japanese rule|Korea]] and [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Taiwan]])
+:* [[Allied-occupied Japan|American occupation of Japan]]
+:* [[United States Army Military Government in Korea|American occupation of South Korea]]
* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg}}{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_China_(1912–1928).svg}}{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People's_Republic_(1924–1940).svg}}[[Mongolia]] – in Russian sphere of influence and later Soviet controlled
* {{Flagicon|Nepal}}[[Nepal]] – in British sphere of influence
' |
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54 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20140629045949/http://www3.wooster.edu/History/jgates/book-ch3.html',
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History</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding:0.15em 0.25em 0.6em;">
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Western imperialism in Asia</a></li>
<li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Great_Game" title="The Great Game">The Great Game</a>"</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">The "Scramble for Africa"</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire" title="Historiography of the British Empire">Historiography of the British Empire</a></li></ul></td>
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Theory</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding:0.15em 0.25em 0.6em;">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Expansion_of_England" title="The Expansion of England">The Expansion of England</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gentlemanly_capitalism" title="Gentlemanly capitalism">Gentlemanly capitalism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Imperialism_of_Free_Trade" title="The Imperialism of Free Trade">The Imperialism of Free Trade</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Imperialism_(Hobson)" title="Imperialism (Hobson)">Imperialism: A Study</a></i></li>
<li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Imperialism,_the_Highest_Stage_of_Capitalism" title="Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism">Imperialism, the Highest Stage<br />of Capitalism</a></i></div></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Porter%E2%80%93MacKenzie_debate" title="Porter–MacKenzie debate">Porter–MacKenzie debate</a></li></ul></td>
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See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding:0.15em 0.25em 0.6em;">
<ul><li><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li></ul></div></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></li></ul></td>
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<p><b>Western imperialism in Asia</b> refers to the influence of <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> and associated states (such as <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>) in Asian territories. It originated in the 15th-century search for <a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">trade routes</a> to <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> that led directly to the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>, and additionally the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">early modern warfare</a> into what Europeans first called the <a href="/wiki/East_Indies" title="East Indies">East Indies</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a>. By the early 16th century, the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Sail" title="Age of Sail">Age of Sail</a> greatly expanded Western European influence and development of the <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade#Trade_under_colonialism" title="Spice trade">spice trade under colonialism</a>. European-style <a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">colonial empires</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a> operated in Asia throughout six centuries of <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>, formally ending with the independence of the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a>'s last colony <a href="/wiki/East_Timor" title="East Timor">East Timor</a> in 2002. The empires introduced Western concepts of <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Multinational_state" title="Multinational state">multinational state</a>. This article attempts to outline the consequent development of the Western concept of the <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a>.
</p><p>European political power, commerce, and culture in Asia gave rise to growing trade in <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodities</a>—a key development in the rise of today's modern world <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">free market</a> economy. In the 16th century, the Portuguese broke the (overland) monopoly of the Arabs and Italians in trade between Asia and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_the_sea_route_to_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Discovery of the sea route to India">discovery of the sea route to India</a> around the Cape of Good Hope.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> The ensuing rise of the rival <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> gradually eclipsed Portuguese influence in Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[nb 1]</a></sup> Dutch forces first established independent bases in the East (most significantly <a href="/wiki/Batavia,_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Batavia, Dutch East Indies">Batavia</a>, the heavily fortified headquarters of the Dutch East India Company) and then between 1640 and 1660 wrested <a href="/wiki/Malacca" title="Malacca">Malacca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ceylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceylon">Ceylon</a>, some southern Indian ports, and the lucrative <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> trade from the Portuguese. Later, the English and the French established settlements in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and trade with <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and their acquisitions would gradually surpass those of the Dutch. Following the end of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> in 1763, the British eliminated French influence in India and established the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a> (founded in 1600) as the most important political force on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>.
</p><p>Before the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> in the mid-to-late 19th century, demand for oriental goods such as <a href="/wiki/Porcelain" title="Porcelain">porcelain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">tea</a>remained the driving force behind European imperialism. The Western European stake in Asia remained confined largely to trading stations and strategic outposts necessary to protect trade. Industrialization, however, dramatically increased European demand for Asian raw materials; with the severe <a href="/wiki/Long_Depression" title="Long Depression">Long Depression</a> of the 1870s provoking a scramble for new markets for European industrial products and financial services in Africa, the Americas, Eastern Europe, and especially in Asia. This scramble coincided with a new era in global <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonial</a> expansion known as "the <a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a>", which saw a shift in focus from trade and <a href="/wiki/Indirect_rule" title="Indirect rule">indirect rule</a> to formal colonial control of vast overseas territories ruled as political extensions of their mother countries. Between the 1870s and the beginning of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> in 1914, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>—the established colonial powers in Asia—added to their empires vast expanses of territory in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, the Indian Subcontinent, and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>. In the same period, the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a>, following the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a>; the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>, following the end of the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> in 1871; <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Russia">Tsarist Russia</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, following the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> in 1898, quickly emerged as new imperial powers in <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> and in the Pacific Ocean area.
</p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> were played out as struggles among several key imperial power, with conflicts involving the European powers along with Russia and the rising American and Japanese. None of the colonial powers, however, possessed the resources to withstand the strains of both World Wars and maintain their direct rule in Asia. Although nationalist movements throughout the colonial world led to the political independence of nearly all of Asia's remaining colonies, <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonization</a> was intercepted by the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. South East Asia, <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, the Middle East, and East Asia remained embedded in a world economic, financial, and military system in which the great powers compete to extend their influence. However, the rapid post-war economic development and rise of the <a href="/wiki/Industrialized" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialized">industrialized</a> <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries</a> of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> and the developing countries of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> and its autonomous territory of <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, along with the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, have greatly diminished Western <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> influence in Asia. The United States remains influential with trade and military bases in Asia.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Early_European_exploration_of_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Early European exploration of Asia</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Medieval_European_exploration_of_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Medieval European exploration of Asia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Oceanic_voyages_to_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Oceanic voyages to Asia</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Portuguese_and_Spanish_trade_and_colonization_in_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Portuguese and Spanish trade and colonization in Asia</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Portuguese_monopoly_over_trade_in_the_Indian_Ocean_and_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Portuguese monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean and Asia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Decline_of_Portugal's_Asian_empire_since_the_17th_century"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Decline of Portugal's Asian empire since the 17th century</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Holy_wars"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Holy wars</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Dutch_trade_and_colonization_in_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Dutch trade and colonization in Asia</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Rise_of_Dutch_control_over_Asian_trade_in_the_17th_century"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Rise of Dutch control over Asian trade in the 17th century</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Dutch_New_Imperialism_in_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Dutch New Imperialism in Asia</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#British_in_India"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">British in India</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Portuguese,_French,_and_British_competition_in_India_(1600–1763)"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Portuguese, French, and British competition in India (1600–1763)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Collapse_of_Mughal_India"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Collapse of Mughal India</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#From_Company_to_Crown"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">From Company to Crown</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Rise_of_Indian_nationalism"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Rise of Indian nationalism</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#France_in_Indochina"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">France in Indochina</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Russia_and_"The_Great_Game""><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Russia and "The Great Game"</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Western_European_and_Russian_intrusions_into_China"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Western European and Russian intrusions into China</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#U.S._imperialism_in_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">U.S. imperialism in Asia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#World_War_I:_Changes_in_Imperialism"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">World War I: Changes in Imperialism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Japan"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Japan</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#After_World_War_II"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">After World War II</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Decolonisation_and_the_rise_of_nationalism_in_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">11.1</span> <span class="toctext">Decolonisation and the rise of nationalism in Asia</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#British_in_India_and_the_Middle_East"><span class="tocnumber">11.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">British in India and the Middle East</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#United_States_in_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">11.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">United States in Asia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="#France_in_Indochina_2"><span class="tocnumber">11.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">France in Indochina</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-27"><a href="#Post-war_resistance_to_French_rule"><span class="tocnumber">11.1.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Post-war resistance to French rule</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#List_of_European_colonies_in_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">List of European colonies in Asia</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Independent_states"><span class="tocnumber">12.1</span> <span class="toctext">Independent states</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#Citations"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">Citations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">16</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_European_exploration_of_Asia">Early European exploration of Asia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early European exploration of Asia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>European exploration of Asia started in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Roman</a> times along the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>. Knowledge of lands as distant as China were held by the Romans. Trade with India through the Roman Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> ports was significant in the first centuries of the <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Medieval_European_exploration_of_Asia">Medieval European exploration of Asia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Medieval European exploration of Asia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Marco_Polo_traveling.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Marco_Polo_traveling.JPG/220px-Marco_Polo_traveling.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Marco_Polo_traveling.JPG/330px-Marco_Polo_traveling.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Marco_Polo_traveling.JPG/440px-Marco_Polo_traveling.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2006" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Marco_Polo_traveling.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Illustration of <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>'s arrival in a <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> city</div></div></div>
<p>In the 13th and 14th centuries, a number of Europeans, many of them Christian <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionaries</a>, had sought to penetrate into China. The most famous of these travelers was <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a></sup> But these journeys had little permanent effect on east–west trade because of a series of political developments in Asia in the last decades of the 14th century, which put an end to further European exploration of Asia. The <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> in China, which had been receptive to European missionaries and merchants, was overthrown, and the new <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> rulers were found to be unreceptive of religious proselytism. Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turks</a> consolidated control over the eastern <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a>, closing off key overland trade routes. Thus, until the 15th century, only minor trade and cultural exchanges between Europe and Asia continued at certain terminals controlled by Muslim traders.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Oceanic_voyages_to_Asia">Oceanic voyages to Asia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Oceanic voyages to Asia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Western European rulers determined to find new trade routes of their own. The Portuguese spearheaded the drive to find oceanic routes that would provide cheaper and easier access to South and East Asian goods. This chartering of oceanic routes between East and West began with the unprecedented voyages of Portuguese and Spanish sea captains. Their voyages were influenced by medieval European adventurers, who had journeyed overland to the Far East and contributed to geographical knowledge of parts of Asia upon their return.
</p><p>In 1488, <a href="/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias" title="Bartolomeu Dias">Bartolomeu Dias</a> rounded the southern tip of Africa under the sponsorship of Portugal's <a href="/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal" title="John II of Portugal">John II</a>, from which point he noticed that the coast swung northeast (<a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a>). While Dias' crew forced him to turn back, by 1497, Portuguese navigator <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a> made the first open voyage from Europe to India. In 1520, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a>, a Portuguese navigator in the service of the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Crown of Castile</a> ('<a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>'), found a sea route into the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Portuguese_and_Spanish_trade_and_colonization_in_Asia">Portuguese and Spanish trade and colonization in Asia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Portuguese and Spanish trade and colonization in Asia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India_Armadas" title="Portuguese India Armadas">Portuguese India Armadas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">Manila galleon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Zaragoza" title="Treaty of Zaragoza">Treaty of Zaragoza</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Portuguese_monopoly_over_trade_in_the_Indian_Ocean_and_Asia">Portuguese monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean and Asia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Portuguese monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean and Asia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Retrato_de_Afonso_de_Albuquerque_(ap%C3%B3s_1545)_-_Autor_desconhecido.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Retrato_de_Afonso_de_Albuquerque_%28ap%C3%B3s_1545%29_-_Autor_desconhecido.png/170px-Retrato_de_Afonso_de_Albuquerque_%28ap%C3%B3s_1545%29_-_Autor_desconhecido.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="313" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Retrato_de_Afonso_de_Albuquerque_%28ap%C3%B3s_1545%29_-_Autor_desconhecido.png/255px-Retrato_de_Afonso_de_Albuquerque_%28ap%C3%B3s_1545%29_-_Autor_desconhecido.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Retrato_de_Afonso_de_Albuquerque_%28ap%C3%B3s_1545%29_-_Autor_desconhecido.png/340px-Retrato_de_Afonso_de_Albuquerque_%28ap%C3%B3s_1545%29_-_Autor_desconhecido.png 2x" data-file-width="543" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Retrato_de_Afonso_de_Albuquerque_(ap%C3%B3s_1545)_-_Autor_desconhecido.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Afonso_de_Albuquerque" title="Afonso de Albuquerque">Afonso de Albuquerque</a></div></div></div>
<p>In 1509, the Portuguese under <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Almeida" title="Francisco de Almeida">Francisco de Almeida</a> won the decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Diu" title="Battle of Diu">battle of Diu</a> against a joint <a href="/wiki/Burji_dynasty" title="Burji dynasty">Mamluk</a> and Arab fleet sent to expel the Portuguese of the Arabian Sea. The victory enabled Portugal to implement its strategy of controlling the Indian Ocean.
</p><p>Early in the 16th century <a href="/wiki/Afonso_de_Albuquerque" title="Afonso de Albuquerque">Afonso de Albuquerque</a> (left) emerged as the Portuguese colonial viceroy most instrumental in consolidating Portugal's holdings in Africa and in Asia. He understood that Portugal could wrest commercial supremacy from the Arabs only by force, and therefore devised a plan to establish forts at strategic sites which would dominate the trade routes and also protect Portuguese interests on land. In 1510, he <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Conquest_of_Goa_(1510)" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese Conquest of Goa (1510)">conquered Goa</a> in India, which enabled him to gradually consolidate control of most of the commercial traffic between Europe and Asia, largely through trade; Europeans started to carry on trade from forts, acting as foreign merchants rather than as settlers. In contrast, early European expansion in the "<a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a>", (later known to Europeans as a separate continent from Asia that they would call the "<a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>") following the 1492 voyage of <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>, involved heavy settlement in colonies that were treated as political extensions of the mother countries.
</p><p>Lured by the potential of high profits from another expedition, the Portuguese established a permanent base in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Kochi" title="History of Kochi">Cochin</a>, south of the Indian trade port of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Kozhikode" title="History of Kozhikode">Calicut</a> in the early 16th century. In 1510, the Portuguese, led by <a href="/wiki/Afonso_de_Albuquerque" title="Afonso de Albuquerque">Afonso de Albuquerque</a>, seized Goa on the coast of India, which <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> held until 1961, along with <a href="/wiki/Diu,_India" title="Diu, India">Diu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daman_district,_India" title="Daman district, India">Daman</a> (the remaining territory and enclaves in India from a former network of coastal towns and smaller fortified trading ports added and abandoned or lost centuries before). The Portuguese soon acquired a monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean.
</p><p>Portuguese viceroy Albuquerque (1509–1515) resolved to consolidate Portuguese holdings in Africa and Asia, and secure control of trade with the <a href="/wiki/East_Indies" title="East Indies">East Indies</a> and China. His first objective was <a href="/wiki/Malacca" title="Malacca">Malacca</a>, which controlled the narrow strait through which most Far Eastern trade moved. <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Malacca_(1511)" title="Capture of Malacca (1511)">Captured in 1511</a>, Malacca became the springboard for further eastward penetration, starting with the voyage of <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Abreu" title="António de Abreu">António de Abreu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Serr%C3%A3o" title="Francisco Serrão">Francisco Serrão</a> in 1512, ordered by Albuquerque, to the Moluccas. Years later the first trading posts were established in the <a href="/wiki/Moluccas" class="mw-redirect" title="Moluccas">Moluccas</a>, or "Spice Islands", which was the source for some of the world's most hotly demanded spices, and from there, in <a href="/wiki/Makassar" title="Makassar">Makassar</a> and some others, but smaller, in the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Sunda_Islands" title="Lesser Sunda Islands">Lesser Sunda Islands</a>. By 1513–1516, the first Portuguese ships had reached <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Canton</a> on the southern coasts of China.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:622px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png/620px-Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png" decoding="async" width="620" height="287" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png/930px-Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png/1240px-Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png 2x" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="628" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_discoveries" title="Portuguese discoveries">Portuguese expeditions</a> 1415–1542: arrival places and dates; Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a> routes in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> (blue); territories of the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese empire">Portuguese empire</a> under <a href="/wiki/King_John_III_of_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="King John III of Portugal">King John III</a> rule (green)</div></div></div>
<p>In 1513, after the failed attempt to conquer <a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a>, Albuquerque entered with an armada, for the first time for Europeans by the ocean via, on the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>; and in 1515, Albuquerque consolidated the Portuguese hegemony in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> gates, already begun by him in 1507, with the domain of <a href="/wiki/Muscat,_Oman" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscat, Oman">Muscat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ormuz" class="mw-redirect" title="Ormuz">Ormuz</a>. Shortly after, other fortified bases and forts were annexed and built along the Gulf, and in 1521, through a military campaign, the Portuguese annexed <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>.
</p><p>The Portuguese conquest of Malacca triggered the <a href="/wiki/Malayan%E2%80%93Portuguese_war" title="Malayan–Portuguese war">Malayan–Portuguese war</a>. In 1521, <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> China defeated the Portuguese at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tunmen" title="Battle of Tunmen">Battle of Tunmen</a> and then defeated the Portuguese again at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xicaowan" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Xicaowan">Battle of Xicaowan</a>. The Portuguese tried to establish trade with China by illegally smuggling with the pirates on the offshore islands<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (August 2016)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>, but they were driven away by the <a href="/wiki/Ming" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming">Ming</a> navy in the 1530s-1540s.
</p><p>In 1557, China decided to lease <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Macau" title="Portuguese Macau">Macau</a> to the Portuguese as a place where they could dry goods they transported on their ships, which they held until 1999. The Portuguese, based at Goa and Malacca, had now established a lucrative maritime empire in the Indian Ocean meant to monopolize the <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a>. The Portuguese also began a channel of trade with the Japanese, becoming the first recorded Westerners to have visited Japan. This contact introduced Christianity and firearms into Japan.
