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Page title without namespace (page_title) | 'Gymnosperm' |
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Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Clade of non-flowering, naked-seeded vascular plants}}
{{Distinguish|text=the flowering plant genera ''[[Gymnosperma]]'' and ''[[Gymnospermium]]''}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name =
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Bashkirian|0|earliest=320|[[Carboniferous]]–[[Holocene|Present]]}}
| image = Gymnospermae.jpg
| image_caption = Various gymnosperms.
| taxon = Gymnosperms
| authority =
| subdivision_ranks = Living orders<ref name="Phylogenomics of gymnosperms"/>
| subdivision = *[[Cycadopsida]]
**[[Cycadales]]
*[[Ginkgoopsida]]
**[[Ginkgoales]]
*[[Pinopsida]]
**[[Cupressidae]]
***[[Araucariales]]
***[[Cupressales]]
**[[Pinidae]]
***[[Pinales]]
*[[Gnetidae]]
***[[Ephedrales]]
***[[Welwitschiales]]
***[[Gnetales]]
}}
The '''gymnosperms''' ({{IPAc-en|'|dʒ|ɪ|m|n|ə|ˌ|s|p|ɜːr|m|z|,_|-|n|oʊ|-|audio=en-us-gymnosperm.ogg}} {{respell|JIM|nə|spurmz|,_|-|noh|-}}; {{lit|revealed seeds}}) are a group of [[spermatophyte|seed-producing plants]] that includes [[Pinophyta|conifers]], [[cycad]]s, ''[[Ginkgo]]'', and [[gnetophyta|gnetophyte]]s, forming the clade '''Gymnospermae'''. The term ''gymnosperm'' comes from the composite word in {{lang-el|γυμνόσπερμος}} ({{lang-el|γυμνός|translit=gymnos|lit=naked|label=none}} and {{lang-el|σπέρμα|translit=sperma|lit=seed|label=none}}), literally meaning 'naked seeds'. The name is based on the unenclosed condition of their seeds (called [[ovule]]s in their unfertilized state). The non-encased condition of their seeds contrasts with the seeds and ovules of flowering plants ([[angiosperms]]), which are enclosed within an [[Ovary (botany)|ovary]]. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or [[Leaf|leaves]], which are often modified to form [[Conifer cone|cones]], or on their own as in [[Taxus|yew]], ''[[Torreya]]'', ''[[Ginkgo]]''.<ref name="TPL">{{cite web|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/browse/G/|title=Gymnosperms on The Plant List|publisher=Theplantlist.org|access-date=2013-07-24|archive-date=2013-08-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130824024109/http://www.theplantlist.org/browse/G/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Gymnosperm lifecycles involve [[alternation of generations]]. They have a dominant [[diploid]] [[sporophyte]] phase and a reduced [[haploid]] [[gametophyte]] phase which is dependent on the sporophytic phase. The term "gymnosperm" is often used in [[paleobotany]] to refer to (the [[paraphyletic]] group of) all non-angiosperm seed plants. In that case, to specify the modern [[monophyletic]] group of gymnosperms, the term '''Acrogymnospermae''' is sometimes used.
The gymnosperms and [[angiosperms]] together comprise the [[spermatophyte]]s or seed plants. The spermatophytes are subdivided into five [[Division (botany)|divisions]], the angiosperms and four divisions of gymnosperms: the [[Cycadophyta]], [[Ginkgophyta]], [[Gnetophyta]], and [[Pinophyta]] (also known as Coniferophyta). Newer classification place the gnetophytes among the conifers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yong |last2=Ferguson |first2=David Kay |last3=Liu |first3=Bing |last4=Mao |first4=Kang-Shan |last5=Gao |first5=Lian-Ming |last6=Zhang |first6=Shou-Zhou |last7=Wan |first7=Tao |last8=Rushforth |first8=Keith |last9=Zhang |first9=Zhi-Xiang |date=2022-07-01 |title=Recent advances on phylogenomics of gymnosperms and a new classification |journal=Plant Diversity |language=en |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=340–350 |doi=10.1016/j.pld.2022.05.003 |issn=2468-2659 |pmc=9363647 |pmid=35967253|bibcode=2022PlDiv..44..340Y }}</ref> Numerous extinct seed plant groups are recognised including those considered [[Pteridospermatophyta|pteridosperms/seed ferns]], as well other groups like the [[Bennettitales]].<ref name="Raven-2013">{{Cite book|title=Biology of Plants|last=Raven|first=P.H.|publisher=New York: W.H. Freeman and Co.|year=2013}}</ref>
By far the largest group of living gymnosperms are the conifers (pines, cypresses, and relatives), followed by cycads, gnetophytes (''[[Gnetum]]'', ''[[Ephedra (genus)|Ephedra]]'' and ''[[Welwitschia]]''), and ''[[Ginkgo biloba]]'' (a single living species). About 65% of gymnosperms are [[Dioecy|dioecious]],<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2018-09-01|title=Sexual systems in gymnosperms: A review|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1439179117304498|journal=Basic and Applied Ecology|language=en|volume=31|pages=1–9|doi=10.1016/j.baae.2018.05.009|issn=1439-1791|last1=Walas|first1=Łukasz|last2=Mandryk|first2=Wojciech|last3=Thomas|first3=Peter A.|last4=Tyrała-Wierucka|first4=Żanna|last5=Iszkuło|first5=Grzegorz|bibcode=2018BApEc..31....1W |s2cid=90740232}}</ref> but conifers are almost all [[Monoecy|monoecious]].<ref name=Walasetal>{{cite journal| vauthors = Walas Ł, Mandryk W, Thomas PA, Tyrała-Wierucka Ż, Iszkuło G |date=2018|title=Sexual systems in gymnosperms: A review|journal=Basic and Applied Ecology|volume=31|pages=1–9|doi=10.1016/j.baae.2018.05.009 |bibcode=2018BApEc..31....1W |s2cid=90740232|url=http://eprints.keele.ac.uk/4961/1/29052018_1-s2.0-S1439179117304498-main.pdf}}</ref>
Some genera have [[mycorrhiza]], fungal associations with roots (''Pinus''), while in some others (''Cycas'') small specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with nitrogen-fixing [[cyanobacteria]].
==Diversity and origin==
[[File:Encephalartos sclavoi reproductive cone.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Encephalartos sclavoi]]'' cone, about 30 cm long]]
Over 1,000 living species of gymnosperm exist.<ref name="TPL" /> It was previously widely accepted that the gymnosperms originated in the [[Late Carboniferous]] period, replacing the [[Lycopodiophyta|lycopsid]] rainforests of the tropical region, but more recent phylogenetic evidence indicates that they diverged from the ancestors of [[Flowering plant|angiosperms]] during the [[Early Carboniferous]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Hong-Tao |last2=Yi |first2=Ting-Shuang |last3=Gao |first3=Lian-Ming |last4=Ma |first4=Peng-Fei |last5=Zhang |first5=Ting |last6=Yang |first6=Jun-Bo |last7=Gitzendanner |first7=Matthew A. |last8=Fritsch |first8=Peter W. |last9=Cai |first9=Jie |last10=Luo |first10=Yang |last11=Wang |first11=Hong |date=May 2019 |title=Origin of angiosperms and the puzzle of the Jurassic gap |journal=Nature Plants |language=en |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=461–470 |doi=10.1038/s41477-019-0421-0|pmid=31061536 |s2cid=146118264 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Morris |first1=Jennifer L. |last2=Puttick |first2=Mark N. |last3=Clark |first3=James W. |last4=Edwards |first4=Dianne |last5=Kenrick |first5=Paul |last6=Pressel |first6=Silvia |last7=Wellman |first7=Charles H. |last8=Yang |first8=Ziheng |last9=Schneider |first9=Harald |last10=Donoghue |first10=Philip C. J. |date=2018-03-06 |title=The timescale of early land plant evolution |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=115 |issue=10 |pages=E2274–E2283 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1719588115 |pmc=5877938 |pmid=29463716|bibcode=2018PNAS..115E2274M |doi-access=free }}</ref> The radiation of gymnosperms during the late Carboniferous appears to have resulted from a whole [[Gene duplication|genome duplication]] event around {{ma|319}}.<ref name="Jiao2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Jiao |first1=Yuannian |last2=Wickett |first2=Norman J. |last3=Ayyampalayam |first3=Saravanaraj |last4=Chanderbali |first4=André S. |last5=Landherr |first5=Lena |last6=Ralph |first6=Paula E. |last7=Tomsho |first7=Lynn P. |last8=Hu |first8=Yi |last9=Liang |first9=Haiying |last10=Soltis |first10=Pamela S. |last11=Soltis |first11=Douglas E. |date=2011-04-10 |title=Ancestral polyploidy in seed plants and angiosperms |journal=Nature |volume=473 |issue=7345 |pages=97–100 |doi=10.1038/nature09916 |pmid=21478875 |bibcode=2011Natur.473...97J |s2cid=4313258 |author-link10=Pamela S. Soltis |author-link11=Douglas E. Soltis}}</ref> Early characteristics of seed plants are evident in fossil [[progymnosperms]] of the late [[Devonian]] period around 383 million years ago. It has been suggested that during the mid-Mesozoic era, pollination of some extinct groups of gymnosperms was by extinct species of [[Mecoptera|scorpionflies]] that had specialized [[proboscis]] for feeding on pollination drops. The scorpionflies likely engaged in pollination mutualisms with gymnosperms, long before the similar and independent coevolution of nectar-feeding insects on angiosperms.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ollerton | first1 = J. | last2 = Coulthard | first2 = E. | year = 2009 | title = Evolution of Animal Pollination | journal = Science | volume = 326 | issue = 5954| pages = 808–809 | doi = 10.1126/science.1181154 | pmid = 19892970 | bibcode = 2009Sci...326..808O | s2cid = 856038 }}</ref><ref name="Ren">{{cite journal | last1 = Ren | first1 = D | last2 = Labandeira | first2 = CC | last3 = Santiago-Blay | first3 = JA | last4 = Rasnitsyn | first4 = A | last5 = Shih | first5 = CK | last6 = Bashkuev | first6 = A | last7 = Logan | first7 = MA | last8 = Hotton | first8 = CL | last9 = Dilcher | first9 = D. |display-authors=4 | year = 2009 | title = A Probable Pollination Mode Before Angiosperms: Eurasian, Long-Proboscid Scorpionflies | journal = Science | volume = 326 | issue = 5954| pages = 840–847 | doi = 10.1126/science.1178338 | pmid = 19892981 | pmc = 2944650 | bibcode = 2009Sci...326..840R }}</ref> Evidence has also been found that mid-Mesozoic gymnosperms were pollinated by [[Kalligrammatidae|Kalligrammatid lacewings]], a now-extinct family with members which (in an example of [[convergent evolution]]) resembled the modern butterflies that arose far later.<ref>{{cite journal | title=The evolutionary convergence of mid-Mesozoic lacewings and Cenozoic butterflies | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | last1=Labandeira | first1=Conrad C. | last2=Yang | first2=Qiang | last3=Santiago-Blay | first3=Jorge A. | last4=Hotton | first4=Carol L. | last5=Monteiro | first5=Antónia | last6=Wang | first6=Yong-Jie | last7=Goreva | first7=Yulia | last8=Shih | first8=ChungKun | last9=Siljeström | first9=Sandra | last10=Rose | first10=Tim R. | last11=Dilcher | first11=David L. | last12=Ren | first12=Dong | volume = 283 | issue = 1824| doi=10.1098/rspb.2015.2893 | pages=20152893 | pmid=26842570 | pmc=4760178| year = 2016 }}</ref>
[[File:Zamia integrifolia02.jpg|thumb|''Zamia integrifolia,'' a cycad native to Florida]]
All gymnosperms are [[perennial]] [[woody plant]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal
| title= The tortoise and the hare: ecology of angiosperm dominance and gymnosperm persistence
| first= W. J.| last= Bond
| journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume= 36|issue= 3|date= March 1989 |pages =227–249 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.1989.tb00492.x
}}</ref>
Unlike in other extant gymnosperms the soft and highly [[Ground tissue#Parenchyma|parenchymatous]] wood in cycads is poorly lignified,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fisher|first1=Jack B.|last2=Lindström|first2=Anders|last3=Marler|first3=Thomas E.|date=2009-06-01|title=Tissue Responses and Solution Movement After Stem Wounding in Six Cycas Species|url=https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/44/3/article-p848.xml|journal=HortScience|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=3|pages=848–851|doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.44.3.848|s2cid=83644706 |issn=0018-5345|doi-access=free}}</ref> and their main structural support comes from an armor of sclerenchymatous leaf bases covering the stem,<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bell|first1=Peter R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HYkTvGq_RccC&q=armor%2520sclerenchymatous%2520leaf%2520bases&pg=PA247|title=Green Plants: Their Origin and Diversity|last2=Bell|first2=Peter R.|last3=Hemsley|first3=Alan R.|date=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64673-4|page=247}}</ref> with the exception of species with underground stems.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Cleal|first1=Christopher J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDGdDwAAQBAJ&q=%2522exclusively%2520underground%2C%2520like%2520a%2520tuber%2520%28e.g.%2520some%2520Zamia%2520species%29%2522&pg=PA179|title=Introduction to Plant Fossils|last2=Thomas|first2=Barry A.|date=2019|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-48344-5|page=179}}</ref> There are no [[Herbaceous plant|herbaceous]] gymnosperms and compared to angiosperms they occupy fewer [[ecological niche]]s, but have evolved both parasites (''[[Parasitaxus]]''), [[epiphyte]]s (''[[Zamia pseudoparasitica]]'') and [[rheophyte]]s (''[[Retrophyllum minus]]'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mill|first=R. R.|title=A Monographic Revision of Retrophyllum (Podocarpaceae) |date=2016-06-22|journal=Edinburgh Journal of Botany|language=en|volume=73|issue=2|pages=171–261|doi=10.1017/S0960428616000081|issn=1474-0036|doi-access=free}}</ref>
[[Conifer]]s are by far the most abundant extant group of gymnosperms with six to eight families, with a total of 65–70 genera and 600–630 species (696 accepted names).<ref name="Catalogue">{{Cite web|url=http://www.catalogueoflife.org/show_database_details.php?database_name=Conifer+Database|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115190412/http://www.catalogueoflife.org/show_database_details.php?database_name=Conifer+Database|url-status=dead|work=Catalogue of Life: 2008 Annual checklist |title= Conifer database|editor= A. Farjon | date=2006|archive-date=January 15, 2009}}</ref> Most conifers are [[Evergreen|evergreens]].<ref>Campbell, Reece, "Phylum Coniferophyta."Biology. 7th. 2005. Print. P.595</ref> The [[leaf|leaves]] of many conifers are long, thin and needle-like, while other species, including most [[Cupressaceae]] and some [[Podocarpaceae]], have flat, triangular scale-like leaves. ''[[Agathis]]'' in Araucariaceae and ''[[Nageia]]'' in Podocarpaceae have broad, flat strap-shaped leaves.