</p><p>In 1505, (also possibly before, in 1501), the Portuguese, through <a href="/wiki/Louren%C3%A7o_de_Almeida" title="Lourenço de Almeida">Lourenço de Almeida</a>, the son of Francisco de Almeida, reached <a href="/wiki/Ceylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceylon">Ceylon</a>. The Portuguese founded a fort at the city of <a href="/wiki/Colombo" title="Colombo">Colombo</a> in 1517 and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas and inland. In a series of military conflicts and political maneuvers, the Portuguese extended their control over the <a href="/wiki/Sinhala_Kingdom" title="Sinhala Kingdom">Sinhalese kingdoms</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Jaffna_Kingdom" title="Jaffna Kingdom">Jaffna</a> (1591), <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Raigama" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Raigama">Raigama</a> (1593), <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sitawaka" title="Kingdom of Sitawaka">Sitawaka</a> (1593), and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kotte" title="Kingdom of Kotte">Kotte</a> (1594)- However, the aim of unifying the entire island under Portuguese control faced the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kandy" title="Kingdom of Kandy">Kingdom of Kandy</a>`s fierce resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-Fernando2013_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fernando2013-5">[4]</a></sup> The Portuguese, led by <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Lopes_de_Sousa" title="Pedro Lopes de Sousa">Pedro Lopes de Sousa</a>, launched a full-scale military invasion of the kingdom of Kandy in the <a href="/wiki/Campaign_of_Danture" title="Campaign of Danture">Campaign of Danture</a> of 1594. The invasion was a disaster for the Portuguese, with their entire army, wiped out by Kandyan <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Perera2007_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perera2007-6">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Obeyesekere1999_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Obeyesekere1999-7">[6]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Constantino_de_S%C3%A1_de_Noronha" title="Constantino de Sá de Noronha">Constantino de Sá</a>, romantically celebrated in the 17th century Sinhalese Epic (also for its greater humanism and tolerance compared to other governors) led the last military operation that also ended in disaster. He died in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Randeniwela" title="Battle of Randeniwela">Battle of Randeniwela</a>, refusing to abandon his troops in the face of total annihilation.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a></sup>
</p><p>The energies of Castile (later, the <i>unified</i> Spain), the other major colonial power of the 16th century, were largely concentrated on the Americas, not South and East Asia, but the Spanish did establish a footing in the Far East in the Philippines. After fighting with the Portuguese by the Spice Islands since 1522 and the agreement between the two powers in 1529 (in the treaty of Zaragoza), the Spanish, led by <a href="/wiki/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi" title="Miguel López de Legazpi">Miguel López de Legazpi</a>, settled and conquered gradually the Philippines since 1564. After the discovery of the return voyage to the Americas by <a href="/wiki/Andres_de_Urdaneta" class="mw-redirect" title="Andres de Urdaneta">Andres de Urdaneta</a> in 1565, cargoes of Chinese goods were transported from the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> and from there to <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>. By this long route, Spain reaped some of the profits of Far Eastern commerce. Spanish officials converted the islands to Christianity and established some settlements, permanently establishing the Philippines as the area of East Asia most oriented toward the West in terms of culture and commerce. The Moro Muslims fought against the Spanish for over three centuries in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Spanish–Moro conflict</a>.
</p>
<h3><span id="Decline_of_Portugal.27s_Asian_empire_since_the_17th_century"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Decline_of_Portugal's_Asian_empire_since_the_17th_century">Decline of Portugal's Asian empire since the 17th century</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Decline of Portugal's Asian empire since the 17th century">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The lucrative trade was vastly expanded when the Portuguese began to export <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slaves</a> from Africa in 1541; however, over time, the rise of the slave trade left Portugal over-extended, and vulnerable to competition from other Western European powers. Envious of Portugal's control of trade routes, other Western European nations—mainly the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, France, and England—began to send in rival expeditions to Asia. In 1642, the Dutch drove the Portuguese out of the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(region)" title="Gold Coast (region)">Gold Coast</a> in Africa, the source of the bulk of Portuguese slave laborers, leaving this rich slaving area to other Europeans, especially the Dutch and the English.
</p><p>Rival European powers began to make inroads in Asia as the Portuguese and Spanish trade in the Indian Ocean declined primarily because they had become hugely over-stretched financially due to the limitations on their investment capacity and contemporary naval technology. Both of these factors worked in tandem, making control over Indian Ocean trade extremely expensive.
</p><p>The existing Portuguese interests in Asia proved sufficient to finance further colonial expansion and entrenchment in areas regarded as of greater strategic importance in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">Brazil</a>. Portuguese maritime supremacy was lost to the Dutch in the 17th century, and with this came serious challenges for the Portuguese. However, they still clung to Macau and settled a new colony on the island of <a href="/wiki/Timor" title="Timor">Timor</a>. It was as recent as the 1960s and 1970s that the Portuguese began to relinquish their colonies in Asia. Goa was invaded by India in 1961 and became an Indian state in 1987; <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Timor" title="Portuguese Timor">Portuguese Timor</a> was abandoned in 1975 and was then invaded by <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. It became an independent country in 2002, and Macau was handed back to the Chinese as per a treaty in 1999.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Holy_wars">Holy wars</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Holy wars">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The arrival of the Portuguese and Spanish and their holy wars against Muslim states in the <a href="/wiki/Malayan%E2%80%93Portuguese_war" title="Malayan–Portuguese war">Malayan–Portuguese war</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Spanish–Moro conflict</a> and <a href="/wiki/Castilian_War" title="Castilian War">Castilian War</a> inflamed religious tensions and turned Southeast Asia into an arena of conflict between Muslims and Christians. The Brunei Sultanate's capital at Kota Batu was assaulted by Governor Sande who led the 1578 Spanish attack.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>The word "savages" in Spanish, cafres, was from the word "infidel" in Arabic - Kafir, and was used by the Spanish to refer to their own "Christian savages" who were arrested in Brunei.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a></sup> It was said <i>Castilians are kafir, men who have no souls, who are condemned by fire when they die, and that too because they eat pork</i> by the Brunei Sultan after the term <i>accursed doctrine</i> was used to attack Islam by the Spaniards which fed into hatred between Muslims and Christians sparked by their 1571 war against Brunei.<sup id="cite_ref-AndayaAndaya2015_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AndayaAndaya2015-12">[11]</a></sup> The Sultan's words were in response to insults coming from the Spanish at Manila in 1578, other Muslims from Champa, Java, Borneo, Luzon, Pahang, Demak, Aceh, and the Malays echoed the rhetoric of holy war against the Spanish and Iberian Portuguese, calling them kafir enemies which was a contrast to their earlier nuanced views of the Portuguese in the Hikayat Tanah Hitu and Sejarah Melayu.<sup id="cite_ref-Reid1993_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reid1993-13">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Reid1993_2_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reid1993_2-14">[13]</a></sup> The war by Spain against Brunei was defended in an apologia written by Doctor De Sande.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholl1975_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholl1975-15">[14]</a></sup> The British eventually partitioned and took over Brunei while Sulu was attacked by the British, Americans, and Spanish which caused its breakdown and downfall after both of them thrived from 1500 to 1900 for four centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-CasiñoCasiño1976_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CasiñoCasiño1976-16">[15]</a></sup> Dar al-Islam was seen as under invasion by "kafirs" by the Atjehnese led by Zayn al-din and by Muslims in the Philippines as they saw the Spanish invasion, since the Spanish brought the idea of a crusader holy war against Muslim Moros just as the Portuguese did in Indonesia and India against what they called "Moors" in their political and commercial conquests which they saw through the lens of religion in the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Dale1980_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dale1980-17">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1578, an attack was launched by the Spanish against Jolo, and in 1875 it was destroyed at their hands, and once again in 1974 it was destroyed by the Philippines.<sup id="cite_ref-Ooi2004_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ooi2004-18">[17]</a></sup> The Spanish first set foot on Borneo in Brunei.<sup id="cite_ref-Ober1907_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ober1907-19">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Spanish war against Brunei failed to conquer Brunei but it totally cut off the Philippines from Brunei's influence, the Spanish then started colonizing Mindanao and building fortresses. In response, the Bisayas, where Spanish forces were stationed, were subjected to retaliatory attacks by the Magindanao in 1599-1600 due to the Spanish attacks on Mindanao.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Brunei royal family was related to the Muslim Rajahs who in ruled the principality in 1570 of Manila (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Maynila" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Maynila">Kingdom of Maynila</a>) and this was what the Spaniards came across on their initial arrival to Manila, Spain uprooted Islam out of areas where it was shallow after they began to force Christianity on the Philippines in their conquests after 1521 while Islam was already widespread in the 16th century Philippines.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a></sup> In the Philippines in the Cebu islands the natives killed the Spanish fleet leader Magellan. Borneo's western coastal areas at Landak, Sukadana, and Sambas saw the growth of Muslim states in the sixteenth century, in the 15th century at Nanking, the capital of China, the death and burial of the Borneo Bruneian king Maharaja Kama took place upon his visit to China with Zheng He's fleet.<sup id="cite_ref-Payne2000_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Payne2000-22">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Spanish were expelled from Brunei in 1579 after they attacked in 1578.<sup id="cite_ref-RingSalkin1994_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RingSalkin1994-23">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RingWatson2012_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RingWatson2012-24">[23]</a></sup> There were fifty thousand inhabitants before the 1597 attack by the Spanish in Brunei.<sup id="cite_ref-Tarling1999_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tarling1999-25">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tarling1999_2_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tarling1999_2-26">[25]</a></sup>
</p><p>During first contact with China, numerous aggressions and provocations were undertaken by the Portuguese<sup id="cite_ref-Zhang1934_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang1934-27">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zhang1934_2_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang1934_2-28">[27]</a></sup> They believed they could mistreat the non-Christians because they themselves were Christians and acted in the name of their religion in committing crimes and atrocities.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhang1934_3_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang1934_3-29">[28]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zhang1934_4_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang1934_4-30">[29]</a></sup> This resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xicaowan" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Xicaowan">Battle of Xicaowan</a> where the local Chinese navy defeated and captured a fleet of Portuguese caravels.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Dutch_trade_and_colonization_in_Asia">Dutch trade and colonization in Asia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Dutch trade and colonization in Asia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch colonial empire</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Rise_of_Dutch_control_over_Asian_trade_in_the_17th_century">Rise of Dutch control over Asian trade in the 17th century</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Rise of Dutch control over Asian trade in the 17th century">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:AMH-4804-KB_The_spinning_house_at_Batavia.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/AMH-4804-KB_The_spinning_house_at_Batavia.jpg/220px-AMH-4804-KB_The_spinning_house_at_Batavia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/AMH-4804-KB_The_spinning_house_at_Batavia.jpg/330px-AMH-4804-KB_The_spinning_house_at_Batavia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/AMH-4804-KB_The_spinning_house_at_Batavia.jpg/440px-AMH-4804-KB_The_spinning_house_at_Batavia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1995" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:AMH-4804-KB_The_spinning_house_at_Batavia.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Dutch settlement in the East Indies. <a href="/wiki/Batavia,_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Batavia, Dutch East Indies">Batavia</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a>), <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>, c. 1665.</div></div></div>
<p>The Portuguese decline in Asia was accelerated by attacks on their commercial empire by the Dutch and the English, which began a global struggle over the empire in Asia that lasted until the end of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> in 1763. The <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Revolt" title="Dutch Revolt">Netherlands revolt against Spanish rule</a> facilitated Dutch encroachment on the Portuguese monopoly over South and East Asian trade. The Dutch looked on Spain's trade and colonies as potential spoils of war. When the two crowns of the Iberian peninsula were joined in 1581, the Dutch felt free to attack Portuguese territories in Asia.
</p><p>By the 1590s, a number of Dutch companies were formed to finance trading expeditions in Asia. Because competition lowered their profits, and because of the doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a>, in 1602 the companies united into a <a href="/wiki/Cartel" title="Cartel">cartel</a> and formed the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a>, and received from the government the right to trade and colonize territory in the area stretching from the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a> eastward to the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan" title="Strait of Magellan">Strait of Magellan</a>.
</p><p>In 1605, armed Dutch merchants captured the Portuguese fort at <a href="/wiki/Ambon,_Maluku" title="Ambon, Maluku">Amboyna</a> in the Moluccas, which was developed into the company's first secure base. Over time, the Dutch gradually consolidated control over the great trading ports of the East Indies. This control allowed the company to monopolise the world <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a> for decades. Their monopoly over the spice trade became complete after they drove the Portuguese from <a href="/wiki/Malacca" title="Malacca">Malacca</a> in 1641 and <a href="/wiki/Ceylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceylon">Ceylon</a> in 1658.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Colombo,_after_Kip.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Colombo%2C_after_Kip.jpg/220px-Colombo%2C_after_Kip.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Colombo%2C_after_Kip.jpg/330px-Colombo%2C_after_Kip.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Colombo%2C_after_Kip.jpg/440px-Colombo%2C_after_Kip.jpg 2x" data-file-width="973" data-file-height="657" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Colombo,_after_Kip.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Colombo, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Ceylon" title="Dutch Ceylon">Dutch Ceylon</a>, based on an engraving of circa 1680</div></div></div>
<p>Dutch East India Company colonies or outposts were later established in Atjeh (<a href="/wiki/Aceh" title="Aceh">Aceh</a>), 1667; <a href="/wiki/Macassar,_Mozambique" title="Macassar, Mozambique">Macassar</a>, 1669; and <a href="/wiki/Bantam_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantam (city)">Bantam</a>, 1682. The company established its headquarters at <a href="/wiki/Batavia,_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Batavia, Dutch East Indies">Batavia</a> (today <a href="/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a>) on the island of <a href="/wiki/Java_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Java (island)">Java</a>. Outside the East Indies, the Dutch East India Company colonies or outposts were also established in <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>), <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> and part of India), <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> (1638-1658/1664-1710), <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayutthaya kingdom">Siam</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>), <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> (Canton, China), <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> (1624–1662), and southern India (1616–1795).
</p><p>Ming dynasty China defeated the Dutch East India Company in the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Dutch_conflicts" title="Sino-Dutch conflicts">Sino-Dutch conflicts</a>. The Chinese first <a href="/wiki/Penghu#Ming-Dutch_War" title="Penghu">defeated and drove the Dutch out of the Pescadores in 1624</a>. The Ming navy under <a href="/wiki/Zheng_Zhilong" title="Zheng Zhilong">Zheng Zhilong</a> defeated the Dutch East India Company's fleet at the 1633 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liaoluo_Bay" title="Battle of Liaoluo Bay">Battle of Liaoluo Bay</a>. In 1662, Zheng Zhilong's son <a href="/wiki/Koxinga" title="Koxinga">Zheng Chenggong</a> (also known as Koxinga) expelled the Dutch from Taiwan after defeating them in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_Zeelandia" title="Siege of Fort Zeelandia">Siege of Fort Zeelandia</a>. (<i>see</i> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">History of Taiwan</a>) Further, the Dutch East India Company trade post on <a href="/wiki/Dejima" title="Dejima">Dejima</a> (1641–1857), an artificial island off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki,_Nagasaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagasaki, Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>, was for a long time the only place where Europeans could trade with Japan.
</p><p>The Vietnamese <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_lords" title="Nguyễn lords">Nguyễn lords</a> defeated the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BB%8Bnh%E2%80%93Nguy%E1%BB%85n_War#Later_campaigns" title="Trịnh–Nguyễn War">in a naval battle in 1643</a>.
</p><p>The Cambodians defeated the Dutch in the <a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Dutch_War" title="Cambodian–Dutch War">Cambodian–Dutch War</a> in 1644.
</p><p>In 1652, <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Riebeeck" title="Jan van Riebeeck">Jan van Riebeeck</a> established an outpost at the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a> (the southwestern tip of Africa, currently in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>) to restock company ships on their journey to East Asia. This post later became a fully-fledged colony, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a> (1652–1806). As Cape Colony attracted increasing Dutch and European settlement, the Dutch founded the city of Kaapstad (<a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>).