[[Cycad]]s are the next most abundant group of gymnosperms, with two or three families, 11 genera, and approximately 338 species. A majority of cycads are native to tropical climates and are most abundantly found in regions near the equator. The other extant groups are the 95–100 species of [[Gnetum|Gnetale]]s and one species of ''[[Ginkgo]]''.<ref name="Raven-2013" />
Today gymnosperms are the most threatened of all plant groups.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gilbert |first=Natasha |date=2010-09-28 |title=Threats to the world's plants assessed |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/news.2010.499 |journal=Nature |language=en |doi=10.1038/news.2010.499 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref>
==Classification==
{{cladogram|title=Phylogeny of Gymnosperms<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leslie |first1=Andrew B. |last2=Beaulieu |first2=Jeremy |last3=Holman |first3=Garth |last4=Campbell |first4=Christopher S. |last5=Mei |first5=Wenbin |last6=Raubeson |first6=Linda R. |last7=Mathews |first7=Sarah |display-authors=et al. |year=2018 |title=An overview of extant conifer evolution from the perspective of the fossil record |journal=American Journal of Botany |url=https://doi.org/10.1002/ajb2.1143 |volume=105 |issue=9 |pages=1531–1544 | doi=10.1002/ajb2.1143 |pmid= 30157290|pmc= |bibcode= |s2cid=52120430 |doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leslie |first1=Andrew B. |display-authors=et al. |year=2018 |title=ajb21143-sup-0004-AppendixS4 |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=105 |issue=9 |pages=1531–1544 |doi=10.1002/ajb2.1143 |pmid=30157290 |s2cid=52120430 |url=https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/action/downloadSupplement?doi=10.1002%2Fajb2.1143&file=ajb21143-sup-0004-AppendixS4.pdf |doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stull |first1=Gregory W. |last2=Qu |first2=Xiao-Jian |last3=Parins-Fukuchi |first3=Caroline |last4=Yang |first4=Ying-Ying |last5=Yang |first5=Jun-Bo |last6=Yang |first6=Zhi-Yun |last7=Hu |first7=Yi |last8=Ma |first8=Hong |last9=Soltis |first9=Pamela S. |last10=Soltis |first10=Douglas E. |last11=Li |first11=De-Zhu |last12=Smith |first12=Stephen A. |last13=Yi |first13=Ting-Shuang |display-authors=et al. |year=2021 |title=Gene duplications and phylogenomic conflict underlie major pulses of phenotypic evolution in gymnosperms |journal=Nature Plants |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-021-00964-4 |volume=7 |issue= 8|pages=1015–1025 |doi=10.1038/s41477-021-00964-4|biorxiv=10.1101/2021.03.13.435279 |pmid= 34282286|pmc= |bibcode= |s2cid=232282918 |doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |last1=Stull |first1=Gregory W. |display-authors=et al. |year=2021 |title=main.dated.supermatrix.tree.T9.tre |publisher=Figshare |doi=10.6084/m9.figshare.14547354.v1 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/Gene_duplications_and_genomic_conflict_underlie_major_pulses_of_phenotypic_evolution_in_gymnosperms/14547354 |doi-access=}}</ref>|
{{clade|style=font-size:90%;line-height:80%;width:400px
|1={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1='''[[Ginkgoidae]]'''
|1={{Clade
|label1='''[[Ginkgoales]]'''
|1={{Clade
|label1=[[Ginkgoaceae]]
|1=''[[Ginkgo]]''
}}
}}
|label2='''[[Cycadidae]]'''
|2={{Clade
|label1='''[[Cycadales]]'''
|1={{Clade
|label1=[[Cycadaceae]]
|1=''[[Cycas]]''
|label2=[[Zamiaceae]]
|2={{Clade
|label1=Diooideae
|1=''[[Dioon]]''
|label2=Zamioideae
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Bowenia]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Macrozamia]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Encephalartos]]''
|2=''[[Lepidozamia]]''
}}
}}
}}
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Ceratozamia]]''
|2=''[[Stangeria]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Microcycas]]''
|2=''[[Zamia]]''
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|2={{Clade
|label1='''[[Pinidae]]'''
|1={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1='''[[Gnetales]]'''
|1={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1=[[Ephedraceae]]
|1=''[[Ephedra (plant)|Ephedra]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|label1=[[Gnetaceae]]
|1=''[[Gnetum]]''
|label2=[[Welwitschiaceae]]
|2=''[[Welwitschia]]''
}}
}}
|label2='''[[Pinales]]'''
|2={{Clade
|label1=[[Pinaceae]]
|1={{Clade
|label1=Pinoideae
|1={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Larix]]''
|2=''[[Pseudotsuga]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Pinus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Cathaya]]''
|2=''[[Picea]]''
}}
}}
}}
|label2=Abietoideae
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Cedrus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Abies]]''
|2=''[[Keteleeria]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Pseudolarix]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Nothotsuga]]''
|2=''[[Tsuga]]''
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|label2=
|2={{Clade
|label1='''[[Araucariales]]'''
|1={{Clade
|label1=[[Araucariaceae]]
|1={{Clade
|label1=Araucarieae
|1=''[[Araucaria]]''
|label2=Agathideae
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Agathis]]''
|2=''[[Wollemia]]''
}}
}}
|label2=[[Podocarpaceae]]
|2={{Clade
|1={"Phyllocladoideae"}
|2={"Podocarpoideae"}
}}
}}
|label2='''[[Cupressales]]'''
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1=[[Sciadopityaceae]]
|1=''[[Sciadopitys]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|label1=[[Taxaceae]]
|1={{Clade
|label1=Cephalotaxeae
|1=''[[Cephalotaxus]]''
|label2=Taxoideae
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Amentotaxus]]''
|2=''[[Torreya]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Austrotaxus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Pseudotaxus]]''
|2=''[[Taxus]]''
}}
}}
}}
}}
|label2=[[Cupressaceae]]
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1=Cunninghamioideae
|1=''[[Cunninghamia]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1=Taiwanioideae
|1=''[[Taiwania]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1=Athrotaxidoideae
|1=''[[Athrotaxis]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1=Sequoioideae
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Metasequoia]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Sequoiadendron]]''
|2=''[[Sequoia (genus)|Sequoia]]''
}}
}}
}}
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1=Taxodioideae
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Cryptomeria]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Glyptostrobus]]''
|2=''[[Taxodium]]''
}}
}}
}}
|2={{Clade
|1={"Actinostroboideae"}
|2={"Cupressoideae"}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|targetA={"Phyllocladoideae"}
|subcladeA={{Clade
|label1 =Phyllocladoideae
|1={{Clade hidden |id=1 |mode=left
|1=''[[Halocarpus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Pectinopitys]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Prumnopitys]]''
|2=''[[Sundacarpus]]''
}}
}}
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Lepidothamnus]]''
|2=''[[Phyllocladus]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Parasitaxus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Lagarostrobos]]''
|2=''[[Manoao]]''
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|targetB={"Podocarpoideae"}
|subcladeB={{Clade
|label1 =Podocarpoideae
|1={{Clade hidden |id=2 |mode=left
|1=''[[Saxegothaea]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Microcachrys]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Pherosphaera]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Acmopyle]]''
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Dacrycarpus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Dacrydium]]''
|2=''[[Falcatifolium]]''
}}
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Podocarpus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Retrophyllum]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Afrocarpus]]''
|2=''[[Nageia]]''
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|targetC={"Actinostroboideae"}
|subcladeC={{Clade
|label1 =Actinostroboideae
|1={{Clade hidden |id=3 |mode=left
|1=''[[Papuacedrus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Austrocedrus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Libocedrus]]''
|2=''[[Pilgerodendron]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Callitris]]''
|2=''[[Neocallitropsis]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Widdringtonia]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Diselma]]''
|2=''[[Fitzroya]]''
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|targetD={"Cupressoideae"}
|subcladeD={{Clade
|label1 =Cupressoideae
|1={{Clade hidden |id=4 |mode=left
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Thuja]]''
|2=''[[Thujopsis]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Chamaecyparis]]''
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Calocedrus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Tetraclinis]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Microbiota decussata|Microbiota]]''
|2=''[[Platycladus]]''
}}
}}
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Juniperus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Cupressus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Hesperocyparis]]''
|2=''[[Xanthocyparis]]''
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
{{further|Spermatophyte}}
A formal classification of the living gymnosperms is the "Acrogymnospermae", which form a [[monophyletic group]] within the [[spermatophyte]]s.{{sfn|Cantino|2007}}<ref name="Christenhusz-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Christenhusz |first1=M.J.M. |last2=Reveal |first2=J.L. |last3=Farjon |first3=A. |last4=Gardner |first4=M.F. |last5=Mill|first5=R.R.|last6=Chase|first6=M.W.|year=2011|title=A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms|url=http://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2011/f/pt00019p070.pdf |journal=Phytotaxa|volume=19|pages=55–70|doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.19.1.3|s2cid=86797396 }}</ref> The wider "Gymnospermae" group includes extinct gymnosperms and is thought to be [[Paraphyly|paraphyletic]]. The fossil record of gymnosperms includes many distinctive [[taxa]] that do not belong to the four modern groups, including seed-bearing trees that have a somewhat [[fern]]-like vegetative morphology (the so-called "seed ferns" or [[pteridosperm]]s).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hilton |first1=Jason |last2=Bateman |first2=Richard M. |date=January 2006 |title=Pteridosperms are the backbone of seed-plant phylogeny 1 |journal=The Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society |language=en |volume=133 |issue=1 |pages=119–168 |doi=10.3159/1095-5674(2006)133[119:PATBOS]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=86395036 }}</ref> When fossil gymnosperms such as these and the [[Bennettitales]], [[glossopterid]]s, and ''[[Caytonia]]'' are considered, it is clear that angiosperms are nested within a larger gymnospermae clade, although which group of gymnosperms is their closest relative remains unclear.
The extant gymnosperms include 12 main families and 83 genera which contain more than 1000 known species.<ref name="TPL" /><ref name="Christenhusz-2011" /><ref name="Christenhusz-Byng2016">{{cite journal |author1=Christenhusz, M. J. M. |author2=Byng, J. W. | year = 2016 | title = The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase | journal = Phytotaxa | volume = 261 | pages = 201–217 | url = http://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.3.1/20598 | doi = 10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1 | issue = 3 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
'''Subclass [[Cycadidae]]'''
*Order '''[[Cycadales]]'''
**Family '''[[Cycadaceae]]''': ''[[Cycas]]''
**Family '''[[Zamiaceae]]''': ''[[Dioon]]'', ''[[Bowenia]]'', ''[[Macrozamia]]'', ''[[Lepidozamia]]'', ''[[Encephalartos]]'', ''[[Stangeria]]'', ''[[Ceratozamia]]'', ''[[Microcycas]]'', ''[[Zamia]]''
'''Subclass [[Ginkgoidae]]'''
*Order '''[[Ginkgoales]]'''
**Family '''[[Ginkgoaceae]]''': ''[[Ginkgo]]''
'''Subclass [[Gnetidae]]'''
*Order '''[[Welwitschiales]]'''
**Family '''[[Welwitschiaceae]]''': ''[[Welwitschia]]''
*Order '''[[Gnetales]]'''
**Family '''[[Gnetaceae]]''': ''[[Gnetum]]''
*Order '''[[Ephedrales]]'''
**Family '''[[Ephedraceae]]''': ''[[Ephedra (plant)|Ephedra]]''
'''Subclass [[Pinidae]]'''
*Order '''[[Pinales]]'''
**Family '''[[Pinaceae]]''': ''[[Cedrus]]'', ''[[Pinus]]'', ''[[Cathaya]]'', ''[[Picea]]'', ''[[Pseudotsuga]]'', ''[[Larix]]'', ''[[Pseudolarix]]'', ''[[Tsuga]]'', ''[[Nothotsuga]]'', ''[[Keteleeria]]'', ''[[Abies]]''
*Order '''[[Araucariales]]'''
**Family '''[[Araucariaceae]]''': ''[[Araucaria]]'', ''[[Wollemia]]'', ''[[Agathis]]''
**Family '''[[Podocarpaceae]]''': ''[[Phyllocladus]]'', ''[[Lepidothamnus]]'', ''[[Prumnopitys]]'', ''[[Sundacarpus]]'', ''[[Halocarpus]]'', ''[[Parasitaxus]]'', ''[[Lagarostrobos]]'', ''[[Manoao]]'', ''[[Saxegothaea]]'', ''[[Microcachrys]]'', ''[[Pherosphaera]]'', ''[[Acmopyle]]'', ''[[Dacrycarpus]]'', ''[[Dacrydium]]'', ''[[Falcatifolium]]'', ''[[Retrophyllum]]'', ''[[Nageia]]'', ''[[Afrocarpus]]'', ''[[Podocarpus]]''
*Order '''[[Cupressales]]'''
**Family '''[[Sciadopityaceae]]''': ''[[Sciadopitys]]''
**Family '''[[Cupressaceae]]''': ''[[Cunninghamia]]'', ''[[Taiwania]]'', ''[[Athrotaxis]]'', ''[[Metasequoia]]'', ''[[Sequoioideae|Sequoia]]'', ''[[Sequoiadendron]]'', ''[[Cryptomeria]]'', ''[[Glyptostrobus]]'', ''[[Taxodium]]'', ''[[Papuacedrus]]'', ''[[Austrocedrus]]'', ''[[Libocedrus]]'', ''[[Pilgerodendron]]'', ''[[Widdringtonia]]'', ''[[Diselma]]'', ''[[Fitzroya]]'', ''[[Callitris]]'', ''[[Actinostrobus]]'', ''[[Neocallitropsis]]'', ''[[Thujopsis]]'', ''[[Thuja]]'', ''[[Fokienia]]'', ''[[Chamaecyparis]]'', ''[[Cupressus]]'', ''[[Juniperus]]'', ''[[Calocedrus]]'', ''[[Tetraclinis]]'', ''[[Platycladus]]'', ''[[Microbiota (plant)|Microbiota]]''
**Family '''[[Taxaceae]]''': ''[[Austrotaxus]]'', ''[[Pseudotaxus]]'', ''[[Taxus]]'', ''[[Cephalotaxus]]'', ''[[Amentotaxus]]'', ''[[Torreya]]''
=== Extinct groupings ===
*Order [[Cordaitales]]
*Order [[Calamopityales]]
* Order [[Callistophytales]]
* Order [[Caytoniales]]
* Order [[Gigantopteridales]]
* Order [[Glossopteridales]]
* Order [[Lyginopteridales]]
* Order [[Medullosales]]
* Order [[Peltaspermales]]
* Order [[Corystospermales]] (also known as Umkomasiales)
* Order [[Czekanowskiales]]
* Order [[Bennettitales]] (cycadeoids''')'''
* Order [[Erdtmanithecales]]
*Order [[Pentoxylales]]
*Order [[Czekanowskiales]]
*Order [[Petriellales]]
==Life cycle==
[[File:Gymnosperm life cycle (en).png|thumb|Example of gymnosperm lifecycle]]
Gymnosperms, like all [[vascular plants]], have a sporophyte-dominant life cycle, which means they spend most of their life cycle with diploid cells, while the [[gametophyte]] (gamete-bearing phase) is relatively short-lived. Like all [[seed plants]], they are [[heterospory|heterosporous]], having two spore types, [[Microspore|microspores]] (male) and [[Megaspore|megaspores]] (female) that are typically produced in pollen cones or ovulate cones, respectively.<ref name="Concepts of Biology">{{cite book |last1=Samantha |first1=Fowler |last2=Rebecca |first2=Roush |last3=James |first3=Wise |title=Concepts of Biology |date=2013 |publisher=OpenStax |location=Houston, Texas |url=https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/14-3-seed-plants-gymnosperms |access-date=31 March 2023 |chapter=14.3 Seed Plants: Gymnosperms}}</ref> The exception is the females in the cycad genus ''[[Cycas]]'', which form a loose structure called megasporophylls instead of cones.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yang|last2=Wang|first2=Sibo|last3=Li|first3=Linzhou|last4=Yang|first4=Ting|last5=Dong|first5=Shanshan|last6=Wei|first6=Tong|last7=Wu|first7=Shengdan|last8=Liu|first8=Yongbo|last9=Gong|first9=Yiqing|last10=Feng|first10=Xiuyan|last11=Ma|first11=Jianchao|last12=Chang|first12=Guanxiao|last13=Huang|first13=Jinling|last14=Yang|first14=Yong|last15=Wang|first15=Hongli|date=April 2022|title=The Cycas genome and the early evolution of seed plants|journal=Nature Plants|language=en|volume=8|issue=4|pages=389–401|doi=10.1038/s41477-022-01129-7|pmid=35437001 |pmc=9023351 |issn=2055-0278}}</ref> As with all heterosporous plants, the gametophytes develop within the spore wall. Pollen grains (microgametophytes) mature from microspores, and ultimately produce sperm cells.<ref name="Concepts of Biology" /> Megagametophytes develop from megaspores and are retained within the ovule. Gymnosperms produce multiple [[Archegonium|archegonia]], which produce the female gamete.
During pollination, pollen grains are physically transferred between plants from the pollen cone to the ovule. Pollen is usually moved by wind or insects. Whole grains enter each ovule through a microscopic gap in the ovule coat ([[integument]]) called the micropyle. The pollen grains mature further inside the ovule and produce sperm cells. Two main modes of fertilization are found in gymnosperms. Cycads and ''[[Ginkgo]]'' have [[flagellum|flagellated]] motile sperm<ref name="AJB">{{cite journal |last1=Southworth |first1=Darlene |last2=Cresti |first2=Mauro |title=Comparison of flagellated and nonflagellated sperm in plants |journal=American Journal of Botany |pages=1301–1311 |doi=10.2307/2446056 |date=September 1997|volume=84 |issue=9 |jstor=2446056 |pmid=21708687 |doi-access=free }}</ref> that swim directly to the egg inside the ovule, whereas conifers and [[gnetophyte]]s have sperm with no flagella that are moved along a [[pollen tube]] to the egg. After [[Fertilisation|syngamy]] (joining of the sperm and egg cell), the zygote develops into an embryo (young sporophyte). More than one embryo is usually initiated in each gymnosperm seed. The mature seed comprises the embryo and the remains of the female [[Gametophyte#Seed plants|gametophyte]], which serves as a food supply, and the [[Seed-coat|seed coat]].<ref name="Walters1996">{{Cite book| last = Walters | first = Dirk R Walters Bonnie By| year = 1996| title = Vascular plant taxonomy| page = [https://archive.org/details/vascularplanttax00walt/page/124 124]| url = https://archive.org/details/vascularplanttax00walt| url-access = registration | quote = Gymnosperm seeds. | isbn = 978-0-7872-2108-9| publisher = Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co.| location = Dubuque, Iowa}}</ref>
==Genetics==
The first published sequenced genome for any gymnosperm was the genome of ''[[Picea abies]]'' in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal | title = The Norway spruce genome sequence and conifer genome evolution | journal = Nature | volume = 497 | issue = 7451| pages = 579–584 | doi = 10.1038/nature12211 | pmid=23698360 | date=May 2013 | last1 = Nystedt | first1 = B | last2 = Street | first2 = NR | last3 = Wetterbom | first3 = A | display-authors = etal | bibcode = 2013Natur.497..579N | doi-access = free | hdl = 1854/LU-4110028 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
==Uses==
Gymnosperms have major economic uses. Pine, fir, spruce, and cedar are all examples of conifers that are used for [[lumber]], paper production, and resin. Some other common uses for gymnosperms are [[soap]], [[varnish]], [[nail polish]], food, gum, and [[perfume]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Biswas |first1=C. |last2=Johri |first2=B.M. |year=1997 |chapter=Economic Importance |title=The Gymnosperms |pages=440–456 |publisher=Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-13164-0_23 |isbn=978-3-662-13166-4 |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-662-13164-0.pdf}}</ref>
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="Phylogenomics of gymnosperms">{{cite journal|vauthors=Yang Y, Ferguson DK, Liu B, Mao KS, Gao LM, Zhang SZ, Wan T, Rushforth K, Zhang ZX|title=Recent advances on phylogenomics of gymnosperms and a new classification|journal=Plant Diversity|date=2020|volume=44|issue=4|pages=340–350|doi=10.1016/j.pld.2022.05.003|pmid=35967253 |pmc=9363647 |bibcode=2022PlDiv..44..340Y |s2cid=249117306 |issn=2468-2659}}</ref>
}}
== General bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Cantino |first1=Philip D. |last2=Doyle |first2=James A. |last3=Graham |first3=Sean W. |last4=Judd |first4=Walter S. |last5=Olmstead |first5=Richard G. |last6=Soltis |first6=Douglas E. |last7=Soltis |first7=Pamela S. |last8=Donoghue |first8=Michael J. |title=Towards a phylogenetic nomenclature of Tracheophyta |journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]] |date=August 2007 |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=822–846 |doi=10.2307/25065864|jstor=25065864 |ref={{harvid|Cantino|2007}}}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Gymnosperms}}
{{wiktionary|gymnosperm}}
*[http://www.conifers.org/ Gymnosperm Database]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080409044237/http://www.huh.harvard.edu/research/mathews-lab/atolHtmlSite/ Gymnosperms on the Tree of Life]
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Gymnosperms|author=Albert Seward|author-link=Albert Seward|short=x}}
*[[Christopher Nigel Page]] (2023).The Evolution of Arborescent Gymnosperms. [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-1-009-26309-2}}. 2 volumes (volume one on the conifers of the Northern hemisphere and volume 2 on the conifers of the southern hemisphere).