</p><p>By 1669, the Dutch East India Company was the richest private company in history, with a huge fleet of merchant ships and warships, tens of thousands of employees, a private army consisting of thousands of soldiers, and a reputation on the part of its stockholders for high dividend payments.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Dutch_New_Imperialism_in_Asia">Dutch New Imperialism in Asia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Dutch New Imperialism in Asia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Gouverneur_Bijleveld_met_Sultan_Hamengkoe_Boewono_VIII_tijdens_een_bezoek_aan_de_Kraton_van_de_Sultan_van_Jogjakarta_TMnr_60033546.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Gouverneur_Bijleveld_met_Sultan_Hamengkoe_Boewono_VIII_tijdens_een_bezoek_aan_de_Kraton_van_de_Sultan_van_Jogjakarta_TMnr_60033546.jpg/170px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Gouverneur_Bijleveld_met_Sultan_Hamengkoe_Boewono_VIII_tijdens_een_bezoek_aan_de_Kraton_van_de_Sultan_van_Jogjakarta_TMnr_60033546.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Gouverneur_Bijleveld_met_Sultan_Hamengkoe_Boewono_VIII_tijdens_een_bezoek_aan_de_Kraton_van_de_Sultan_van_Jogjakarta_TMnr_60033546.jpg/255px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Gouverneur_Bijleveld_met_Sultan_Hamengkoe_Boewono_VIII_tijdens_een_bezoek_aan_de_Kraton_van_de_Sultan_van_Jogjakarta_TMnr_60033546.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Gouverneur_Bijleveld_met_Sultan_Hamengkoe_Boewono_VIII_tijdens_een_bezoek_aan_de_Kraton_van_de_Sultan_van_Jogjakarta_TMnr_60033546.jpg/340px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Gouverneur_Bijleveld_met_Sultan_Hamengkoe_Boewono_VIII_tijdens_een_bezoek_aan_de_Kraton_van_de_Sultan_van_Jogjakarta_TMnr_60033546.jpg 2x" data-file-width="523" data-file-height="700" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Gouverneur_Bijleveld_met_Sultan_Hamengkoe_Boewono_VIII_tijdens_een_bezoek_aan_de_Kraton_van_de_Sultan_van_Jogjakarta_TMnr_60033546.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The Dutch Governor-General, highest authority in the colony and the Sultan of Jogjakarta.</div></div></div>
<p>The company was in almost constant conflict with the English; relations were particularly tense following the <a href="/wiki/Amboyna_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Amboyna Massacre">Amboyna Massacre</a> in 1623. During the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> possessions were increasingly focused on the East Indies. After <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="Fourth Anglo-Dutch War">the fourth war</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">United Provinces</a> and England (1780–1784), the company suffered increasing financial difficulties. In 1799, the company was dissolved, commencing official colonisation of the <a href="/wiki/East_Indies" title="East Indies">East Indies</a>. During the era of New Imperialism the territorial claims of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) expanded into a fully fledged colony named the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a>. Partly driven by re-newed colonial aspirations of fellow European nation states the Dutch strived to establish unchallenged control of the <a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">archipelago</a> now known as <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>.
</p><p>Six years into formal colonisation of the East Indies, in Europe the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> was occupied by the French forces of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>. The Dutch government went into exile in England and formally ceded its colonial possessions to Great Britain. The pro-French Governor General of Java <a href="/wiki/Jan_Willem_Janssens" title="Jan Willem Janssens">Jan Willem Janssens</a>, resisted <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Java_(1811)" title="Invasion of Java (1811)">a British invasion force in 1811</a> until forced to surrender. British Governor <a href="/wiki/Stamford_Raffles" title="Stamford Raffles">Raffles</a>, who the later founded the city of <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, ruled the colony the following 10 years of the British <a href="/wiki/Interregnum" title="Interregnum">interregnum</a> (1806–1816).
</p><p>After the defeat of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1814" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814">Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814</a> colonial government of the East Indies was ceded back to the Dutch in 1817. The loss of South Africa and the continued scramble for Africa stimulated the Dutch to secure unchallenged dominion over its colony in the East Indies. The Dutch started to consolidate its power base through extensive military campaigns and elaborate diplomatic alliances with indigenous rulers ensuring the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Triband_(flag)" title="Triband (flag)">tricolor</a> was firmly planted in all corners of the <a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">Archipelago</a>. These military campaigns included: the <a href="/wiki/Padri_War" title="Padri War">Padri War</a> (1821–1837), the <a href="/wiki/Java_War" title="Java War">Java War</a> (1825–1830) and the <a href="/wiki/Aceh_War" title="Aceh War">Aceh War</a> (1873–1904). This raised the need for a considerable military buildup of the colonial army (<a href="/wiki/KNIL" class="mw-redirect" title="KNIL">KNIL</a>). From all over Europe soldiers were recruited to join the KNIL.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Dutch concentrated their colonial enterprise in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> (Indonesia) throughout the 19th century. The Dutch lost control over the East Indies to the Japanese during much of World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a></sup> Following the war, the Dutch fought Indonesian independence forces after Japan surrendered to the Allies in 1945. In 1949, most of what was known as the Dutch East Indies was ceded to the independent Republic of Indonesia. In 1962, also <a href="/wiki/Dutch_New_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch New Guinea">Dutch New Guinea</a> was annexed by Indonesia de facto ending Dutch imperialism in Asia.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="British_in_India">British in India</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: British in India">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span id="Portuguese.2C_French.2C_and_British_competition_in_India_.281600.E2.80.931763.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Portuguese,_French,_and_British_competition_in_India_(1600–1763)">Portuguese, French, and British competition in India (1600–1763)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Portuguese, French, and British competition in India (1600–1763)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Clive.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Clive.jpg/220px-Clive.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Clive.jpg/330px-Clive.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Clive.jpg/440px-Clive.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1870" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Clive.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive</div></div></div>
<p>The English sought to stake out claims in India at the expense of the Portuguese dating back to the <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan era</a>. In 1600, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth I of England">Queen Elizabeth I</a> incorporated the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">English East India Company</a> (later the British East India Company), granting it a monopoly of trade from the Cape of Good Hope eastward to the Strait of Magellan. In 1639, it acquired <a href="/wiki/Madras" class="mw-redirect" title="Madras">Madras</a> on the east coast of India, where it quickly surpassed Portuguese Goa as the principal European trading centre on the Indian Subcontinent.
</p><p>Through bribes, diplomacy, and manipulation of weak native rulers, the company prospered in India, where it became the most powerful political force, and outrivaled its Portuguese and French competitors. For more than one hundred years, English and French trading companies had fought one another for supremacy, and, by the middle of the 18th century, competition between the British and the French had heated up. French defeat by the British under the command of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Clive" title="Robert Clive">Robert Clive</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (1756–1763) marked the end of the French stake in India.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Collapse_of_Mughal_India">Collapse of Mughal India</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Collapse of Mughal India">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">Company rule in India</a></div>
<p>The British East India Company, although still in direct competition with French and Dutch interests until 1763, was able to extend its control over almost the whole of India in the century following the subjugation of Bengal at the 1757 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Battle of Plassey</a>. The British East India Company made great advances at the expense of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>.
</p><p>The reign of Aurangzeb had marked the height of Mughal power. By 1690 Mughal territorial expansion reached its greatest extent encompassing the entire Indian Subcontinent. But this period of power was followed by one of decline. Fifty years after the death of Aurangzeb, the great Mughal empire had crumbled. Meanwhile, marauding warlords, nobles, and others bent on gaining power left the <a href="/wiki/Subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Subcontinent">Subcontinent</a> increasingly anarchic. Although the Mughals kept the imperial title until 1858, the central government had collapsed, creating a power vacuum.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="From_Company_to_Crown">From Company to Crown</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: From Company to Crown">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:392px;"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Empire_1921.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/British_Empire_1921.png/390px-British_Empire_1921.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="171" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/British_Empire_1921.png/585px-British_Empire_1921.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/British_Empire_1921.png/780px-British_Empire_1921.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Empire_1921.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> in 1920</div></div></div>
<p>Aside from defeating the French during the Seven Years' War, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Clive" title="Robert Clive">Robert Clive</a>, the leader of the Company in India, defeated a key Indian ruler of Bengal at the decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Battle of Plassey</a> (1757), a victory that ushered in the beginning of a new period in Indian history, that of informal British rule. While still nominally the sovereign, the Mughal Indian emperor became more and more of a puppet ruler, and anarchy spread until the company stepped into the role of policeman of India. The transition to formal imperialism, characterised by <a href="/wiki/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a> being crowned "Empress of India" in the 1870s was a gradual process. The first step toward cementing formal British control extended back to the late 18th century. The British Parliament, disturbed by the idea that a great business concern, interested primarily in profit, was controlling the destinies of millions of people, passed acts in 1773 and 1784 that gave itself the power to control company policies and to appoint the highest company official in India, the <a href="/wiki/Governor-General" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor-General">Governor-General</a>. (This system of dual control lasted until 1858.) By 1818, the East India Company was master of all of India. Some local rulers were forced to accept its overlordship; others were deprived of their territories. Some portions of India were administered by the British directly; in others native dynasties were retained under British supervision.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_ferozeshah(H_Martens).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Battle_of_ferozeshah%28H_Martens%29.jpg/220px-Battle_of_ferozeshah%28H_Martens%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Battle_of_ferozeshah%28H_Martens%29.jpg/330px-Battle_of_ferozeshah%28H_Martens%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Battle_of_ferozeshah%28H_Martens%29.jpg/440px-Battle_of_ferozeshah%28H_Martens%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1317" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_ferozeshah(H_Martens).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Sikh_War" title="First Anglo-Sikh War">First Anglo-Sikh War</a>, 1845-46</div></div></div>
<p>Until 1858, however, much of India was still officially the dominion of the Mughal emperor. Anger among some social groups, however, was seething under the governor-generalship of <a href="/wiki/James_Andrew_Broun-Ramsay,_10th_Earl_of_Dalhousie" class="mw-redirect" title="James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 10th Earl of Dalhousie">James Dalhousie</a> (1847–1856), who annexed the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab region">Punjab</a> (1849) after victory in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Sikh_War" title="Second Anglo-Sikh War">Second Sikh War</a>, annexed seven princely states using the <a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_lapse" title="Doctrine of lapse">doctrine of lapse</a>, annexed the key state of <a href="/wiki/Oudh" class="mw-redirect" title="Oudh">Oudh</a> on the basis of misgovernment, and upset cultural sensibilities by banning Hindu practices such as <a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">sati</a>.
</p><p>The 1857 <a href="/wiki/Indian_Mutiny" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Mutiny">Sepoy Rebellion</a>, or Indian Mutiny, an uprising initiated by Indian troops, called sepoys, who formed the bulk of the company's armed forces, was the key turning point. Rumour had spread among them that their bullet cartridges were lubricated with pig and cow fat. The cartridges had to be bit open, so this upset the <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> soldiers. The <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> religion held cows sacred, and for Muslims pork was considered <a href="/wiki/Haraam" class="mw-redirect" title="Haraam">haraam</a>. In one camp, 85 out of 90 sepoys would not accept the cartridges from their garrison officer. The British harshly punished those who would not by jailing them. The Indian people were outraged, and on May 10, 1857, sepoys marched to <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>, and, with the help of soldiers stationed there, captured it. Fortunately for the British, many areas remained loyal and quiescent, allowing the revolt to be crushed after fierce fighting. One important consequence of the revolt was the final collapse of the Mughal dynasty. The mutiny also ended the system of dual control under which the British government and the British East India Company shared authority. The government relieved the company of its political responsibilities, and in 1858, after 258 years of existence, the company relinquished its role. Trained civil servants were recruited from graduates of British universities, and these men set out to rule India. Lord Canning (created earl in 1859), appointed Governor-General of India in 1856, became known as "Clemency Canning" as a term of derision for his efforts to restrain revenge against the Indians during the Indian Mutiny. When the Government of India was transferred from the company to the Crown, Canning became the first <a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">viceroy</a> of India.
</p><p>The Company initiated the first of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Burmese_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Burmese wars">Anglo-Burmese wars</a> in 1824, which led to total annexation of Burma by the Crown in 1885. The <a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma">British ruled Burma</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Presidencies_and_provinces_of_British_India" title="Presidencies and provinces of British India">province of British India</a> until 1937, then administered her separately under the <a href="/wiki/Burma_Office" title="Burma Office">Burma Office</a> except during the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Burma" title="Japanese occupation of Burma">Japanese occupation of Burma</a>, 1942–1945, until granted independence on 4 January 1948. (Unlike India, Burma opted not to join the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a>.)
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Rise_of_Indian_nationalism">Rise of Indian nationalism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Rise of Indian nationalism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a></div>
<p>The denial of equal status to Indians was the immediate stimulus for the formation in 1885 of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a>, initially loyal to the Empire but committed from 1905 to increased self-government and by 1930 to outright independence. The "Home charges", payments transferred from India for administrative costs, were a lasting source of nationalist grievance, though the flow declined in relative importance over the decades to independence in 1947.
</p><p>Although majority <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> and minority <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> political leaders were able to collaborate closely in their criticism of British policy into the 1920s, British support for a distinct Muslim political organisation, the <a href="/wiki/All-India_Muslim_League" title="All-India Muslim League">Muslim League</a> from 1906 and insistence from the 1920s on separate electorates for religious minorities, is seen by many in India as having contributed to Hindu-Muslim discord and the country's eventual <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition</a>.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="France_in_Indochina">France in Indochina</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: France in Indochina">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:292px;"><a href="/wiki/File:CaptureOfLang-Son.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/CaptureOfLang-Son.jpg/290px-CaptureOfLang-Son.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="201" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/CaptureOfLang-Son.jpg/435px-CaptureOfLang-Son.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/CaptureOfLang-Son.jpg/580px-CaptureOfLang-Son.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1846" data-file-height="1280" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:CaptureOfLang-Son.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The capture of <a href="/wiki/L%E1%BA%A1ng_S%C6%A1n" title="Lạng Sơn">Lạng Sơn</a> in 1885</div></div></div>
<p>France, which had lost its empire to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">British</a> by the end of the 18th century, had little geographical or commercial basis for expansion in Southeast Asia. After the 1850s, French imperialism was initially impelled by a <a href="/wiki/Nationalistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalistic">nationalistic</a> need to rival the United Kingdom and was supported intellectually by the notion that French culture was superior to that of the people of <a href="/wiki/Name_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Name of Vietnam">Annam</a> (Vietnam), and its <i><a href="/wiki/Mission_civilisatrice" class="mw-redirect" title="Mission civilisatrice">mission civilisatrice</a></i>—or its "civilizing mission" of the Annamese through their assimilation to French culture and the Catholic religion. The pretext for French expansionism in <a href="/wiki/Indochina" class="mw-redirect" title="Indochina">Indochina</a> was the protection of French religious missions in the area, coupled with a desire to find a southern route to China through <a href="/wiki/Tonkin" title="Tonkin">Tonkin</a>, the European name for a region of northern <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>.
</p><p>French religious and commercial interests were established in Indochina as early as the 17th century, but no concerted effort at stabilizing the French position was possible in the face of British strength in the Indian Ocean and <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">French defeat</a> in Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. A mid-19th century religious revival under the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second Empire</a> provided the atmosphere within which interest in Indochina grew. Anti-Christian persecutions in the Far East provided the pretext for the bombardment of Tourane (Danang) in 1847, and invasion and occupation of Danang in 1857 and Saigon in 1858. Under <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a>, France decided that French trade with China would be surpassed by the British, and accordingly the French joined the British against China in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a> from 1857 to 1860, and occupied parts of Vietnam as its gateway to China.
</p><p>By the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saigon_(1862)" title="Treaty of Saigon (1862)">Treaty of Saigon</a> in 1862, on June 5, the Vietnamese emperor ceded France three provinces of southern Vietnam to form the French colony of <a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a>; France also secured trade and religious privileges in the rest of Vietnam and a protectorate over Vietnam's foreign relations. Gradually French power spread through exploration, the establishment of protectorates, and outright annexations. Their seizure of <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a> in 1882 led directly to war with China (1883–1885), and the French victory confirmed French supremacy in the region. France governed <a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a> as a direct colony, and central and northern Vietnam under the protectorates of <a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_colony)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annam (French colony)">Annam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Tonkin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_Protectorate_of_Cambodia" class="mw-redirect" title="French Protectorate of Cambodia">Cambodia</a> as protectorates in one degree or another. <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a> too was soon brought under <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_administration_of_Laos" class="mw-redirect" title="French colonial administration of Laos">French "protection"</a>.
</p><p>By the beginning of the 20th century, France had created an empire in <a href="/wiki/Indochina" class="mw-redirect" title="Indochina">Indochina</a> nearly 50 percent larger than the mother country. A Governor-General in <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a> ruled <a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a> directly and the other regions through a system of residents. Theoretically, the French maintained the precolonial rulers and administrative structures in <a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">Annam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Tonkin</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Protectorate_of_Cambodia" class="mw-redirect" title="French Protectorate of Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_Protectorate_of_Laos" class="mw-redirect" title="French Protectorate of Laos">Laos</a>, but in fact the governor-generalship was a centralised fiscal and administrative regime ruling the entire region. Although the surviving native institutions were preserved in order to make French rule more acceptable, they were almost completely deprived of any independence of action. The ethnocentric French colonial administrators sought to assimilate the upper classes into France's "superior culture." While the French improved public services and provided commercial stability, the native standard of living declined and precolonial social structures eroded. Indochina, which had a population of over eighteen million in 1914, was important to France for its <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_pepper" title="Black pepper">pepper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>. It is still a matter of debate, however, whether the colony was commercially profitable.
</p>
<h2><span id="Russia_and_.22The_Great_Game.22"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Russia_and_"The_Great_Game"">Russia and "The Great Game"</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Russia and "The Great Game"">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Game" title="The Great Game">The Great Game</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia" title="Russian conquest of Siberia">Russian conquest of Siberia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Turkestan" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian conquest of Turkestan">Russian conquest of Turkestan</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:282px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Karazin_-_Entry_of_Russian_troops_into_Samarkand_1868.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Karazin_-_Entry_of_Russian_troops_into_Samarkand_1868.jpg/280px-Karazin_-_Entry_of_Russian_troops_into_Samarkand_1868.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="154" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Karazin_-_Entry_of_Russian_troops_into_Samarkand_1868.jpg/420px-Karazin_-_Entry_of_Russian_troops_into_Samarkand_1868.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Karazin_-_Entry_of_Russian_troops_into_Samarkand_1868.jpg/560px-Karazin_-_Entry_of_Russian_troops_into_Samarkand_1868.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2529" data-file-height="1389" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Karazin_-_Entry_of_Russian_troops_into_Samarkand_1868.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Russian troops taking <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a> in 1868.</div></div></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Russia">Tsarist Russia</a> is not often regarded as a colonial power such as the United Kingdom or France because of the manner of Russian expansions: unlike the United Kingdom, which expanded overseas, the Russian empire grew from the centre outward by a process of accretion, like the United States. In the 19th century, Russian expansion took the form of a struggle of an effectively <a href="/wiki/Landlocked" class="mw-redirect" title="Landlocked">landlocked</a> country for access to a <a href="/wiki/Warm_water_port" class="mw-redirect" title="Warm water port">warm water port</a>.