{{Clear}}
{{Botany}}
{{Plant classification}}
{{Acrogymnospermae classification}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q133712}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Gymnosperms| 01]]
[[Category:Extant Late Devonian first appearances]]
*' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Clade of non-flowering, naked-seeded vascular plants}}
{{Distinguish|text=the flowering plant genera ''[[Gymnosperma]]'' and ''[[Gymnospermium]]''}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name =
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Bashkirian|0|earliest=320|[[Carboniferous]]–[[Holocene|Present]]}}
| image = Gymnospermae.jpg
| image_caption = Various gymnosperms.
| taxon = Gymnosperms
| authority =
| subdivision_ranks = Living orders<ref name="Phylogenomics of gymnosperms"/>
| subdivision = *[[Cycadopsida]]
**[[Cycadales]]
*[[Ginkgoopsida]]
**[[Ginkgoales]]
*[[Pinopsida]]
**[[Cupressidae]]
***[[Araucariales]]
***[[Cupressales]]
**[[Pinidae]]
***[[Pinales]]
*[[Gnetidae]]
***[[Ephedrales]]
***[[Welwitschiales]]
***[[Gnetales]]
}}
The '''gymnosperms''' ({{IPAc-en|'|dʒ|ɪ|m|n|ə|ˌ|s|p|ɜːr|m|z|,_|-|n|oʊ|-|audio=en-us-gymnosperm.ogg}} {{respell|JIM|nə|spurmz|,_|-|noh|-}}; {{lit|revealed seeds}}) are a group of [[spermatophyte|seed-producing plants]] that includes [[Pinophyta|conifers]], [[cycad]]s, ''[[Ginkgo]]'', and [[gnetophyta|gnetophyte]]s, forming the clade '''Gymnospermae'''. The term ''gymnosperm'' comes from the composite word in {{lang-el|γυμνόσπερμος}} ({{lang-el|γυμνός|translit=gymnos|lit=naked|label=none}} and {{lang-el|σπέρμα|translit=sperma|lit=seed|label=none}}), literally meaning 'naked seeds'. The name is based on the unenclosed condition of their seeds (called [[ovule]]s in their unfertilized state). The non-encased condition of their seeds contrasts with the seeds and ovules of flowering plants ([[angiosperms]]), which are enclosed within an [[Ovary (botany)|ovary]]. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or [[Leaf|leaves]], which are often modified to form [[Conifer cone|cones]], or on their own as in [[Taxus|yew]], ''[[Torreya]]'', ''[[Ginkgo]]''.<ref name="TPL">{{cite web|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/browse/G/|title=Gymnosperms on The Plant List|publisher=Theplantlist.org|access-date=2013-07-24|archive-date=2013-08-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130824024109/http://www.theplantlist.org/browse/G/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Gymnosperm lifecycles involve [[alternation of generations]]. They have a dominant [[diploid]] [[sporophyte]] phase and a reduced [[haploid]] [[gametophyte]] phase which is dependent on the sporophytic phase. The term "gymnosperm" is often used in [[paleobotany]] to refer to (the [[paraphyletic]] group of) all non-angiosperm seed plants. In that case, to specify the modern [[monophyletic]] group of gymnosperms, the term '''Acrogymnospermae''' is sometimes used.
The gymnosperms and [[angiosperms]] together comprise the [[spermatophyte]]s or seed plants. The spermatophytes are subdivided into five [[Division (botany)|divisions]], the angiosperms and four divisions of gymnosperms: the [[Cycadophyta]], [[Ginkgophyta]], [[Gnetophyta]], and [[Pinophyta]] (also known as Coniferophyta). Newer classification place the gnetophytes among the conifers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yong |last2=Ferguson |first2=David Kay |last3=Liu |first3=Bing |last4=Mao |first4=Kang-Shan |last5=Gao |first5=Lian-Ming |last6=Zhang |first6=Shou-Zhou |last7=Wan |first7=Tao |last8=Rushforth |first8=Keith |last9=Zhang |first9=Zhi-Xiang |date=2022-07-01 |title=Recent advances on phylogenomics of gymnosperms and a new classification |journal=Plant Diversity |language=en |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=340–350 |doi=10.1016/j.pld.2022.05.003 |issn=2468-2659 |pmc=9363647 |pmid=35967253|bibcode=2022PlDiv..44..340Y }}</ref> Numerous extinct seed plant groups are recognised including those considered [[Pteridospermatophyta|pteridosperms/seed ferns]], as well other groups like the [[Bennettitales]].<ref name="Raven-2013">{{Cite book|title=Biology of Plants|last=Raven|first=P.H.|publisher=New York: W.H. Freeman and Co.|year=2013}}</ref>
By far the largest group of living gymnosperms are the conifers (pines, cypresses, and relatives), followed by cycads, gnetophytes (''[[Gnetum]]'', ''[[Ephedra (genus)|Ephedra]]'' and ''[[Welwitschia]]''), and ''[[Ginkgo biloba]]'' (a single living species). About 65% of gymnosperms are [[Dioecy|dioecious]],<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2018-09-01|title=Sexual systems in gymnosperms: A review|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1439179117304498|journal=Basic and Applied Ecology|language=en|volume=31|pages=1–9|doi=10.1016/j.baae.2018.05.009|issn=1439-1791|last1=Walas|first1=Łukasz|last2=Mandryk|first2=Wojciech|last3=Thomas|first3=Peter A.|last4=Tyrała-Wierucka|first4=Żanna|last5=Iszkuło|first5=Grzegorz|bibcode=2018BApEc..31....1W |s2cid=90740232}}</ref> but conifers are almost all [[Monoecy|monoecious]].<ref name=Walasetal>{{cite journal| vauthors = Walas Ł, Mandryk W, Thomas PA, Tyrała-Wierucka Ż, Iszkuło G |date=2018|title=Sexual systems in gymnosperms: A review|journal=Basic and Applied Ecology|volume=31|pages=1–9|doi=10.1016/j.baae.2018.05.009 |bibcode=2018BApEc..31....1W |s2cid=90740232|url=http://eprints.keele.ac.uk/4961/1/29052018_1-s2.0-S1439179117304498-main.pdf}}</ref>
Some genera have [[mycorrhiza]], fungal associations with roots (''Pinus''), while in some others (''Cycas'') small specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with nitrogen-fixing [[cyanobacteria]].
==Diversity and origin==
[[File:Encephalartos sclavoi reproductive cone.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Encephalartos sclavoi]]'' cone, about 30 cm long]]
Over 1,000 living species of gymnosperm exist.<ref name="TPL" /> It was previously widely accepted that the gymnosperms originated in the [[Late Carboniferous]] period, replacing the [[Lycopodiophyta|lycopsid]] rainforests of the tropical region, but more recent phylogenetic evidence indicates that they diverged from the ancestors of [[Flowering plant|angiosperms]] during the [[Early Carboniferous]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Hong-Tao |last2=Yi |first2=Ting-Shuang |last3=Gao |first3=Lian-Ming |last4=Ma |first4=Peng-Fei |last5=Zhang |first5=Ting |last6=Yang |first6=Jun-Bo |last7=Gitzendanner |first7=Matthew A. |last8=Fritsch |first8=Peter W. |last9=Cai |first9=Jie |last10=Luo |first10=Yang |last11=Wang |first11=Hong |date=May 2019 |title=Origin of angiosperms and the puzzle of the Jurassic gap |journal=Nature Plants |language=en |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=461–470 |doi=10.1038/s41477-019-0421-0|pmid=31061536 |s2cid=146118264 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Morris |first1=Jennifer L. |last2=Puttick |first2=Mark N. |last3=Clark |first3=James W. |last4=Edwards |first4=Dianne |last5=Kenrick |first5=Paul |last6=Pressel |first6=Silvia |last7=Wellman |first7=Charles H. |last8=Yang |first8=Ziheng |last9=Schneider |first9=Harald |last10=Donoghue |first10=Philip C. J. |date=2018-03-06 |title=The timescale of early land plant evolution |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=115 |issue=10 |pages=E2274–E2283 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1719588115 |pmc=5877938 |pmid=29463716|bibcode=2018PNAS..115E2274M |doi-access=free }}</ref> The radiation of gymnosperms during the late Carboniferous appears to have resulted from a whole [[Gene duplication|genome duplication]] event around {{ma|319}}.<ref name="Jiao2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Jiao |first1=Yuannian |last2=Wickett |first2=Norman J. |last3=Ayyampalayam |first3=Saravanaraj |last4=Chanderbali |first4=André S. |last5=Landherr |first5=Lena |last6=Ralph |first6=Paula E. |last7=Tomsho |first7=Lynn P. |last8=Hu |first8=Yi |last9=Liang |first9=Haiying |last10=Soltis |first10=Pamela S. |last11=Soltis |first11=Douglas E. |date=2011-04-10 |title=Ancestral polyploidy in seed plants and angiosperms |journal=Nature |volume=473 |issue=7345 |pages=97–100 |doi=10.1038/nature09916 |pmid=21478875 |bibcode=2011Natur.473...97J |s2cid=4313258 |author-link10=Pamela S. Soltis |author-link11=Douglas E. Soltis}}</ref> Early characteristics of seed plants are evident in fossil [[progymnosperms]] of the late [[Devonian]] period around 383 million years ago. It has been suggested that during the mid-Mesozoic era, pollination of some extinct groups of gymnosperms was by extinct species of [[Mecoptera|scorpionflies]] that had specialized [[proboscis]] for feeding on pollination drops. The scorpionflies likely engaged in pollination mutualisms with gymnosperms, long before the similar and independent coevolution of nectar-feeding insects on angiosperms.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ollerton | first1 = J. | last2 = Coulthard | first2 = E. | year = 2009 | title = Evolution of Animal Pollination | journal = Science | volume = 326 | issue = 5954| pages = 808–809 | doi = 10.1126/science.1181154 | pmid = 19892970 | bibcode = 2009Sci...326..808O | s2cid = 856038 }}</ref><ref name="Ren">{{cite journal | last1 = Ren | first1 = D | last2 = Labandeira | first2 = CC | last3 = Santiago-Blay | first3 = JA | last4 = Rasnitsyn | first4 = A | last5 = Shih | first5 = CK | last6 = Bashkuev | first6 = A | last7 = Logan | first7 = MA | last8 = Hotton | first8 = CL | last9 = Dilcher | first9 = D. |display-authors=4 | year = 2009 | title = A Probable Pollination Mode Before Angiosperms: Eurasian, Long-Proboscid Scorpionflies | journal = Science | volume = 326 | issue = 5954| pages = 840–847 | doi = 10.1126/science.1178338 | pmid = 19892981 | pmc = 2944650 | bibcode = 2009Sci...326..840R }}</ref> Evidence has also been found that mid-Mesozoic gymnosperms were pollinated by [[Kalligrammatidae|Kalligrammatid lacewings]], a now-extinct family with members which (in an example of [[convergent evolution]]) resembled the modern butterflies that arose far later.<ref>{{cite journal | title=The evolutionary convergence of mid-Mesozoic lacewings and Cenozoic butterflies | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | last1=Labandeira | first1=Conrad C. | last2=Yang | first2=Qiang | last3=Santiago-Blay | first3=Jorge A. | last4=Hotton | first4=Carol L. | last5=Monteiro | first5=Antónia | last6=Wang | first6=Yong-Jie | last7=Goreva | first7=Yulia | last8=Shih | first8=ChungKun | last9=Siljeström | first9=Sandra | last10=Rose | first10=Tim R. | last11=Dilcher | first11=David L. | last12=Ren | first12=Dong | volume = 283 | issue = 1824| doi=10.1098/rspb.2015.2893 | pages=20152893 | pmid=26842570 | pmc=4760178| year = 2016 }}</ref>
[[File:Zamia integrifolia02.jpg|thumb|''Zamia integrifolia,'' a cycad native to Florida]]
All gymnosperms are [[perennial]] [[woody plant]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal
| title= The tortoise and the hare: ecology of angiosperm dominance and gymnosperm persistence
| first= W. J.| last= Bond
| journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume= 36|issue= 3|date= March 1989 |pages =227–249 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.1989.tb00492.x
}}</ref>
Unlike in other extant gymnosperms the soft and highly [[Ground tissue#Parenchyma|parenchymatous]] wood in cycads is poorly lignified,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fisher|first1=Jack B.|last2=Lindström|first2=Anders|last3=Marler|first3=Thomas E.|date=2009-06-01|title=Tissue Responses and Solution Movement After Stem Wounding in Six Cycas Species|url=https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/44/3/article-p848.xml|journal=HortScience|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=3|pages=848–851|doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.44.3.848|s2cid=83644706 |issn=0018-5345|doi-access=free}}</ref> and their main structural support comes from an armor of sclerenchymatous leaf bases covering the stem,<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bell|first1=Peter R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HYkTvGq_RccC&q=armor%2520sclerenchymatous%2520leaf%2520bases&pg=PA247|title=Green Plants: Their Origin and Diversity|last2=Bell|first2=Peter R.|last3=Hemsley|first3=Alan R.|date=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64673-4|page=247}}</ref> with the exception of species with underground stems.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Cleal|first1=Christopher J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDGdDwAAQBAJ&q=%2522exclusively%2520underground%2C%2520like%2520a%2520tuber%2520%28e.g.%2520some%2520Zamia%2520species%29%2522&pg=PA179|title=Introduction to Plant Fossils|last2=Thomas|first2=Barry A.|date=2019|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-48344-5|page=179}}</ref> There are no [[Herbaceous plant|herbaceous]] gymnosperms and compared to angiosperms they occupy fewer [[ecological niche]]s, but have evolved both parasites (''[[Parasitaxus]]''), [[epiphyte]]s (''[[Zamia pseudoparasitica]]'') and [[rheophyte]]s (''[[Retrophyllum minus]]'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mill|first=R. R.|title=A Monographic Revision of Retrophyllum (Podocarpaceae) |date=2016-06-22|journal=Edinburgh Journal of Botany|language=en|volume=73|issue=2|pages=171–261|doi=10.1017/S0960428616000081|issn=1474-0036|doi-access=free}}</ref>
[[Conifer]]s are by far the most abundant extant group of gymnosperms with six to eight families, with a total of 65–70 genera and 600–630 species (696 accepted names).<ref name="Catalogue">{{Cite web|url=http://www.catalogueoflife.org/show_database_details.php?database_name=Conifer+Database|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115190412/http://www.catalogueoflife.org/show_database_details.php?database_name=Conifer+Database|url-status=dead|work=Catalogue of Life: 2008 Annual checklist |title= Conifer database|editor= A. Farjon | date=2006|archive-date=January 15, 2009}}</ref> Most conifers are [[Evergreen|evergreens]].<ref>Campbell, Reece, "Phylum Coniferophyta."Biology. 7th. 2005. Print. P.595</ref> The [[leaf|leaves]] of many conifers are long, thin and needle-like, while other species, including most [[Cupressaceae]] and some [[Podocarpaceae]], have flat, triangular scale-like leaves. ''[[Agathis]]'' in Araucariaceae and ''[[Nageia]]'' in Podocarpaceae have broad, flat strap-shaped leaves.