</p><p>Qing China defeated Russia in the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts</a>.
</p><p>While the British were consolidating their hold on India, Russian expansion had moved steadily eastward to the Pacific, then toward the Middle East. In the early 19th century it succeeded in conquering the <a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="South Caucasus">South Caucasus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a> from <a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar Iran</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1804%E2%80%9313)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Persian War (1804–13)">Russo-Persian War (1804–13)</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1826%E2%80%9328)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Persian War (1826–28)">Russo-Persian War (1826–28)</a> and the out coming treaties of <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Gulistan" title="Treaty of Gulistan">Gulistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Turkmenchay" title="Treaty of Turkmenchay">Turkmenchay</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a></sup> giving Russia direct borders with both Persia's as well as <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Turkey's</a> heartlands. Later, they eventually reached the frontiers of <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> as well (which had the largest foreign border adjacent to British holdings in India). In response to Russian expansion, the defense of India's land frontiers and the control of all sea approaches to the <a href="/wiki/Subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Subcontinent">Subcontinent</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> became preoccupations of British foreign policy in the 19th century.
</p><p>Anglo-Russian rivalry in the Middle East and Central Asia led to a brief confrontation over <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> in the 1870s. In <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>), both nations set up banks to extend their economic influence. The United Kingdom went so far as to invade <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, a land subordinate to the Chinese empire, in 1904, but withdrew when it became clear that Russian influence was insignificant and when Chinese resistance proved tougher than expected.
</p><p>In 1907, the United Kingdom and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> signed an agreement which — on the surface —ended their rivalry in Central Asia. (<i>see</i> <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Entente" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Russian Entente">Anglo-Russian Entente</a>) As part of the entente, Russia agreed to deal with the sovereign of <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> only through British intermediaries. In turn, the United Kingdom would not annex or occupy <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>. Chinese suzerainty over <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> also was recognised by both Russia and the United Kingdom, since nominal control by a weak China was preferable to control by either power. Persia was divided into Russian and British spheres of influence and an intervening "neutral" zone. The United Kingdom and Russia chose to reach these uneasy compromises because of growing concern on the part of both powers over German expansion in strategic areas of China and Africa.
</p><p>Following the entente, Russia increasingly intervened in Persian domestic politics and suppressed nationalist movements that threatened both <a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">Russian Revolution</a>, Russia gave up its claim to a sphere of influence, though <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> involvement persisted alongside the United Kingdom's until the 1940s.
</p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Persia</a> (Iran) and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, a German company built a railroad from <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> to <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> in the latter, while it built <a href="/wiki/Trans-Iranian_Railway" title="Trans-Iranian Railway">a railroad</a> from the north of the country to the south, connecting the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> with the Persian Gulf in the former.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> wanted to gain economic influence in the region and then, perhaps, move on to India. This was met with bitter resistance by the United Kingdom, Russia, and France who divided the region among themselves.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Western_European_and_Russian_intrusions_into_China">Western European and Russian intrusions into China</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Western European and Russian intrusions into China">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/wiki/File:China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg/200px-China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="274" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg/300px-China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg/400px-China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3118" data-file-height="4267" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A shocked <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(bureaucrat)" title="Mandarin (bureaucrat)">mandarin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a> robe in the back, with <a href="/wiki/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a> (UK), <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm II of Germany">William II</a> (Germany), <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas II</a> (Russia), <a href="/wiki/Marianne" title="Marianne">Marianne</a> (France), and <a href="/wiki/Mutsuhito" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutsuhito">Mutsuhito</a> (Japan) cutting up a <a href="/wiki/King_cake" title="King cake">king cake</a> with <i>Chine</i> ("China" in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>) written on it.</div></div></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_enclaves_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of foreign enclaves in China">List of foreign enclaves in China</a></div>
<p>The 16th century brought many <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> missionaries to China, such as <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a>, who established missions where Western science was introduced, and where Europeans gathered knowledge of Chinese society, history, culture, and science. During the 18th century, merchants from Western Europe came to China in increasing numbers. However, merchants were confined to Guangzhou and the Portuguese colony of Macau, as they had been since the 16th century. European traders were increasingly irritated by what they saw as the relatively high customs duties they had to pay and by the attempts to curb the growing import trade in <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a>. By 1800, its importation was forbidden by the imperial government. However, the opium trade continued to boom.
</p><p>Early in the 19th century, serious internal weaknesses developed in the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> that left China vulnerable to Western, <a href="/wiki/Meiji_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiji period">Meiji period</a> Japanese, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1855%E2%80%9392)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Russia (1855–92)">Russian</a> imperialism. In 1839, China found itself fighting the <a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a> with Britain. China was defeated, and in 1842, signed the provisions of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a> which were first of the <a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaty" title="Unequal treaty">unequal treaties</a> signed during the Qing Dynasty. <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island" title="Hong Kong Island">Hong Kong Island</a> was ceded to Britain, and certain ports, including <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, were opened to British trade and residence. In 1856, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a> broke out. The Chinese were again defeated, and now forced to the terms of the 1858 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin" title="Treaty of Tientsin">Treaty of Tientsin</a>. The treaty opened new ports to trade and allowed foreigners to travel in the interior. In addition, Christians gained the right to propagate their religion. The United States <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia" title="Treaty of Wanghia">Treaty of Wanghia</a> and Russia later obtained the same prerogatives in separate treaties.
</p><p>Toward the end of the 19th century, China appeared on the way to territorial dismemberment and economic vassalage—the fate of India's rulers that played out much earlier. Several provisions of these treaties caused long-standing bitterness and humiliation among the Chinese: extraterritoriality (meaning that in a dispute with a Chinese person, a Westerner had the right to be tried in a court under the laws of his own country), customs regulation, and the right to station foreign warships in Chinese waters, including its navigable rivers.
</p><p>Jane E. Elliott criticized the allegation that China refused to modernize or was unable to defeat Western armies as simplistic, noting that China embarked on a massive military modernization in the late 1800s after several defeats, buying weapons from Western countries and manufacturing their own at arsenals, such as the <a href="/wiki/Hanyang_Arsenal" title="Hanyang Arsenal">Hanyang Arsenal</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a>. In addition, Elliott questioned the claim that Chinese society was traumatized by the Western victories, as many Chinese peasants (90% of the population at that time) living outside the concessions continued about their daily lives, uninterrupted and without any feeling of "humiliation".<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>Historians have judged the Qing dynasty's vulnerability and weakness to foreign imperialism in the 19th century to be based mainly on its maritime naval weakness while it achieved military success against westerners on land, the historian Edward L. Dreyer said that "China’s nineteenth-century humiliations were strongly related to her weakness and failure at sea. At the start of the Opium War, China had no unified navy and no sense of how vulnerable she was to attack from the sea; British forces sailed and steamed wherever they wanted to go......In the Arrow War (1856-60), the Chinese had no way to prevent the Anglo-French expedition of 1860 from sailing into the Gulf of Zhili and landing as near as possible to Beijing. Meanwhile, new but not exactly modern Chinese armies suppressed the midcentury rebellions, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1881)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)">bluffed Russia into a peaceful settlement of disputed frontiers in Central Asia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bang_Bo_(Zhennan_Pass)" title="Battle of Bang Bo (Zhennan Pass)">defeated the French forces on land in the Sino-French War (1884-85)</a>. But the defeat of the fleet, and the resulting threat to steamship traffic to Taiwan, forced China to conclude peace on unfavorable terms."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War</a>, Chinese forces defeated the French at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_C%E1%BA%A7u_Gi%E1%BA%A5y_(Paper_Bridge)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cầu Giấy (Paper Bridge)">Battle of Cầu Giấy (Paper Bridge)</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%E1%BA%AFc_L%E1%BB%87_ambush" title="Bắc Lệ ambush">Bắc Lệ ambush</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Phu_Lam_Tao" title="Battle of Phu Lam Tao">Battle of Phu Lam Tao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zhenhai" title="Battle of Zhenhai">Battle of Zhenhai</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tamsui" title="Battle of Tamsui">Battle of Tamsui</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Keelung_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Keelung Campaign">Keelung Campaign</a> and in the last battle which ended the war, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bang_Bo_(Zhennan_Pass)" title="Battle of Bang Bo (Zhennan Pass)">Battle of Bang Bo (Zhennan Pass)</a>, which triggered the French <a href="/wiki/Retreat_from_L%E1%BA%A1ng_S%C6%A1n" title="Retreat from Lạng Sơn">Retreat from Lạng Sơn</a> and resulted in the collapse of the French <a href="/wiki/Jules_Ferry" title="Jules Ferry">Jules Ferry</a> government in the <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_Affair" title="Tonkin Affair">Tonkin Affair</a>.
</p><p>The Qing dynasty forced Russia to hand over disputed territory in Ili in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1881)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)">Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)</a>, in what was widely seen by the west as a diplomatic victory for the Qing.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a></sup> Russia acknowledged that Qing China potentially posed a serious military threat.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott2008_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott2008-38">[37]</a></sup> Mass media in the west during this era portrayed China as a rising military power due to its modernization programs and as a major threat to the western world, invoking fears that China would successfully conquer western colonies like Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a></sup>
</p><p>The British observer Demetrius Charles de Kavanagh Boulger suggested a British-Chinese alliance to check Russian expansion in Central Asia.
</p><p>During the Ili crisis when Qing China threatened to go to war against Russia over the Russian occupation of Ili, the British officer <a href="/wiki/Charles_George_Gordon" title="Charles George Gordon">Charles George Gordon</a> was sent to China by Britain to advise China on military options against Russia should a potential war break out between China and Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Russians observed the Chinese building up their arsenal of modern weapons during the Ili crisis, the Chinese bought thousands of rifles from Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a></sup> In 1880, massive amounts of military equipment and rifles were shipped via boats to China from Antwerp as China purchased torpedoes, artillery, and 260,260 modern rifles from Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Russian military observer D. V. Putiatia visited China in 1888 and found that in Northeastern China (Manchuria) along the Chinese-Russian border, the Chinese soldiers were potentially able to become adept at "European tactics" under certain circumstances, and the Chinese soldiers were armed with modern weapons like Krupp artillery, Winchester carbines, and Mauser rifles.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a></sup>
</p><p>Compared to Russian controlled areas, more benefits were given to the Muslim Kirghiz on the Chinese controlled areas. Russian settlers fought against the Muslim nomadic Kirghiz, which led the Russians to believe that the Kirghiz would be a liability in any conflict against China. The Muslim Kirghiz were sure that in an upcoming war, that China would defeat Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a></sup>
</p><p>Russian sinologists, the Russian media, threat of internal rebellion, the pariah status inflicted by the Congress of Berlin, the negative state of the Russian economy all led Russia to concede and negotiate with China in St Petersburg, and return most of Ili to China.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:262px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_Beheading_1894.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Japanese_Beheading_1894.jpg/260px-Japanese_Beheading_1894.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="129" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Japanese_Beheading_1894.jpg/390px-Japanese_Beheading_1894.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Japanese_Beheading_1894.jpg/520px-Japanese_Beheading_1894.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1306" data-file-height="650" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_Beheading_1894.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Japanese illustration depicting the beheading of Chinese captives. <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a> of 1894–5</div></div></div>
<p>The rise of Japan since the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a> as an imperial power led to further subjugation of China. In a dispute over China's longstanding claim of suzerainty in <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, war broke out between China and Japan, resulting in humiliating defeat for the Chinese. By the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a> (1895), China was forced to recognize effective Japanese rule of Korea and Taiwan was ceded to Japan until its recovery in 1945 at the end of the WWII by the Republic of China.
</p><p>China's defeat at the hands of <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> was another trigger for future aggressive actions by Western powers. In 1897, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> demanded and was given a set of exclusive mining and railroad rights in <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> province. Russia obtained access to <a href="/wiki/Dairen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dairen">Dairen</a> and <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCshunkou" class="mw-redirect" title="Lüshunkou">Port Arthur</a> and the right to build a railroad across Manchuria, thereby achieving complete domination over a large portion of northwestern China. The United Kingdom and France also received a number of <a href="/wiki/Concession_(territory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Concession (territory)">concessions</a>. At this time, much of China was divided up into "spheres of influence": Germany had influence in <a href="/wiki/Jiaozhou_Bay" title="Jiaozhou Bay">Jiaozhou (Kiaochow) Bay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> valley; Russia had influence in the <a href="/wiki/Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong Peninsula</a> and Manchuria; the United Kingdom had influence in <a href="/wiki/Weihaiwei_under_British_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Weihaiwei under British rule">Weihaiwei</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze</a> Valley; and France had influence in the <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Guangzhou Bay">Guangzhou Bay</a> and the provinces of Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:262px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Boxer_Rebellion.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Boxer_Rebellion.jpg/260px-Boxer_Rebellion.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="153" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Boxer_Rebellion.jpg/390px-Boxer_Rebellion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Boxer_Rebellion.jpg/520px-Boxer_Rebellion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1301" data-file-height="768" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Boxer_Rebellion.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>British and Japanese forces engage <a href="/wiki/Fists_of_Righteous_Harmony" class="mw-redirect" title="Fists of Righteous Harmony">Boxers</a> in battle, 1900</div></div></div>
<p>China continued to be divided up into these spheres until the United States, which had no sphere of influence, grew alarmed at the possibility of its businessmen being excluded from Chinese markets. In 1899, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Hay" title="John Hay">John Hay</a> asked the major powers to agree to a policy of equal trading privileges. In 1900, several powers agreed to the U.S.-backed scheme, giving rise to the "<a href="/wiki/Open_Door_Policy" title="Open Door Policy">Open Door</a>" policy, denoting freedom of commercial access and non-annexation of Chinese territory. In any event, it was in the European powers' interest to have a weak but independent Chinese government. The privileges of the Europeans in China were guaranteed in the form of treaties with the Qing government. In the event that the Qing government totally collapsed, each power risked losing the privileges that it already had negotiated.
</p><p>The erosion of Chinese sovereignty and seizures of land from Chinese by foreigners contributed to a spectacular anti-foreign outbreak in June 1900, when the "<a href="/wiki/Fists_of_Righteous_Harmony" class="mw-redirect" title="Fists of Righteous Harmony">Boxers</a>" (properly the society of the "righteous and harmonious fists") attacked foreigners around <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>. The Imperial Court was divided into anti-foreign and pro-foreign factions, with the pro-foreign faction led by <a href="/wiki/Ronglu" title="Ronglu">Ronglu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prince_Qing" title="Prince Qing">Prince Qing</a> hampering any military effort by the anti-foreign faction led by <a href="/wiki/Prince_Duan" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Duan">Prince Duan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dong_Fuxiang" title="Dong Fuxiang">Dong Fuxiang</a>. The Qing Empress Dowager ordered all diplomatic ties to be cut off and all foreigners to leave the legations in Beijing to go to <a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a>. The foreigners refused to leave. <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_the_International_Legations#False_propaganda" title="Siege of the International Legations">Fueled by entirely false reports that the foreigners in the legations were massacred</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a> decided to launch an expedition on Beijing to reach the legations but they underestimated the Qing military. The Qing and Boxers defeated the foreigners at the <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Expedition" title="Seymour Expedition">Seymour Expedition</a>, forcing them to turn back at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Langfang" title="Battle of Langfang">Battle of Langfang</a>. In response to the foreign attack <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dagu_Forts_(1900)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Dagu Forts (1900)">on Dagu Forts</a> the Qing responded by declaring war against the foreigners. the Qing forces and foreigners fought a fierce battle at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tientsin" title="Battle of Tientsin">Battle of Tientsin</a> before the foreigners could launch a second expedition. On their second try <a href="/wiki/Gaselee_Expedition" title="Gaselee Expedition">Gaselee Expedition</a>, with a much larger force, the foreigners managed to reach Beijing and fight the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Peking_(1900)" title="Battle of Peking (1900)">Battle of Peking (1900)</a>. British and French forces looted, plundered and burned the <a href="/wiki/Old_Summer_Palace" title="Old Summer Palace">Old Summer Palace</a> to the ground for the second time (the first time being in 1860, following the Second Opium War). German forces were particularly severe in exacting revenge for the killing of their ambassador due to the orders of Kaiser Wilhelm II, who held anti-Asian sentiments, while Russia tightened its hold on Manchuria in the northeast until its crushing defeat by Japan in the war of 1904–1905. The Qing court evacuated to <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a> and threatened to continue the war against foreigners, until the foreigners tempered their demands in the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a>, promising that China would not have to give up any land and gave up the demands for the execution of Dong Fuxiang and Prince Duan.