[[Cycad]]s are the next most abundant group of gymnosperms, with two or three families, 11 genera, and approximately 338 species. A majority of cycads are native to tropical climates and are most abundantly found in regions near the equator. The other extant groups are the 95–100 species of [[Gnetum|Gnetale]]s and one species of ''[[Ginkgo]]''.<ref name="Raven-2013" />
Today gymnosperms are the most threatened of all plant groups.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gilbert |first=Natasha |date=2010-09-28 |title=Threats to the world's plants assessed |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/news.2010.499 |journal=Nature |language=en |doi=10.1038/news.2010.499 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref>
==Classification==
{{cladogram|title=Phylogeny of Gymnosperms<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leslie |first1=Andrew B. |last2=Beaulieu |first2=Jeremy |last3=Holman |first3=Garth |last4=Campbell |first4=Christopher S. |last5=Mei |first5=Wenbin |last6=Raubeson |first6=Linda R. |last7=Mathews |first7=Sarah |display-authors=et al. |year=2018 |title=An overview of extant conifer evolution from the perspective of the fossil record |journal=American Journal of Botany |url=https://doi.org/10.1002/ajb2.1143 |volume=105 |issue=9 |pages=1531–1544 | doi=10.1002/ajb2.1143 |pmid= 30157290|pmc= |bibcode= |s2cid=52120430 |doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leslie |first1=Andrew B. |display-authors=et al. |year=2018 |title=ajb21143-sup-0004-AppendixS4 |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=105 |issue=9 |pages=1531–1544 |doi=10.1002/ajb2.1143 |pmid=30157290 |s2cid=52120430 |url=https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/action/downloadSupplement?doi=10.1002%2Fajb2.1143&file=ajb21143-sup-0004-AppendixS4.pdf |doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stull |first1=Gregory W. |last2=Qu |first2=Xiao-Jian |last3=Parins-Fukuchi |first3=Caroline |last4=Yang |first4=Ying-Ying |last5=Yang |first5=Jun-Bo |last6=Yang |first6=Zhi-Yun |last7=Hu |first7=Yi |last8=Ma |first8=Hong |last9=Soltis |first9=Pamela S. |last10=Soltis |first10=Douglas E. |last11=Li |first11=De-Zhu |last12=Smith |first12=Stephen A. |last13=Yi |first13=Ting-Shuang |display-authors=et al. |year=2021 |title=Gene duplications and phylogenomic conflict underlie major pulses of phenotypic evolution in gymnosperms |journal=Nature Plants |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-021-00964-4 |volume=7 |issue= 8|pages=1015–1025 |doi=10.1038/s41477-021-00964-4|biorxiv=10.1101/2021.03.13.435279 |pmid= 34282286|pmc= |bibcode= |s2cid=232282918 |doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |last1=Stull |first1=Gregory W. |display-authors=et al. |year=2021 |title=main.dated.supermatrix.tree.T9.tre |publisher=Figshare |doi=10.6084/m9.figshare.14547354.v1 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/Gene_duplications_and_genomic_conflict_underlie_major_pulses_of_phenotypic_evolution_in_gymnosperms/14547354 |doi-access=}}</ref>|
{{clade|style=font-size:90%;line-height:80%;width:400px
|1={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1='''[[Ginkgoidae]]'''
|1={{Clade
|label1='''[[Ginkgoales]]'''
|1={{Clade
|label1=[[Ginkgoaceae]]
|1=''[[Ginkgo]]''
}}
}}
|label2='''[[Cycadidae]]'''
|2={{Clade
|label1='''[[Cycadales]]'''
|1={{Clade
|label1=[[Cycadaceae]]
|1=''[[Cycas]]''
|label2=[[Zamiaceae]]
|2={{Clade
|label1=Diooideae
|1=''[[Dioon]]''
|label2=Zamioideae
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Bowenia]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Macrozamia]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Encephalartos]]''
|2=''[[Lepidozamia]]''
}}
}}
}}
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Ceratozamia]]''
|2=''[[Stangeria]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Microcycas]]''
|2=''[[Zamia]]''
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|2={{Clade
|label1='''[[Pinidae]]'''
|1={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1='''[[Gnetales]]'''
|1={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1=[[Ephedraceae]]
|1=''[[Ephedra (plant)|Ephedra]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|label1=[[Gnetaceae]]
|1=''[[Gnetum]]''
|label2=[[Welwitschiaceae]]
|2=''[[Welwitschia]]''
}}
}}
|label2='''[[Pinales]]'''
|2={{Clade
|label1=[[Pinaceae]]
|1={{Clade
|label1=Pinoideae
|1={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Larix]]''
|2=''[[Pseudotsuga]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Pinus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Cathaya]]''
|2=''[[Picea]]''
}}
}}
}}
|label2=Abietoideae
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Cedrus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Abies]]''
|2=''[[Keteleeria]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Pseudolarix]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Nothotsuga]]''
|2=''[[Tsuga]]''
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|label2=
|2={{Clade
|label1='''[[Araucariales]]'''
|1={{Clade
|label1=[[Araucariaceae]]
|1={{Clade
|label1=Araucarieae
|1=''[[Araucaria]]''
|label2=Agathideae
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Agathis]]''
|2=''[[Wollemia]]''
}}
}}
|label2=[[Podocarpaceae]]
|2={{Clade
|1={"Phyllocladoideae"}
|2={"Podocarpoideae"}
}}
}}
|label2='''[[Cupressales]]'''
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1=[[Sciadopityaceae]]
|1=''[[Sciadopitys]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|label1=[[Taxaceae]]
|1={{Clade
|label1=Cephalotaxeae
|1=''[[Cephalotaxus]]''
|label2=Taxoideae
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Amentotaxus]]''
|2=''[[Torreya]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Austrotaxus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Pseudotaxus]]''
|2=''[[Taxus]]''
}}
}}
}}
}}
|label2=[[Cupressaceae]]
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1=Cunninghamioideae
|1=''[[Cunninghamia]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1=Taiwanioideae
|1=''[[Taiwania]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1=Athrotaxidoideae
|1=''[[Athrotaxis]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1=Sequoioideae
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Metasequoia]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Sequoiadendron]]''
|2=''[[Sequoia (genus)|Sequoia]]''
}}
}}
}}
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|label1=Taxodioideae
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Cryptomeria]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Glyptostrobus]]''
|2=''[[Taxodium]]''
}}
}}
}}
|2={{Clade
|1={"Actinostroboideae"}
|2={"Cupressoideae"}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|targetA={"Phyllocladoideae"}
|subcladeA={{Clade
|label1 =Phyllocladoideae
|1={{Clade hidden |id=1 |mode=left
|1=''[[Halocarpus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Pectinopitys]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Prumnopitys]]''
|2=''[[Sundacarpus]]''
}}
}}
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Lepidothamnus]]''
|2=''[[Phyllocladus]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Parasitaxus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Lagarostrobos]]''
|2=''[[Manoao]]''
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|targetB={"Podocarpoideae"}
|subcladeB={{Clade
|label1 =Podocarpoideae
|1={{Clade hidden |id=2 |mode=left
|1=''[[Saxegothaea]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Microcachrys]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Pherosphaera]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Acmopyle]]''
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Dacrycarpus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Dacrydium]]''
|2=''[[Falcatifolium]]''
}}
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Podocarpus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Retrophyllum]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Afrocarpus]]''
|2=''[[Nageia]]''
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|targetC={"Actinostroboideae"}
|subcladeC={{Clade
|label1 =Actinostroboideae
|1={{Clade hidden |id=3 |mode=left
|1=''[[Papuacedrus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Austrocedrus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Libocedrus]]''
|2=''[[Pilgerodendron]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Callitris]]''
|2=''[[Neocallitropsis]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Widdringtonia]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Diselma]]''
|2=''[[Fitzroya]]''
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|targetD={"Cupressoideae"}
|subcladeD={{Clade
|label1 =Cupressoideae
|1={{Clade hidden |id=4 |mode=left
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Thuja]]''
|2=''[[Thujopsis]]''
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Chamaecyparis]]''
|2={{Clade
|1={{Clade
|1=''[[Calocedrus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Tetraclinis]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Microbiota decussata|Microbiota]]''
|2=''[[Platycladus]]''
}}
}}
}}
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Juniperus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Cupressus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=''[[Hesperocyparis]]''
|2=''[[Xanthocyparis]]''
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
{{further|Spermatophyte}}
A formal classification of the living gymnosperms is the "Acrogymnospermae", which form a [[monophyletic group]] within the [[spermatophyte]]s.{{sfn|Cantino|2007}}<ref name="Christenhusz-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Christenhusz |first1=M.J.M. |last2=Reveal |first2=J.L. |last3=Farjon |first3=A. |last4=Gardner |first4=M.F. |last5=Mill|first5=R.R.|last6=Chase|first6=M.W.|year=2011|title=A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms|url=http://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2011/f/pt00019p070.pdf |journal=Phytotaxa|volume=19|pages=55–70|doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.19.1.3|s2cid=86797396 }}</ref> The wider "Gymnospermae" group includes extinct gymnosperms and is thought to be [[Paraphyly|paraphyletic]]. The fossil record of gymnosperms includes many distinctive [[taxa]] that do not belong to the four modern groups, including seed-bearing trees that have a somewhat [[fern]]-like vegetative morphology (the so-called "seed ferns" or [[pteridosperm]]s).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hilton |first1=Jason |last2=Bateman |first2=Richard M. |date=January 2006 |title=Pteridosperms are the backbone of seed-plant phylogeny 1 |journal=The Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society |language=en |volume=133 |issue=1 |pages=119–168 |doi=10.3159/1095-5674(2006)133[119:PATBOS]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=86395036 }}</ref> When fossil gymnosperms such as these and the [[Bennettitales]], [[glossopterid]]s, and ''[[Caytonia]]'' are considered, it is clear that angiosperms are nested within a larger gymnospermae clade, although which group of gymnosperms is their closest relative remains unclear.