</p><p>The correspondent Douglas Story observed Chinese troops in 1907 and praised their abilities and military skill.<sup id="cite_ref-Story1907_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Story1907-46">[45]</a></sup>
</p><p>Extraterritorial jurisdiction was abandoned by the United Kingdom and the United States in 1943. <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek#Refusal_of_French_Indochina" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek forced the French to hand over</a> all their concessions back to China control after World War II. Foreign political control over leased parts of China ended with the incorporation of Hong Kong and the small Portuguese territory of Macau into the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a> in 1997 and 1999 respectively.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="U.S._imperialism_in_Asia">U.S. imperialism in Asia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: U.S. imperialism in Asia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_overseas_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States overseas expansion">History of United States overseas expansion</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Editorial_cartoon_about_Jacob_Smith%27s_retaliation_for_Balangiga.gif" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Editorial_cartoon_about_Jacob_Smith%27s_retaliation_for_Balangiga.gif/220px-Editorial_cartoon_about_Jacob_Smith%27s_retaliation_for_Balangiga.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Editorial_cartoon_about_Jacob_Smith%27s_retaliation_for_Balangiga.gif/330px-Editorial_cartoon_about_Jacob_Smith%27s_retaliation_for_Balangiga.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Editorial_cartoon_about_Jacob_Smith%27s_retaliation_for_Balangiga.gif/440px-Editorial_cartoon_about_Jacob_Smith%27s_retaliation_for_Balangiga.gif 2x" data-file-width="442" data-file-height="373" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Editorial_cartoon_about_Jacob_Smith%27s_retaliation_for_Balangiga.gif" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>One of the <i>New York Journal</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s most infamous cartoons, depicting <a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American War</a> General <a href="/wiki/Jacob_H._Smith" title="Jacob H. Smith">Jacob H. Smith</a>'s order "Kill Everyone over Ten", from the front page on May 5, 1902.</div></div></div>
<p>Some Americans in the Nineteenth Century advocated for the annexation of Taiwan from China.<sup id="cite_ref-Gordon2009_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gordon2009-47">[46]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hao2015_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hao2015-48">[47]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_aborigines" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese aborigines">Aboriginals on Taiwan</a> often attacked and massacred shipwrecked western sailors.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin1949_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin1949-49">[48]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Anderson1946_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson1946-50">[49]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grad1942_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grad1942-51">[50]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FisherBest2011_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FisherBest2011-52">[51]</a></sup> In 1867, during the <a href="/wiki/Rover_incident" title="Rover incident">Rover incident</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_aborigines" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese aborigines">Taiwanese aborigines</a> attacked shipwrecked American sailors, killing the entire crew.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a></sup> They subsequently defeated a retaliatory <a href="/wiki/Formosa_Expedition" title="Formosa Expedition">expedition by the American military</a> and killed another American during the battle.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a></sup>
</p><p>As the United States emerged as a new imperial power in the Pacific and Asia, one of the two oldest Western imperialist powers in the regions, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, was finding it increasingly difficult to maintain control of territories it had held in the regions since the 16th century. In 1896, a widespread revolt against Spanish rule broke out in the Philippines. Meanwhile, the recent string of U.S. territorial gains in the Pacific posed an even greater threat to Spain's remaining colonial holdings.
</p><p>As the U.S. continued to expand its economic and military power in the Pacific, it declared war against Spain in 1898. During the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a>, U.S. Admiral Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a> and U.S. troops landed in the Philippines. Spain later agreed by treaty to cede the Philippines in Asia and <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a> in the Pacific. In the Caribbean, Spain ceded <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> to the U.S. The war also marked the end of Spanish rule in Cuba, which was to be granted nominal independence but remained heavily influenced by the U.S. government and U.S. business interests. One year following its treaty with Spain, the U.S. occupied the small Pacific outpost of <a href="/wiki/Wake_Island" title="Wake Island">Wake Island</a>.
</p><p>The Filipinos, who assisted U.S. troops in fighting the Spanish, wished to establish an independent state and, on June 12, 1898, <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Philippine Declaration of Independence">declared independence</a> from Spain. In 1899, fighting between the Filipino nationalists and the U.S. broke out; it took the U.S. almost fifteen years to fully subdue the <a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">insurgency</a>. The U.S. sent 70,000 troops and suffered thousands of casualties. The Filipinos insurgents, however, suffered considerably higher casualties than the Americans. Most casualties in the war were civilians dying primarily from disease.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a></sup>
</p><p>U.S. attacks into the countryside often included scorched earth campaigns where entire villages were burned and destroyed, and concentrated civilians into camps known as "protected zones". Most of these civilian casualties resulted from disease and famine. Reports of the execution of U.S. soldiers taken prisoner by the Filipinos led to disproportionate reprisals by American forces.
</p><p>The Moro Muslims fought against the Americans in the <a href="/wiki/Moro_Rebellion" title="Moro Rebellion">Moro Rebellion</a>.
</p><p>In 1914, <a href="/wiki/Dean_C._Worcester" class="mw-redirect" title="Dean C. Worcester">Dean C. Worcester</a>, U.S. Secretary of the Interior for the Philippines (1901–1913) described "the regime of civilisation and improvement which started with American occupation and resulted in developing naked savages into cultivated and educated men". Nevertheless, some Americans, such as <a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a>, deeply opposed American involvement/imperialism in the Philippines, leading to the abandonment of attempts to construct a permanent U.S. naval base and using it as an entry point to the Chinese market. In 1916, Congress guaranteed the independence of the Philippines by 1945.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="World_War_I:_Changes_in_Imperialism">World War I: Changes in Imperialism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: World War I: Changes in Imperialism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>World War I brought about the fall of several empires in Europe. This had repercussions around the world. The defeated <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> included <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turkish</a> <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> lost all of its colonies in Asia. German New Guinea, a part of <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>, became administered by <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>. German possessions and concessions in China, including <a href="/wiki/Qingdao" title="Qingdao">Qingdao</a>, became the subject of a controversy during the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Peace Conference, 1919">Paris Peace Conference</a> when the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a> in China agreed to cede these interests to <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, to the anger of many Chinese people. Although the Chinese diplomats refused to sign the agreement, these interests were ceded to <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> with the support of the United States and the United Kingdom.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> gave up her provinces; <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Palestine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>) came under French and British control as <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_Mandates" class="mw-redirect" title="League of Nations Mandates">League of Nations Mandates</a>. The discovery of <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> first in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and then in the Arab lands in the interbellum provided a new focus for activity on the part of the United Kingdom, France, and the United States.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Japan">Japan</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Japan">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Japanese_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese imperialism">Japanese imperialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_expansionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese expansionism">Japanese expansionism</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Dutch_personnel_and_Japanese_women_watching_an_incoming_towed_Dutch_sailing_ship_at_Dejima_by_Kawahara_Keiga.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Dutch_personnel_and_Japanese_women_watching_an_incoming_towed_Dutch_sailing_ship_at_Dejima_by_Kawahara_Keiga.jpg/220px-Dutch_personnel_and_Japanese_women_watching_an_incoming_towed_Dutch_sailing_ship_at_Dejima_by_Kawahara_Keiga.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Dutch_personnel_and_Japanese_women_watching_an_incoming_towed_Dutch_sailing_ship_at_Dejima_by_Kawahara_Keiga.jpg/330px-Dutch_personnel_and_Japanese_women_watching_an_incoming_towed_Dutch_sailing_ship_at_Dejima_by_Kawahara_Keiga.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Dutch_personnel_and_Japanese_women_watching_an_incoming_towed_Dutch_sailing_ship_at_Dejima_by_Kawahara_Keiga.jpg/440px-Dutch_personnel_and_Japanese_women_watching_an_incoming_towed_Dutch_sailing_ship_at_Dejima_by_Kawahara_Keiga.jpg 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="600" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Dutch_personnel_and_Japanese_women_watching_an_incoming_towed_Dutch_sailing_ship_at_Dejima_by_Kawahara_Keiga.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Europeans in <a href="/wiki/Dejima" title="Dejima">Dejima</a>, the Dutch trading colony in the harbor of Nagasaki, early 19th century.</div></div></div>
<p>In 1641, all Westerners were thrown out of Japan. For the next two centuries, Japan was free from Western contact, except for at the port of <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki,_Nagasaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagasaki, Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>, which Japan allowed Dutch merchant vessels to enter on a limited basis.
</p><p>Japan's freedom from Western contact ended on 8 July 1853, when <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Perry_(naval_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matthew Perry (naval officer)">Commodore Matthew Perry</a> of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a> sailed a squadron of black-hulled warships into <a href="/wiki/Edo" title="Edo">Edo</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Tokyo" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a>) harbor. The Japanese told Perry to sail to <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki,_Nagasaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagasaki, Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a> but he refused. Perry sought to present a letter from U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Millard_Fillmore" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a> to the emperor which demanded concessions from Japan. Japanese authorities responded by stating that they could not present the letter directly to the emperor, but scheduled a meeting on 14 July with a representative of the emperor. On 14 July, the squadron sailed towards the shore, giving a demonstration of their cannon's firepower thirteen times. Perry landed with a large detachment of Marines and presented the emperor's representative with Fillmore's letter. Perry said he would return, and did so, this time with even more war ships. The U.S. show of force led to Japan's concession to the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Kanagawa" title="Convention of Kanagawa">Convention of Kanagawa</a> on 31 March 1854. This treaty conferred extraterritoriality on American nationals, as well as, opening up further treaty ports beyond Nagasaki. This treaty was followed up by similar treaties with the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Russia and France. These events made Japanese authorities aware that the country was lacking technologically and needed the strength of industrialism in order to keep their power. This realisation eventually led to a civil war and political reform known the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a>.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a> of 1868 led to administrative overhaul, deflation and subsequent rapid economic development. Japan had limited natural resources of her own and sought both overseas markets and sources of raw materials, fuelling a drive for imperial conquest which began with the defeat of China in 1895.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Martial_law,_Korea_1900s.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Martial_law%2C_Korea_1900s.jpg/220px-Martial_law%2C_Korea_1900s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Martial_law%2C_Korea_1900s.jpg/330px-Martial_law%2C_Korea_1900s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Martial_law%2C_Korea_1900s.jpg/440px-Martial_law%2C_Korea_1900s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2110" data-file-height="1431" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Martial_law,_Korea_1900s.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Three <a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">Koreans</a> shot for pulling up rails as a protest against seizure of land without payment by Japanese.</div></div></div>
<p>Taiwan, ceded by <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> China, became the first Japanese colony. In 1899, Japan won agreements from the <a href="/wiki/Great_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Great powers">great powers</a>' to abandon extraterritoriality for their citizens, and an alliance with the United Kingdom established it in 1902 as an international power. Its spectacular defeat of Russia's navy in 1905 gave it the southern half of the island of <a href="/wiki/Sakhalin" title="Sakhalin">Sakhalin</a>; exclusive Japanese influence over Korea (propinquity); the former Russian lease of the <a href="/wiki/Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong Peninsula</a> with Port Arthur (<a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCshunkou" class="mw-redirect" title="Lüshunkou">Lüshunkou</a>); and extensive rights in Manchuria (see the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a>).
</p><p>The Empire of Japan and the <a href="/wiki/Joseon_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseon Dynasty">Joseon Dynasty</a> in Korea formed bilateral diplomatic relations in 1876. China lost its suzerainty of Korea after defeat in the Sino-Japanese War in 1894. Russia also lost influence on the Korean peninsula with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Portsmouth" title="Treaty of Portsmouth">Treaty of Portsmouth</a> as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Japanese war">Russo-Japanese war</a> in 1904. The Joseon Dynasty became increasingly dependent on Japan. Korea became a protectorate of Japan with the <a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1905" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905">Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905</a>. Korea was then <i>de jure</i> annexed to Japan with the <a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1910" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910">Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910</a>.
</p><p>Japan was now one of the most powerful forces in the <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a>, and in 1914, it entered World War I on the side of the Allies, seizing German-occupied <a href="/wiki/Jiaozhou_Bay" title="Jiaozhou Bay">Kiaochow</a> and subsequently demanding Chinese acceptance of Japanese political influence and territorial acquisitions (<a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_Demands" title="Twenty-One Demands">Twenty-One Demands</a>, 1915). <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">Mass protests in Peking</a> in 1919 which sparked widespread Chinese nationalism, coupled with Allied (and particularly U.S.) opinion led to Japan's abandonment of most of the demands and Kiaochow's 1922 return to China. Japan received the German territory from the Treaty of Versailles.
</p><p>Tensions with China increased over the 1920s, and in 1931 Japanese <a href="/wiki/Kwantung_Army" title="Kwantung Army">Kwantung Army</a> based in Manchuria seized control of the region without admission from Tokyo. Intermittent conflict with China led to full-scale war in mid-1937, drawing Japan toward an overambitious bid for Asian hegemony (<a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Co-Prosperity_Sphere" title="Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere">Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere</a>), which ultimately led to defeat and the loss of all its overseas territories after World War II (see <a href="/wiki/Japanese_expansionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese expansionism">Japanese expansionism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_nationalism" title="Japanese nationalism">Japanese nationalism</a>).
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="After_World_War_II">After World War II</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: After World War II">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Decolonisation_and_the_rise_of_nationalism_in_Asia">Decolonisation and the rise of nationalism in Asia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Decolonisation and the rise of nationalism in Asia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In the aftermath of World War II, European colonies, controlling more than one billion people throughout the world, still ruled most of the Middle East, South East Asia, and the Indian Subcontinent. However, the image of European pre-eminence was shattered by the wartime Japanese occupations of large portions of British, French, and Dutch territories in the Pacific. The destabilisation of European rule led to the rapid growth of nationalist movements in Asia—especially in Indonesia, <a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">Malaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>).
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Aden7-1967.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Aden7-1967.jpg/220px-Aden7-1967.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Aden7-1967.jpg/330px-Aden7-1967.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Aden7-1967.jpg/440px-Aden7-1967.jpg 2x" data-file-width="813" data-file-height="602" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Aden7-1967.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/British_Forces_Aden" title="British Forces Aden">British Army</a>'s counter-insurgency campaign in the British controlled territories of <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_South_Arabia" title="Federation of South Arabia">South Arabia</a>, 1967</div></div></div>
<p>The war, however, only accelerated forces already in existence undermining Western imperialism in Asia. Throughout the colonial world, the processes of urbanisation and capitalist investment created professional merchant classes that emerged as new Westernised elites. While imbued with Western political and economic ideas, these classes increasingly grew to resent their unequal status under European rule.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="British_in_India_and_the_Middle_East">British in India and the Middle East</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: British in India and the Middle East">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4><p>
In India, the westward movement of Japanese forces towards Bengal during World War II had led to major concessions on the part of British authorities to Indian nationalist leaders. In 1947, the United Kingdom, devastated by war and embroiled in economic crisis at home, granted <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a> its independence as two nations: <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>. Myanmar (<a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma">Burma</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> (<a href="/wiki/British_Ceylon" title="British Ceylon">Ceylon</a>), which is also part of British India, also gained their independence from the United Kingdom the following year, in 1948. In the Middle East, the United Kingdom granted independence to <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> in 1946 and two years later, in 1948, ended its mandate of <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> becoming the independent nation of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>.</p><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Nederlandse_militairen_controleren_de_papieren_van_Javaanse_vrouwen_bij_het_transitkamp_van_de_Zeven_December_Divisie_bij_Tandjong_Priok_of_het_hierna_door_de_divisie_betrokken_Kamp_Doeri_Batavia_TMnr_10029000.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Nederlandse_militairen_controleren_de_papieren_van_Javaanse_vrouwen_bij_het_transitkamp_van_de_Zeven_December_Divisie_bij_Tandjong_Priok_of_het_hierna_door_de_divisie_betrokken_Kamp_Doeri_Batavia_TMnr_10029000.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Nederlandse_militairen_controleren_de_papieren_van_Javaanse_vrouwen_bij_het_transitkamp_van_de_Zeven_December_Divisie_bij_Tandjong_Priok_of_het_hierna_door_de_divisie_betrokken_Kamp_Doeri_Batavia_TMnr_10029000.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Nederlandse_militairen_controleren_de_papieren_van_Javaanse_vrouwen_bij_het_transitkamp_van_de_Zeven_December_Divisie_bij_Tandjong_Priok_of_het_hierna_door_de_divisie_betrokken_Kamp_Doeri_Batavia_TMnr_10029000.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="480" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Nederlandse_militairen_controleren_de_papieren_van_Javaanse_vrouwen_bij_het_transitkamp_van_de_Zeven_December_Divisie_bij_Tandjong_Priok_of_het_hierna_door_de_divisie_betrokken_Kamp_Doeri_Batavia_TMnr_10029000.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Dutch soldiers control the papers of <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Javanese</a> women, 1946</div></div></div>
<p>Following the end of the war, nationalists in Indonesia demanded complete independence from the Netherlands. A brutal conflict ensued, and finally, in 1949, through <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> mediation, the Dutch East Indies achieved independence, becoming the new nation of Indonesia. Dutch imperialism moulded this new multi-ethnic state comprising roughly 3,000 islands of the Indonesian archipelago with a population at the time of over 100 million.
</p><p>The end of Dutch rule opened up latent tensions between the roughly 300 distinct ethnic groups of the islands, with the major ethnic fault line being between the <a href="/wiki/Javanese_people" title="Javanese people">Javanese</a> and the non-Javanese.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_New_Guinea" title="Netherlands New Guinea">Netherlands New Guinea</a> was under the Dutch administration until 1962 (see also <a href="/wiki/West_New_Guinea_dispute" title="West New Guinea dispute">West New Guinea dispute</a>).
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="United_States_in_Asia">United States in Asia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: United States in Asia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In the Philippines, the U.S. remained committed to its previous pledges to grant the islands their independence, and the Philippines became the first of the Western-controlled Asian colonies to be granted independence post-World War II. However, the Philippines remained under pressure to adopt a political and economic system similar to the U.S.
</p><p>This aim was greatly complicated by the rise of new political forces. During the war, the <i><a href="/wiki/Hukbalahap" title="Hukbalahap">Hukbalahap</a></i> (People's Army), which had strong ties to the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Philippines" title="Communist Party of the Philippines">Communist Party of the Philippines</a> (PKP), fought against the Japanese occupation of the Philippines and won strong popularity among many sectors of the Filipino working class and peasantry. In 1946, the PKP participated in elections as part of the Democratic Alliance. However, with the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, its growing political strength drew a reaction from the ruling government and the United States, resulting in the repression of the PKP and its associated organisations. In 1948, the PKP began organizing an armed struggle against the government and continued U.S. military presence. In 1950, the PKP created the People's Liberation Army (<i>Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan</i>), which mobilised thousands of troops throughout the islands. The insurgency lasted until 1956, when the PKP gave up armed struggle.
</p><p>In 1968, the PKP underwent a split, and in 1969 the <a href="/wiki/Maoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Maoist">Maoist</a> faction of the PKP created the <a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army" title="New People's Army">New People's Army</a>. Maoist rebels re-launched an armed struggle against the government and the U.S. military presence in the Philippines, which continues to this day.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="France_in_Indochina_2">France in Indochina</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: France in Indochina">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Post-war_resistance_to_French_rule">Post-war resistance to French rule</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Post-war resistance to French rule">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:1stIndochinaWar001.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/1stIndochinaWar001.jpg/220px-1stIndochinaWar001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/1stIndochinaWar001.jpg/330px-1stIndochinaWar001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/1stIndochinaWar001.jpg/440px-1stIndochinaWar001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="978" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:1stIndochinaWar001.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>French Marine commandos wade ashore off the <a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">Annam</a> coast in July 1950</div></div></div>
<p>France remained determined to retain its control of <a href="/wiki/Indochina" class="mw-redirect" title="Indochina">Indochina</a>. However, in <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a>, in 1945, a broad front of nationalists and communists led by <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a> declared an independent Republic of Vietnam, commonly referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Viet Minh</a> regime by Western outsiders. France, seeking to regain control of Vietnam, countered with a vague offer of self-government under French rule. France's offers were unacceptable to Vietnamese nationalists; and in December 1946 the Việt Minh launched a rebellion against the French authority governing the colonies of French Indochina. The first few years of the war involved a low-level rural insurgency against French authority. However, after the Chinese communists reached the Northern border of Vietnam in 1949, the conflict turned into a conventional war between two armies equipped with modern weapons supplied by the United States and the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a></sup> Meanwhile, the France granted the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Vietnam" title="State of Vietnam">State of Vietnam</a> based in <a href="/wiki/Saigon" class="mw-redirect" title="Saigon">Saigon</a> independence in 1949 while <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> received independence in 1953. The US recognized the regime in Saigon, and provided the French military effort with military aid.
</p><p>Meanwhile, in Vietnam, the French war against the Viet Minh continued for nearly eight years. The French were gradually worn down by guerrilla and jungle fighting. The turning point for France occurred at <a href="/wiki/Dien_Bien_Phu" class="mw-redirect" title="Dien Bien Phu">Dien Bien Phu</a> in 1954, which resulted in the surrender of ten thousand French troops. <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> was forced to accept a political settlement that year at the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conference_(1954)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Conference (1954)">Geneva Conference</a>, which led to a precarious set of agreements regarding the future political status of Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="List_of_European_colonies_in_Asia">List of European colonies in Asia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: List of European colonies in Asia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>British colonies in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>, And <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>:
</p>
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma"><img alt="British rule in Burma" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Burma_%281939%E2%80%931941%2C_1945%E2%80%931948%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Burma_%281939%E2%80%931941%2C_1945%E2%80%931948%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Burma_%281939%E2%80%931941%2C_1945%E2%80%931948%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Burma_%281939%E2%80%931941%2C_1945%E2%80%931948%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Burma_%281939%E2%80%931941%2C_1945%E2%80%931948%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Burma_%281939%E2%80%931941%2C_1945%E2%80%931948%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/British_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="British Burma">British Burma</a> (1824–1948, merged with <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">India</a> by the British from 1886 to 1937)</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/British_Ceylon" title="British Ceylon"><img alt="British Ceylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Flag_of_Ceylon_%281875%E2%80%931948%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ceylon_%281875%E2%80%931948%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Flag_of_Ceylon_%281875%E2%80%931948%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ceylon_%281875%E2%80%931948%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Flag_of_Ceylon_%281875%E2%80%931948%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Ceylon_%281875%E2%80%931948%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/British_Ceylon" title="British Ceylon">British Ceylon</a> (1815–1948, now <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>)</li></ul>
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Timor" title="Portuguese Timor"><img alt="Portuguese Timor" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Timor" title="Portuguese Timor">Portuguese Timor</a> (1702–1975, now <a href="/wiki/East_Timor" title="East Timor">East Timor</a>)</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/British_Hong_Kong" title="British Hong Kong"><img alt="British Hong Kong" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_Hong_Kong_%281959%E2%80%931997%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hong_Kong_%281959%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_Hong_Kong_%281959%E2%80%931997%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hong_Kong_%281959%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_Hong_Kong_%281959%E2%80%931997%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hong_Kong_%281959%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/British_Hong_Kong" title="British Hong Kong">British Hong Kong</a> (1842–1997)</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj"><img alt="British Raj" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg/23px-British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg/35px-British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg/46px-British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial India</a> (includes the territory of present-day <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>)</li></ul>
<dl><dd><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Danish_India" title="Danish India"><img alt="Danish India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/20px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/31px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/40px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="387" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Danish_India" title="Danish India">Danish India</a> (1696–1869)</dd>
<dd><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden"><img alt="Sweden" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Swedish_East_India_Company#The_first_octroi_(1731–1746)" title="Swedish East India Company">Swedish Parangipettai</a> (1733)</dd>
<dd><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj"><img alt="British Raj" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg/23px-British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg/35px-British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg/46px-British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a> (1613–1947)
<dl><dd><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company"><img alt="East India Company" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="650" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">British East India Company</a> (1757–1858)</dd>
<dd><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj"><img alt="British Raj" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg/23px-British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg/35px-British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg/46px-British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a> (1858–1947)</dd></dl></dd></dl>
<p>French colonies in South and Southeast Asia:
</p>
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India"><img alt="French India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a> (1769–1954)</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina"><img alt="French Indochina" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a> (1887–1953), including:</li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Laos_to_1945#French_Laos" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Laos to 1945">French Laos</a> (1893–1953)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Cambodia" title="French protectorate of Cambodia">French Cambodia</a> (1863–1953)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">Annam</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>) (1883–1953)</li></ul></dd></dl>
<p>Dutch, British, Portuguese colonies and Russian territories in Asia:
</p>
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_India" title="Dutch India"><img alt="Dutch India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Dutch_India" title="Dutch India">Dutch India</a> (1605–1825)</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Bengal" title="Dutch Bengal">Dutch Bengal</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Ceylon" title="Dutch Ceylon">Dutch Ceylon</a> (1656–1796)</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Ceylon" title="Portuguese Ceylon"><img alt="Portuguese Ceylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_Portugal_%281640%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281640%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_Portugal_%281640%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281640%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_Portugal_%281640%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281640%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Ceylon" title="Portuguese Ceylon">Portuguese Ceylon</a> (1505–1658)</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies"><img alt="Dutch East Indies" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>) – Dutch colony from 1602 to 1949 (included <a href="/wiki/Netherlands_New_Guinea" title="Netherlands New Guinea">Netherlands New Guinea</a> until 1962)</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India"><img alt="Portuguese India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a> (1510–1961)</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Flag_of_the_Government_of_Portuguese_Macau_%281976%E2%80%931999%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Government_of_Portuguese_Macau_%281976%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Flag_of_the_Government_of_Portuguese_Macau_%281976%E2%80%931999%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Government_of_Portuguese_Macau_%281976%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Flag_of_the_Government_of_Portuguese_Macau_%281976%E2%80%931999%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Government_of_Portuguese_Macau_%281976%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Macau" title="Portuguese Macau">Portuguese Macau</a> – Portuguese colony, the first European colony in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> (1557–1999)</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire"><img alt="British Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">Malaya</a> (now part of <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>):</li></ul>
<dl><dd><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire"><img alt="Portuguese Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Malacca" title="Portuguese Malacca">Portuguese Malacca</a> (1511–1641)</dd>
<dd><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" title="Dutch Empire"><img alt="Dutch Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Malacca" title="Dutch Malacca">Dutch Malacca</a> (1641–1824)</dd>
<dd><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire"><img alt="British Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">British Malaya</a>, included:
<dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Straits_Settlements" title="Straits Settlements">Straits Settlements</a> (1826–1946)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Federated_Malay_States" title="Federated Malay States">Federated Malay States</a> (1895–1946)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unfederated_Malay_States" title="Unfederated Malay States">Unfederated Malay States</a> (1885–1946)</li></ul></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya"><img alt="Federation of Malaya" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Malaya.svg/23px-Flag_of_Malaya.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Malaya.svg/35px-Flag_of_Malaya.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Malaya.svg/46px-Flag_of_Malaya.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="550" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya">Federation of Malaya</a> (under British rule, 1948–1963)</dd></dl>
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire"><img alt="British Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/British_Borneo" title="British Borneo">British Borneo</a> (now part of <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>), including:</li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Labuan_%281912%E2%80%931946%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Labuan_%281912%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Labuan_%281912%E2%80%931946%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Labuan_%281912%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Labuan_%281912%E2%80%931946%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Labuan_%281912%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Labuan" title="Crown Colony of Labuan">Labuan</a> (1848–1946)h</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_North_Borneo_%281902%E2%80%931946%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_North_Borneo_%281902%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_North_Borneo_%281902%E2%80%931946%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_North_Borneo_%281902%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_North_Borneo_%281902%E2%80%931946%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_North_Borneo_%281902%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span><a href="/wiki/North_Borneo" title="North Borneo">North Borneo</a> (1882–1941)</li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Flag_of_North_Borneo_%281948%E2%80%931963%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_North_Borneo_%281948%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Flag_of_North_Borneo_%281948%E2%80%931963%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_North_Borneo_%281948%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Flag_of_North_Borneo_%281948%E2%80%931963%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_North_Borneo_%281948%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_North_Borneo" title="Crown Colony of North Borneo">Crown Colony of North Borneo</a> (1946–1963)</li></ul></dd></dl>
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_Sarawak_%281946%E2%80%931963%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sarawak_%281946%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_Sarawak_%281946%E2%80%931963%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sarawak_%281946%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_Sarawak_%281946%E2%80%931963%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sarawak_%281946%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Sarawak" title="Crown Colony of Sarawak">Crown Colony of Sarawak</a> (1946–1963)</li></ul></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a></li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei"><img alt="Brunei" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Brunei.svg/23px-Flag_of_Brunei.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Brunei.svg/35px-Flag_of_Brunei.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Brunei.svg/46px-Flag_of_Brunei.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="720" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Brunei#History" title="Brunei">British Brunei (1888–1984)</a> (British protectorate)</li></ul></dd></dl>
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Outer_Manchuria" title="Outer Manchuria">Outer Manchuria</a> – ceded to <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> through <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aigun" title="Treaty of Aigun">Treaty of Aigun</a> (1858) and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Peking" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Peking">Treaty of Peking</a> (1860)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>:</li></ul>
<dl><dd><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire"><img alt="Spanish Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Philippines">Spanish Philippines</a> (1565–1898, 3rd longest European occupation in Asia, 333 years),</dd>
<dd><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire"><img alt="First Mexican Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg/23px-Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg/35px-Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg/46px-Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="800" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Mexican" class="mw-disambig" title="Mexican">Mexican</a> <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a> (1821-1824)</dd>
<dd><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire"><img alt="British Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/British_invasion_of_Manila" class="mw-redirect" title="British invasion of Manila">British Manila</a> (1762–1764, Shortly British occupation in Philippines, 2 years)</dd>
<dd><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines"><img alt="Philippines" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Insular_Government_of_the_Philippine_Islands" title="Insular Government of the Philippine Islands">Insular Government of the Philippine Islands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_the_Philippines" title="Commonwealth of the Philippines">Commonwealth of the Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> colony (1898–1946)</dd></dl>
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire"><img alt="British Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> – British colony (1819–1959)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>:</li></ul>
<dl><dd><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire"><img alt="Spanish Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Formosa" title="Spanish Formosa">Spanish Formosa</a> (1626–1642)</dd>
<dd><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Formosa" title="Dutch Formosa">Dutch Formosa</a> (1624–1662)</dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire"><img alt="Portuguese Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bahrain#Portuguese_rule" title="History of Bahrain">Portuguese Bahrain (1521–1602)</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Flag_of_Bahrain_%281820%E2%80%931932%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bahrain_%281820%E2%80%931932%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Flag_of_Bahrain_%281820%E2%80%931932%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bahrain_%281820%E2%80%931932%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Flag_of_Bahrain_%281820%E2%80%931932%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bahrain_%281820%E2%80%931932%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="200" /></span><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Flag_of_Bahrain_%281932%E2%80%931972%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Bahrain_%281932%E2%80%931972%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Flag_of_Bahrain_%281932%E2%80%931972%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Bahrain_%281932%E2%80%931972%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Flag_of_Bahrain_%281932%E2%80%931972%29.svg/44px-Flag_of_Bahrain_%281932%E2%80%931972%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="900" /></span><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bahrain_(1783%E2%80%931971)" title="History of Bahrain (1783–1971)">British Protectorate (1861 - 1971)</a></li></ul></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Iraq" title="Mandatory Iraq">Mandatory Iraq</a> (1920–1932) (British protectorate)</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a> (1932–1958)</li></ul></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_of_Palestine" title="State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine"><img alt="Mandatory Palestine" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandatory Palestine</a> (1920–1948) (British Mandate)</li></ul></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Transjordan.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Transjordan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Transjordan.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Transjordan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Transjordan.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Transjordan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="840" data-file-height="420" /></span><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Transjordan" title="Emirate of Transjordan">Emirate of Transjordan</a> (1921–1946) (British protectorate)</li></ul></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Kuwait_1940-1961.png/23px-Flag_of_Kuwait_1940-1961.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Kuwait_1940-1961.png/35px-Flag_of_Kuwait_1940-1961.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Kuwait_1940-1961.png/46px-Flag_of_Kuwait_1940-1961.png 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="216" /></span><a href="/wiki/Sheikhdom_of_Kuwait" title="Sheikhdom of Kuwait">Sheikhdom of Kuwait</a> (1899–1961) (British protectorate)</li></ul></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a></li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon</a> (1923–1946)</li></ul></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire"><img alt="Portuguese Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal_%281578%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Oman#Portuguese_occupation" title="Oman">Portuguese Oman (1507–1650)</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_Muscat.svg/23px-Flag_of_Muscat.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_Muscat.svg/35px-Flag_of_Muscat.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_Muscat.svg/45px-Flag_of_Muscat.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span><a href="/wiki/Muscat_and_Oman" title="Muscat and Oman">Muscat and Oman</a> (1892–1971) (British protectorate)</li></ul></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a></li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar"><img alt="Qatar" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Qatar.svg/23px-Flag_of_Qatar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Qatar.svg/35px-Flag_of_Qatar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Qatar.svg/46px-Flag_of_Qatar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="550" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/History_of_Qatar#British_protectorate_(1916–1971)" title="History of Qatar">British protectorate of Qatar (1916–1971)</a></li></ul></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Flag_of_the_Trucial_States_%281968%E2%80%931971%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Trucial_States_%281968%E2%80%931971%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Flag_of_the_Trucial_States_%281968%E2%80%931971%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Trucial_States_%281968%E2%80%931971%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Flag_of_the_Trucial_States_%281968%E2%80%931971%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Trucial_States_%281968%E2%80%931971%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="540" /></span><a href="/wiki/Trucial_States" title="Trucial States">Trucial States</a> (1820–1971) (British protectorate)</li></ul></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Aden_Colony" title="Aden Colony"><img alt="Aden Colony" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Aden_%281937%E2%80%931963%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Aden_%281937%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Aden_%281937%E2%80%931963%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Aden_%281937%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Aden_%281937%E2%80%931963%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Aden_%281937%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Aden_Protectorate" title="Aden Protectorate">Aden Protectorate</a> (1869–1963)</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Aden_Colony" title="Aden Colony"><img alt="Aden Colony" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Aden_%281937%E2%80%931963%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Aden_%281937%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Aden_%281937%E2%80%931963%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Aden_%281937%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Aden_%281937%E2%80%931963%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Aden_%281937%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Aden" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony of Aden">Colony of Aden</a> (1937–1963)</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Flag_of_the_Federation_of_South_Arabia.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Federation_of_South_Arabia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Flag_of_the_Federation_of_South_Arabia.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Federation_of_South_Arabia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Flag_of_the_Federation_of_South_Arabia.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Federation_of_South_Arabia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="400" /></span><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_South_Arabia" title="Federation of South Arabia">Federation of South Arabia</a> (1962–1967)</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire"><img alt="British Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_South_Arabia" title="Protectorate of South Arabia">Protectorate of South Arabia</a> (1963–1967)</li></ul></dd></dl>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Independent_states">Independent states</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Independent states">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> – founded by the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Afghan_Treaty_of_1919" title="Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919">Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and declared independence in 1919</li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281919%E2%80%931921%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281919%E2%80%931921%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281919%E2%80%931921%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281919%E2%80%931921%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281919%E2%80%931921%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281919%E2%80%931921%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan" title="Emirate of Afghanistan">Emirate of Afghanistan</a> (1879 - 1919) (British protectorate)</li></ul></dd></dl>
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> – independent, but within European cultures of influence which were largely limited to the colonised ports except for Manchuria.</li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concessions_in_China" title="Concessions in China">Concessions in China</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_International_Settlement" title="Shanghai International Settlement">Shanghai International Settlement</a> (1863 - 1941)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_French_Concession" title="Shanghai French Concession">Shanghai French Concession</a> (1849 - 1943)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concessions_in_Tianjin" title="Concessions in Tianjin">Concessions in Tianjin</a> (1860 - 1947)</li></ul></dd></dl>
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan"><img alt="Bhutan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Flag_of_Bhutan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bhutan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Flag_of_Bhutan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bhutan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Flag_of_Bhutan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Bhutan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a> – in British sphere of influence</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_Agha_Mohammad_Khan.svg/20px-Flag_of_Agha_Mohammad_Khan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_Agha_Mohammad_Khan.svg/31px-Flag_of_Agha_Mohammad_Khan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_Agha_Mohammad_Khan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Agha_Mohammad_Khan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></span><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> – in Russian sphere of influence in the north and British in the south</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan"><img alt="Empire of Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/43px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> – a <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">Great power</a> that had its own <a href="/wiki/Japanese_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese empire">colonial empire</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">Korea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule" title="Taiwan under Japanese rule">Taiwan</a>)</li></ul>
<dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allied-occupied_Japan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Allied-occupied Japan (page does not exist)">American occupation of Japan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Military_Government_in_Korea" title="United States Army Military Government in Korea">American occupation of South Korea</a></li></ul></dd></dl>
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg/20px-Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg/31px-Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg/41px-Flag_of_Bogd_Khaanate_Mongolia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="889" /></span><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600" /></span><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281924%E2%80%931940%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281924%E2%80%931940%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281924%E2%80%931940%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281924%E2%80%931940%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281924%E2%80%931940%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281924%E2%80%931940%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span><a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> – in Russian sphere of influence and later Soviet controlled</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal"><img alt="Nepal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg/16px-Flag_of_Nepal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg/25px-Flag_of_Nepal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg/33px-Flag_of_Nepal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="885" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a> – in British sphere of influence</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand"><img alt="Thailand" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/23px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/35px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/45px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> – the only independent state in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, but bordered by a British sphere of influence in the north and south and French influence in the northeast and east</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey"><img alt="Turkey" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> – successor to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in 1923; the Ottoman Empire itself could be considered a colonial empire</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> For fifty or sixty years, the Portuguese enjoyed the exclusive trade to China and Japan. In 1717, and again in 1732, the Chinese government offered to make <a href="/wiki/Macao" class="mw-redirect" title="Macao">Macao</a> the emporium for all its foreign trade, and to receive all duties on imports; but, by a strange infatuation, the Portuguese government refused, and the decline in Portuguese influence dates from that period.<sup id="cite_ref-Roberts_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roberts-2">[2]</a></sup></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Citations">Citations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1011085734"/><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Weisner-Hanks, Early Modern Europe 1450–1789 (Cambridge, 2006)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Roberts-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Roberts_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r999302996">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1837" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Roberts_(diplomat)" title="Edmund Roberts (diplomat)">Roberts, Edmund</a> (1837) [First published in 1837]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/embassytoeaster00unkngoog"><i>Embassy to the Eastern courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat : in the U. S. sloop-of-war Peacock ... during the years 1832-3-4</i></a>. Harper & brothers. image 173, p.166. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/12212199">12212199</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Embassy+to+the+Eastern+courts+of+Cochin-China%2C+Siam%2C+and+Muscat+%3A+in+the+U.+S.+sloop-of-war+Peacock+...+during+the+years+1832-3-4&rft.pages=image+173%2C+p.166&rft.pub=Harper+%26+brothers&rft.date=1837&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F12212199&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fembassytoeaster00unkngoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBenedetto1965" class="citation news cs1">Benedetto, Luigi Foscolo (1965). "Marco Polo, Il Milione". <i><a href="/wiki/De_Agostini" title="De Agostini">Istituto Geografico DeAgostini</a></i> (in Italian).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Istituto+Geografico+DeAgostini&rft.atitle=Marco+Polo%2C+Il+Milione&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Benedetto&rft.aufirst=Luigi+Foscolo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Fernando2013-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fernando2013_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFJude_Lal_Fernando2013" class="citation book cs1">Jude Lal Fernando (11 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wWInAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA135"><i>Religion, Conflict and Peace in Sri Lanka: The Politics of Interpretation of Nationhoods</i></a>. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-643-90428-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-643-90428-7"><bdi>978-3-643-90428-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion%2C+Conflict+and+Peace+in+Sri+Lanka%3A+The+Politics+of+Interpretation+of+Nationhoods&rft.pages=135&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag+M%C3%BCnster&rft.date=2013-06-11&rft.isbn=978-3-643-90428-7&rft.au=Jude+Lal+Fernando&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwWInAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Perera2007-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Perera2007_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFC._Gaston_Perera2007" class="citation book cs1">C. Gaston Perera (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hgtuAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Danture%22%20%221594%22"><i>Kandy fights the Portuguese: a military history of Kandyan resistance</i></a>. Vijitha Yapa Publications. p. 148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-955-1266-77-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-955-1266-77-6"><bdi>978-955-1266-77-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kandy+fights+the+Portuguese%3A+a+military+history+of+Kandyan+resistance&rft.pages=148&rft.pub=Vijitha+Yapa+Publications&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-955-1266-77-6&rft.au=C.+Gaston+Perera&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhgtuAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522Danture%2522%2520%25221594%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Obeyesekere1999-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Obeyesekere1999_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFDonald_Obeyesekere1999" class="citation book cs1">Donald Obeyesekere (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cDwvQF_OgvMC&pg=PA232"><i>Outlines of Ceylon History</i></a>. Asian Educational Services. p. 232. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-1363-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-1363-8"><bdi>978-81-206-1363-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Outlines+of+Ceylon+History&rft.pages=232&rft.pub=Asian+Educational+Services&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-81-206-1363-8&rft.au=Donald+Obeyesekere&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcDwvQF_OgvMC%26pg%3DPA232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ceylontoday.lk/64-92267-news-detail-rasin-deviyo.html">Rasin Deviyo</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151222130125/http://www.ceylontoday.lk/64-92267-news-detail-rasin-deviyo.html">Archived</a> 2015-12-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> - Chandra Tilake Edirisuriya (Ceylon Today) Accessed 2015-12-13</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zphuAAAAMAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+..."><i>Philippine Studies</i></a>. Ateneo de Manila University Press. 1986. p. 260.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philippine+Studies&rft.pages=260&rft.pub=Ateneo+de+Manila+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzphuAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DThe%2Barrival%2Bof%2Bthe%2BSpanish%2Bin%2BBrunei%2Band%2Bthe%2BPhilippines%2Bin%2Bforce%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bsixteenth%2Bcentury%2Binitiated%2Bthe%2Bsame%2Bkind%2Bof%2B...&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBrunei1985" class="citation book cs1">Brunei, Muzium (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5ASIAAAAIAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish"><i>Brunei Museum journal</i></a>. p. 67.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brunei+Museum+journal&rft.pages=67&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Brunei&rft.aufirst=Muzium&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5ASIAAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dbrunei%2Bkafir%2Bspanish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S7RwAAAAMAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish"><i>The Brunei Museum Journal</i></a>. The Museum. 1986. p. 67.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Brunei+Museum+Journal&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=The+Museum&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS7RwAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dbrunei%2Bkafir%2Bspanish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-AndayaAndaya2015-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AndayaAndaya2015_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_Watson_AndayaLeonard_Y._Andaya2015" class="citation book cs1">Barbara Watson Andaya; Leonard Y. Andaya (19 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rh2BgAAQBAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish&pg=PA145"><i>A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1830</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 145–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88992-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88992-6"><bdi>978-0-521-88992-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Early+Modern+Southeast+Asia%2C+1400-1830&rft.pages=145-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015-02-19&rft.isbn=978-0-521-88992-6&rft.au=Barbara+Watson+Andaya&rft.au=Leonard+Y.+Andaya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0Rh2BgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dbrunei%2Bkafir%2Bspanish%26pg%3DPA145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Reid1993-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Reid1993_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFAnthony_Reid1993" class="citation book cs1">Anthony Reid (1 January 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vxgHExnla4MC&q=brunei+kafir+spanish&pg=PA148"><i>Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680: Expansion and crisis</i></a>. Yale University Press. pp. 148–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-05412-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-05412-5"><bdi>978-0-300-05412-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Southeast+Asia+in+the+Age+of+Commerce%2C+1450-1680%3A+Expansion+and+crisis&rft.pages=148-&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1993-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-300-05412-5&rft.au=Anthony+Reid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvxgHExnla4MC%26q%3Dbrunei%2Bkafir%2Bspanish%26pg%3DPA148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Reid1993_2-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Reid1993_2_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFAnthony_Reid1993" class="citation book cs1">Anthony Reid (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h2SSpt4YuKwC&q=brunei+kafir+spanish&pg=PA166"><i>Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era: Trade, Power, and Belief</i></a>. Cornell University Press. pp. 166–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-8093-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-8093-0"><bdi>0-8014-8093-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Southeast+Asia+in+the+Early+Modern+Era%3A+Trade%2C+Power%2C+and+Belief&rft.pages=166-&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-8014-8093-0&rft.au=Anthony+Reid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh2SSpt4YuKwC%26q%3Dbrunei%2Bkafir%2Bspanish%26pg%3DPA166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Nicholl1975-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nicholl1975_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Nicholl1975" class="citation book cs1">Robert Nicholl (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CmweAAAAMAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish"><i>European Sources for the History of the Sultanate of Brunei in the 16th Century</i></a>. Muzium Brunei. p. 43.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Sources+for+the+History+of+the+Sultanate+of+Brunei+in+the+16th+Century&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Muzium+Brunei&rft.date=1975&rft.au=Robert+Nicholl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCmweAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dbrunei%2Bkafir%2Bspanish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-CasiñoCasiño1976-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CasiñoCasiño1976_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFEric_CasiñoEric_S._Casiño1976" class="citation book cs1">Eric Casiño; Eric S. Casiño (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2P0eAAAAMAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish"><i>The Jama Mapun: a changing Samal society in the southern Philippines</i></a>. Ateneo de Manila University Press. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780686094326" title="Special:BookSources/9780686094326"><bdi>9780686094326</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jama+Mapun%3A+a+changing+Samal+society+in+the+southern+Philippines&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Ateneo+de+Manila+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=9780686094326&rft.au=Eric+Casi%C3%B1o&rft.au=Eric+S.+Casi%C3%B1o&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2P0eAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dbrunei%2Bkafir%2Bspanish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Dale1980-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dale1980_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFStephen_Frederic_Dale1980" class="citation book cs1">Stephen Frederic Dale (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=22JuAAAAMAAJ&q=brunei+kafir+spanish"><i>Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: The Māppiḷas of Malabar, 1498-1922</i></a>. Clarendon Press. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-821571-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-821571-4"><bdi>978-0-19-821571-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Society+on+the+South+Asian+Frontier%3A+The+M%C4%81ppi%E1%B8%B7as+of+Malabar%2C+1498-1922&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-19-821571-4&rft.au=Stephen+Frederic+Dale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D22JuAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dbrunei%2Bkafir%2Bspanish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Ooi2004-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ooi2004_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFKeat_Gin_Ooi2004" class="citation book cs1">Keat Gin Ooi (1 January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&q=brunei+kafir+spanish&pg=PA1705"><i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1705–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-770-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-770-2"><bdi>978-1-57607-770-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Southeast+Asia%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia%2C+from+Angkor+Wat+to+East+Timor&rft.pages=1705-&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2004-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-57607-770-2&rft.au=Keat+Gin+Ooi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQKgraWbb7yoC%26q%3Dbrunei%2Bkafir%2Bspanish%26pg%3DPA1705&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Ober1907-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ober1907_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFrederick_Albion_Ober1907" class="citation book cs1">Frederick Albion Ober (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ferdinandmagella00ober"><i>Ferdinand Magellan</i></a>. Harper and brothers. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ferdinandmagella00ober/page/295">295</a>–. <q>brunei kafir spanish.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ferdinand+Magellan&rft.pages=295-&rft.pub=Harper+and+brothers&rft.date=1907&rft.au=Frederick+Albion+Ober&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fferdinandmagella00ober&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1sYRAQAAMAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+..."><i>Filipino Heritage: The Spanish colonial period (16th century)</i></a>. Manila: Lahing Pilipino Pub. 1977. p. 1083.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Filipino+Heritage%3A+The+Spanish+colonial+period+%2816th+century%29&rft.place=Manila&rft.pages=1083&rft.pub=Lahing+Pilipino+Pub.&rft.date=1977&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1sYRAQAAMAAJ%26q%3DThe%2Barrival%2Bof%2Bthe%2BSpanish%2Bin%2BBrunei%2Band%2Bthe%2BPhilippines%2Bin%2Bforce%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bsixteenth%2Bcentury%2Binitiated%2Bthe%2Bsame%2Bkind%2Bof%2B...&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XlMkAQAAIAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+..."><i>The Criterion</i></a>. K.Siddique. 1971. p. 51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Criterion&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=K.Siddique&rft.date=1971&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXlMkAQAAIAAJ%26q%3DThe%2Barrival%2Bof%2Bthe%2BSpanish%2Bin%2BBrunei%2Band%2Bthe%2BPhilippines%2Bin%2Bforce%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bsixteenth%2Bcentury%2Binitiated%2Bthe%2Bsame%2Bkind%2Bof%2B...&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Payne2000-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Payne2000_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFJunaidi_Payne2000" class="citation book cs1">Junaidi Payne (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zPhvAAAAMAAJ&q=The+arrival+of+the+Spanish+in+Brunei+and+the+Philippines+in+force+in+the+sixteenth+century+initiated+the+same+kind+of+..."><i>This is Borneo</i></a>. New Holland. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85974-106-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85974-106-1"><bdi>978-1-85974-106-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=This+is+Borneo&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=New+Holland&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-85974-106-1&rft.au=Junaidi+Payne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzPhvAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DThe%2Barrival%2Bof%2Bthe%2BSpanish%2Bin%2BBrunei%2Band%2Bthe%2BPhilippines%2Bin%2Bforce%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bsixteenth%2Bcentury%2Binitiated%2Bthe%2Bsame%2Bkind%2Bof%2B...&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-RingSalkin1994-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RingSalkin1994_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFTrudy_RingRobert_M._SalkinSharon_La_Boda1994" class="citation book cs1">Trudy Ring; Robert M. Salkin; Sharon La Boda (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC&q=1599+spanish+cambodia+malay&pg=PA158"><i>International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 158–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-04-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-04-6"><bdi>978-1-884964-04-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Dictionary+of+Historic+Places%3A+Asia+and+Oceania&rft.pages=158-&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-884964-04-6&rft.au=Trudy+Ring&rft.au=Robert+M.+Salkin&rft.au=Sharon+La+Boda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvWLRxJEU49EC%26q%3D1599%2Bspanish%2Bcambodia%2Bmalay%26pg%3DPA158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-RingWatson2012-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RingWatson2012_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFTrudy_RingNoelle_WatsonPaul_Schellinger2012" class="citation book cs1">Trudy Ring; Noelle Watson; Paul Schellinger (12 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=voerPYsAB5wC&q=1599+spanish+cambodia+malay&pg=PA158"><i>Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 158–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-63979-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-63979-1"><bdi>978-1-136-63979-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia+and+Oceania%3A+International+Dictionary+of+Historic+Places&rft.pages=158-&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012-11-12&rft.isbn=978-1-136-63979-1&rft.au=Trudy+Ring&rft.au=Noelle+Watson&rft.au=Paul+Schellinger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvoerPYsAB5wC%26q%3D1599%2Bspanish%2Bcambodia%2Bmalay%26pg%3DPA158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Tarling1999-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tarling1999_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFNicholas_Tarling1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Tarling" title="Nicholas Tarling">Nicholas Tarling</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jtsMLNmMzbkC&q=1599+spanish+cambodia+malay&pg=PA129"><i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 129–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66370-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66370-0"><bdi>978-0-521-66370-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Southeast+Asia&rft.pages=129-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-66370-0&rft.au=Nicholas+Tarling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjtsMLNmMzbkC%26q%3D1599%2Bspanish%2Bcambodia%2Bmalay%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Tarling1999_2-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tarling1999_2_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFNicholas_Tarling1999" class="citation book cs1">Nicholas Tarling (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GIz4CDTCOwcC&q=1599+spanish+cambodia+malay&pg=PA129"><i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 129–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66370-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66370-0"><bdi>978-0-521-66370-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Southeast+Asia&rft.pages=129-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-66370-0&rft.au=Nicholas+Tarling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGIz4CDTCOwcC%26q%3D1599%2Bspanish%2Bcambodia%2Bmalay%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Zhang1934-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zhang1934_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFTianze_Zhang1934" class="citation book cs1">Tianze Zhang (1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1AAVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA48"><i>Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources</i></a>. Brill Archive. pp. 48–. GGKEY:0671BSWDRPY.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sino-Portuguese+Trade+from+1514+to+1644%3A+A+Synthesis+of+Portuguese+and+Chinese+Sources&rft.pages=48-&rft.pub=Brill+Archive&rft.date=1934&rft.au=Tianze+Zhang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1AAVAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Zhang1934_2-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zhang1934_2_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFTianze_Zhang1934" class="citation book cs1">Tianze Zhang (1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnUaAAAAMAAJ&q=behavior+abhorred"><i>Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources</i></a>. Late E. J. Brill Limited. p. 48.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sino-Portuguese+Trade+from+1514+to+1644%3A+A+Synthesis+of+Portuguese+and+Chinese+Sources&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Late+E.+J.+Brill+Limited&rft.date=1934&rft.au=Tianze+Zhang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwnUaAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dbehavior%2Babhorred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Zhang1934_3-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zhang1934_3_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFTianze_Zhang1934" class="citation book cs1">Tianze Zhang (1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1AAVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA67"><i>Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources</i></a>. Brill Archive. pp. 67–. GGKEY:0671BSWDRPY.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sino-Portuguese+Trade+from+1514+to+1644%3A+A+Synthesis+of+Portuguese+and+Chinese+Sources&rft.pages=67-&rft.pub=Brill+Archive&rft.date=1934&rft.au=Tianze+Zhang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1AAVAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Zhang1934_4-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zhang1934_4_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFTianze_Zhang1934" class="citation book cs1">Tianze Zhang (1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnUaAAAAMAAJ&q=Christian+heathens"><i>Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources</i></a>. Late E. J. Brill Limited. p. 67.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sino-Portuguese+Trade+from+1514+to+1644%3A+A+Synthesis+of+Portuguese+and+Chinese+Sources&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=Late+E.+J.+Brill+Limited&rft.date=1934&rft.au=Tianze+Zhang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwnUaAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DChristian%2Bheathens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note: In 1819 the standing army consisted of over 7,000 European and 5,000 indigenous troops. See: Willems, Wim <i>Sporen van een Indisch verleden (1600-1942)</i>. (COMT, Leiden, 1994). Chapter I, P.24 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-71042-44-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-71042-44-8">90-71042-44-8</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFKlemen" class="citation web cs1">Klemen, L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html">"Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941-1942"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Forgotten+Campaign%3A+The+Dutch+East+Indies+Campaign+1941-1942&rft.aulast=Klemen&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarfare.gq%2Fdutcheastindies%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen F. Chew. <i>An Atlas of Russian History: Eleven Centuries of Changing Borders</i>. Yale University Press, 1967. pp 74.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mohammad Gholi Majd. <i>August 1941: The Anglo-Russian Occupation of Iran and Change of Shahs</i>. pp 239–240 University Press of America, 2012 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0761859403" title="Special:BookSources/0761859403">0761859403</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFJane_E._Elliott2002" class="citation book cs1">Jane E. Elliott (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wWvl9O4Gn1UC&q=defeat+peasants+not+humiliated+at+all"><i>Some did it for civilisation, some did it for their country: a revised view of the boxer war</i></a>. Chinese University Press. p. 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-996-066-4" title="Special:BookSources/962-996-066-4"><bdi>962-996-066-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Some+did+it+for+civilisation%2C+some+did+it+for+their+country%3A+a+revised+view+of+the+boxer+war&rft.pages=143&rft.pub=Chinese+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=962-996-066-4&rft.au=Jane+E.+Elliott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwWvl9O4Gn1UC%26q%3Ddefeat%2Bpeasants%2Bnot%2Bhumiliated%2Bat%2Ball&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFPO2013" class="citation thesis cs1">PO, Chung-yam (28 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/18877/1/PhD_Dissertation_CyPO.pdf"><i>Conceptualizing the Blue Frontier: The Great Qing and the Maritime World in the Long Eighteenth Century</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Thesis). Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg. p. 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Conceptualizing+the+Blue+Frontier%3A+The+Great+Qing+and+the+Maritime+World+in+the+Long+Eighteenth+Century&rft.inst=Ruprecht-Karls-Universit%C3%A4t+Heidelberg&rft.date=2013-06-28&rft.aulast=PO&rft.aufirst=Chung-yam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de%2Fvolltextserver%2F18877%2F1%2FPhD_Dissertation_CyPO.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFJohn_King_Fairbank1978" class="citation book cs1">John King Fairbank (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pEfWaxPhdnIC&pg=PA96"><i>The Cambridge History of China: Late Chʻing, 1800-1911, pt. 2</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 96–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22029-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22029-3"><bdi>978-0-521-22029-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%3A+Late+Ch%CA%BBing%2C+1800-1911%2C+pt.+2&rft.pages=96-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22029-3&rft.au=John+King+Fairbank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpEfWaxPhdnIC%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Scott2008-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Scott2008_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Scott2008" class="citation book cs1">David Scott (7 November 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6U_DPS4vfO0C&pg=PA104"><i>China and the International System, 1840-1949: Power, Presence, and Perceptions in a Century of Humiliation</i></a>. SUNY Press. pp. 104–105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7742-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7742-7"><bdi>978-0-7914-7742-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+and+the+International+System%2C+1840-1949%3A+Power%2C+Presence%2C+and+Perceptions+in+a+Century+of+Humiliation&rft.pages=104-105&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2008-11-07&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-7742-7&rft.au=David+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6U_DPS4vfO0C%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Scott2008" class="citation book cs1">David Scott (7 November 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6U_DPS4vfO0C&pg=PA111"><i>China and the International System, 1840-1949: Power, Presence, and Perceptions in a Century of Humiliation</i></a>. SUNY Press. pp. 111–112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7742-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7742-7"><bdi>978-0-7914-7742-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+and+the+International+System%2C+1840-1949%3A+Power%2C+Presence%2C+and+Perceptions+in+a+Century+of+Humiliation&rft.pages=111-112&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2008-11-07&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-7742-7&rft.au=David+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6U_DPS4vfO0C%26pg%3DPA111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFJohn_King_Fairbank1978" class="citation book cs1">John King Fairbank (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pEfWaxPhdnIC&pg=PA94"><i>The Cambridge History of China: Late Chʻing, 1800-1911, pt. 2</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22029-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22029-3"><bdi>978-0-521-22029-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%3A+Late+Ch%CA%BBing%2C+1800-1911%2C+pt.+2&rft.pages=94-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22029-3&rft.au=John+King+Fairbank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpEfWaxPhdnIC%26pg%3DPA94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFAlex_Marshall2006" class="citation book cs1">Alex Marshall (22 November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wDXfGErwPtsC&pg=PA78"><i>The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860-1917</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 78–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-25379-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-25379-1"><bdi>978-1-134-25379-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+General+Staff+and+Asia%2C+1860-1917&rft.pages=78-&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006-11-22&rft.isbn=978-1-134-25379-1&rft.au=Alex+Marshall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwDXfGErwPtsC%26pg%3DPA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFAlex_Marshall2006" class="citation book cs1">Alex Marshall (22 November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wDXfGErwPtsC&pg=PA79"><i>The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860-1917</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 79–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-25379-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-25379-1"><bdi>978-1-134-25379-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+General+Staff+and+Asia%2C+1860-1917&rft.pages=79-&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006-11-22&rft.isbn=978-1-134-25379-1&rft.au=Alex+Marshall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwDXfGErwPtsC%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFAlex_Marshall2006" class="citation book cs1">Alex Marshall (22 November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wDXfGErwPtsC&pg=PA80"><i>The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860-1917</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 80–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-25379-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-25379-1"><bdi>978-1-134-25379-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+General+Staff+and+Asia%2C+1860-1917&rft.pages=80-&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006-11-22&rft.isbn=978-1-134-25379-1&rft.au=Alex+Marshall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwDXfGErwPtsC%26pg%3DPA80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFAlex_Marshall2006" class="citation book cs1">Alex Marshall (22 November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wDXfGErwPtsC&pg=PA85"><i>The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860-1917</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 85–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-25379-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-25379-1"><bdi>978-1-134-25379-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+General+Staff+and+Asia%2C+1860-1917&rft.pages=85-&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006-11-22&rft.isbn=978-1-134-25379-1&rft.au=Alex+Marshall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwDXfGErwPtsC%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFJohn_King_Fairbank1978" class="citation book cs1">John King Fairbank (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pEfWaxPhdnIC&pg=PA95"><i>The Cambridge History of China: Late Chʻing, 1800-1911, pt. 2</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 95–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22029-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22029-3"><bdi>978-0-521-22029-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%3A+Late+Ch%CA%BBing%2C+1800-1911%2C+pt.+2&rft.pages=95-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22029-3&rft.au=John+King+Fairbank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpEfWaxPhdnIC%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Story1907-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Story1907_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFDouglas_Story1907" class="citation book cs1">Douglas Story (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tbRGAAAAIAAJ&q=In+the+hunting-park%2C+three+miles+to+the+south+of+Peking%2C+is+quartered+the+Sixth+Division%2C+which+supplies+the+Guards+for+the+Imperial+Palace%2C+consisting+of+a+battalion+of+infantry+and+a+squadron+of+cavalry.+With+this+Division+Yuan+Shi+Kai+retains+twenty-six+modified+Krupp+guns%2C+which+are+the+best+of+his+artillery+arm%2C+and+excel+any+guns+possessed+by+the+foreign+legations+in+Peking.&pg=PA224"><i>To-morrow in the East</i></a>. Chapman & Hall, Limited. pp. 224–.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To-morrow+in+the+East&rft.pages=224-&rft.pub=Chapman+%26+Hall%2C+Limited&rft.date=1907&rft.au=Douglas+Story&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtbRGAAAAIAAJ%26q%3DIn%2Bthe%2Bhunting-park%252C%2Bthree%2Bmiles%2Bto%2Bthe%2Bsouth%2Bof%2BPeking%252C%2Bis%2Bquartered%2Bthe%2BSixth%2BDivision%252C%2Bwhich%2Bsupplies%2Bthe%2BGuards%2Bfor%2Bthe%2BImperial%2BPalace%252C%2Bconsisting%2Bof%2Ba%2Bbattalion%2Bof%2Binfantry%2Band%2Ba%2Bsquadron%2Bof%2Bcavalry.%2BWith%2Bthis%2BDivision%2BYuan%2BShi%2BKai%2Bretains%2Btwenty-six%2Bmodified%2BKrupp%2Bguns%252C%2Bwhich%2Bare%2Bthe%2Bbest%2Bof%2Bhis%2Bartillery%2Barm%252C%2Band%2Bexcel%2Bany%2Bguns%2Bpossessed%2Bby%2Bthe%2Bforeign%2Blegations%2Bin%2BPeking.%26pg%3DPA224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Gordon2009-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gordon2009_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLeonard_H._D._Gordon2009" class="citation book cs1">Leonard H. D. Gordon (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pPiE96EYPCkC&pg=PA32"><i>Confrontation Over Taiwan: Nineteenth-Century China and the Powers</i></a>. Lexington Books. pp. 32–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-1869-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-1869-6"><bdi>978-0-7391-1869-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confrontation+Over+Taiwan%3A+Nineteenth-Century+China+and+the+Powers&rft.pages=32-&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-1869-6&rft.au=Leonard+H.+D.+Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpPiE96EYPCkC%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Hao2015-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hao2015_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFShiyuan_Hao2015" class="citation book cs1">Shiyuan Hao (15 December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LfcUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA165"><i>How the Communist Party of China Manages the Issue of Nationality: An Evolving Topic</i></a>. Springer. pp. 165–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-662-48462-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-662-48462-3"><bdi>978-3-662-48462-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+the+Communist+Party+of+China+Manages+the+Issue+of+Nationality%3A+An+Evolving+Topic&rft.pages=165-&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015-12-15&rft.isbn=978-3-662-48462-3&rft.au=Shiyuan+Hao&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLfcUCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Martin1949-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Martin1949_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHarris_Inwood_Martin1949" class="citation book cs1">Harris Inwood Martin (1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aL0UAAAAIAAJ&q=rocky+death"><i>The Japanese Demand for Formosa in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, 1895</i></a>. Stanford Univ. p. 23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Japanese+Demand+for+Formosa+in+the+Treaty+of+Shimonoseki%2C+1895&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Stanford+Univ.&rft.date=1949&rft.au=Harris+Inwood+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaL0UAAAAIAAJ%26q%3Drocky%2Bdeath&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Anderson1946-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Anderson1946_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFRonald_Stone_Anderson1946" class="citation book cs1">Ronald Stone Anderson (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_5QOAAAAIAAJ&q=crews+murdered"><i>Formosa Under the Japanese: A Record of Fifty Years' Occupation ...</i></a> Stanford University. p. 63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Formosa+Under+the+Japanese%3A+A+Record+of+Fifty+Years%27+Occupation+...&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Stanford+University&rft.date=1946&rft.au=Ronald+Stone+Anderson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_5QOAAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dcrews%2Bmurdered&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Grad1942-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grad1942_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_Jonah_Grad1942" class="citation book cs1">Andrew Jonah Grad (1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5OdHAAAAYAAJ&q=aborigines+killed+shipwrecked+sailors+formosa"><i>Formosa Today: An Analysis of the Economic Development and Strategic Importance of Japan's Tropical Colony</i></a>. AMS Press. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-404-59526-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-404-59526-5"><bdi>978-0-404-59526-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Formosa+Today%3A+An+Analysis+of+the+Economic+Development+and+Strategic+Importance+of+Japan%27s+Tropical+Colony&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=AMS+Press&rft.date=1942&rft.isbn=978-0-404-59526-5&rft.au=Andrew+Jonah+Grad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5OdHAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Daborigines%2Bkilled%2Bshipwrecked%2Bsailors%2Bformosa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FisherBest2011-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FisherBest2011_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFJohn_FisherAntony_Best2011" class="citation book cs1">John Fisher; Antony Best (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xwQeBlF4YQwC&pg=PA185"><i>On the Fringes of Diplomacy: Influences on British Foreign Policy, 1800-1945</i></a>. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 185–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-0120-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-0120-9"><bdi>978-1-4094-0120-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Fringes+of+Diplomacy%3A+Influences+on+British+Foreign+Policy%2C+1800-1945&rft.pages=185-&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4094-0120-9&rft.au=John+Fisher&rft.au=Antony+Best&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxwQeBlF4YQwC%26pg%3DPA185&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wWQvAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA263"><i>Japan Weekly Mail</i></a>. Jappan Meru Shinbunsha. 1874. pp. 263–.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan+Weekly+Mail&rft.pages=263-&rft.pub=Jappan+Meru+Shinbunsha&rft.date=1874&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwWQvAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OQwcAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA256"><i>The Nation</i></a>. J.H. Richards. 1889. pp. 256–.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nation&rft.pages=256-&rft.pub=J.H.+Richards&rft.date=1889&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOQwcAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFJohn_M._Gates" class="citation book cs1">John M. Gates. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140629045949/http://www3.wooster.edu/History/jgates/book-ch3.html">"The Pacification of the Philippines"</a>. <i>The U.S. Army and Irregular Warfare</i>. wooster.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.wooster.edu/History/jgates/book-ch3.html">the original</a> on 2014-06-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-06-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Pacification+of+the+Philippines&rft.btitle=The+U.S.+Army+and+Irregular+Warfare&rft.pub=wooster.edu&rft.au=John+M.+Gates&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.wooster.edu%2FHistory%2Fjgates%2Fbook-ch3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fall, <i>Street Without Joy</i>, p. 17.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFL2000" class="citation web cs1">L, Klemen (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html">"Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Forgotten+Campaign%3A+The+Dutch+East+Indies+Campaign+1941%E2%80%931942&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=L&rft.aufirst=Klemen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarfare.gq%2Fdutcheastindies%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_imperialism_in_Asia&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li>"Asia Reborn: A Continent Rises from the Ravages of Colonialism and War to a New Dynamism" by Prasenjit K. Basu,Publisher: Aleph Book Company</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/K._M._Panikkar" title="K. M. Panikkar">Panikkar, K. M.</a> (1953). Asia and Western dominance, 1498–1945, by K.M. Panikkar. London: G. Allen and Unwin.</li></ul>
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
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<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Colonial_Asia" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Colonial Asia"><span style="">Colonial Asia</span></a></b></i>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFRingmar2013" class="citation book cs1">Ringmar, Erik (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/5277315/my%20writings/liberal%20barbarism/Erik%20Ringmar%2C%20Liberal%20Barbarism%2C%20published%20pdf.pdf"><i>Liberal Barbarism: The European Destruction of the Palace of the Emperor of China</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liberal+Barbarism%3A+The+European+Destruction+of+the+Palace+of+the+Emperor+of+China&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Ringmar&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdl.dropboxusercontent.com%2Fu%2F5277315%2Fmy%2520writings%2Fliberal%2520barbarism%2FErik%2520Ringmar%252C%2520Liberal%2520Barbarism%252C%2520published%2520pdf.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+imperialism+in+Asia" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link since July 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vgweb.org/unethicalconversion/port_rep.htm">Senaka Weeraratna, Repression of Buddhism in Sri Lanka by the Portuguese (1505 - 1658)</a></li></ul>
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Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | 1618591591 |