The extant gymnosperms include 12 main families and 83 genera which contain more than 1000 known species.<ref name="TPL" /><ref name="Christenhusz-2011" /><ref name="Christenhusz-Byng2016">{{cite journal |author1=Christenhusz, M. J. M. |author2=Byng, J. W. | year = 2016 | title = The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase | journal = Phytotaxa | volume = 261 | pages = 201–217 | url = http://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.3.1/20598 | doi = 10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1 | issue = 3 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
'''Subclass [[Cycadidae]]'''
*Order '''[[Cycadales]]'''
**Family '''[[Cycadaceae]]''': ''[[Cycas]]''
**Family '''[[Zamiaceae]]''': ''[[Dioon]]'', ''[[Bowenia]]'', ''[[Macrozamia]]'', ''[[Lepidozamia]]'', ''[[Encephalartos]]'', ''[[Stangeria]]'', ''[[Ceratozamia]]'', ''[[Microcycas]]'', ''[[Zamia]]''
'''Subclass [[Ginkgoidae]]'''
*Order '''[[Ginkgoales]]'''
**Family '''[[Ginkgoaceae]]''': ''[[Ginkgo]]''
'''Subclass [[Gnetidae]]'''
*Order '''[[Welwitschiales]]'''
**Family '''[[Welwitschiaceae]]''': ''[[Welwitschia]]''
*Order '''[[Gnetales]]'''
**Family '''[[Gnetaceae]]''': ''[[Gnetum]]''
*Order '''[[Ephedrales]]'''
**Family '''[[Ephedraceae]]''': ''[[Ephedra (plant)|Ephedra]]''
'''Subclass [[Pinidae]]'''
*Order '''[[Pinales]]'''
**Family '''[[Pinaceae]]''': ''[[Cedrus]]'', ''[[Pinus]]'', ''[[Cathaya]]'', ''[[Picea]]'', ''[[Pseudotsuga]]'', ''[[Larix]]'', ''[[Pseudolarix]]'', ''[[Tsuga]]'', ''[[Nothotsuga]]'', ''[[Keteleeria]]'', ''[[Abies]]''
*Order '''[[Araucariales]]'''
**Family '''[[Araucariaceae]]''': ''[[Araucaria]]'', ''[[Wollemia]]'', ''[[Agathis]]''
**Family '''[[Podocarpaceae]]''': ''[[Phyllocladus]]'', ''[[Lepidothamnus]]'', ''[[Prumnopitys]]'', ''[[Sundacarpus]]'', ''[[Halocarpus]]'', ''[[Parasitaxus]]'', ''[[Lagarostrobos]]'', ''[[Manoao]]'', ''[[Saxegothaea]]'', ''[[Microcachrys]]'', ''[[Pherosphaera]]'', ''[[Acmopyle]]'', ''[[Dacrycarpus]]'', ''[[Dacrydium]]'', ''[[Falcatifolium]]'', ''[[Retrophyllum]]'', ''[[Nageia]]'', ''[[Afrocarpus]]'', ''[[Podocarpus]]''
*Order '''[[Cupressales]]'''
**Family '''[[Sciadopityaceae]]''': ''[[Sciadopitys]]''
**Family '''[[Cupressaceae]]''': ''[[Cunninghamia]]'', ''[[Taiwania]]'', ''[[Athrotaxis]]'', ''[[Metasequoia]]'', ''[[Sequoioideae|Sequoia]]'', ''[[Sequoiadendron]]'', ''[[Cryptomeria]]'', ''[[Glyptostrobus]]'', ''[[Taxodium]]'', ''[[Papuacedrus]]'', ''[[Austrocedrus]]'', ''[[Libocedrus]]'', ''[[Pilgerodendron]]'', ''[[Widdringtonia]]'', ''[[Diselma]]'', ''[[Fitzroya]]'', ''[[Callitris]]'', ''[[Actinostrobus]]'', ''[[Neocallitropsis]]'', ''[[Thujopsis]]'', ''[[Thuja]]'', ''[[Fokienia]]'', ''[[Chamaecyparis]]'', ''[[Cupressus]]'', ''[[Juniperus]]'', ''[[Calocedrus]]'', ''[[Tetraclinis]]'', ''[[Platycladus]]'', ''[[Microbiota (plant)|Microbiota]]''
**Family '''[[Taxaceae]]''': ''[[Austrotaxus]]'', ''[[Pseudotaxus]]'', ''[[Taxus]]'', ''[[Cephalotaxus]]'', ''[[Amentotaxus]]'', ''[[Torreya]]''
=== Extinct groupings ===
*Order [[Cordaitales]]
*Order [[Calamopityales]]
* Order [[Callistophytales]]
* Order [[Caytoniales]]
* Order [[Gigantopteridales]]
* Order [[Glossopteridales]]
* Order [[Lyginopteridales]]
* Order [[Medullosales]]
* Order [[Peltaspermales]]
* Order [[Corystospermales]] (also known as Umkomasiales)
* Order [[Czekanowskiales]]
* Order [[Bennettitales]] (cycadeoids''')'''
* Order [[Erdtmanithecales]]
*Order [[Pentoxylales]]
*Order [[Czekanowskiales]]
*Order [[Petriellales]]
==Life cycle==
[[File:Gymnosperm like cycle (en).png|thumb|Example of gymnosperm lifecycle]]
Gymnosperms, like all [[vascular plants]], have a sporophyte-dominant life cycle, which means they spend most of their life cycle with diploid cells, while the [[gametophyte]] (gamete-bearing phase) is relatively short-lived. Like all [[seed plants]], they are [[heterospory|heterosporous]], having two spore types, [[Microspore|microspores]] (male) and [[Megaspore|megaspores]] (female) that are typically produced in pollen cones or ovulate cones, respectively.<ref name="Concepts of Biology">{{cite book |last1=Samantha |first1=Fowler |last2=Rebecca |first2=Roush |last3=James |first3=Wise |title=Concepts of Biology |date=2013 |publisher=OpenStax |location=Houston, Texas |url=https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/14-3-seed-plants-gymnosperms |access-date=31 March 2023 |chapter=14.3 Seed Plants: Gymnosperms}}</ref> The exception is the females in the cycad genus ''[[Cycas]]'', which form a loose structure called megasporophylls instead of cones.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yang|last2=Wang|first2=Sibo|last3=Li|first3=Linzhou|last4=Yang|first4=Ting|last5=Dong|first5=Shanshan|last6=Wei|first6=Tong|last7=Wu|first7=Shengdan|last8=Liu|first8=Yongbo|last9=Gong|first9=Yiqing|last10=Feng|first10=Xiuyan|last11=Ma|first11=Jianchao|last12=Chang|first12=Guanxiao|last13=Huang|first13=Jinling|last14=Yang|first14=Yong|last15=Wang|first15=Hongli|date=April 2022|title=The Cycas genome and the early evolution of seed plants|journal=Nature Plants|language=en|volume=8|issue=4|pages=389–401|doi=10.1038/s41477-022-01129-7|pmid=35437001 |pmc=9023351 |issn=2055-0278}}</ref> As with all heterosporous plants, the gametophytes develop within the spore wall. Pollen grains (microgametophytes) mature from microspores, and ultimately produce sperm cells.<ref name="Concepts of Biology" /> Megagametophytes develop from megaspores and are retained within the ovule. Gymnosperms produce multiple [[Archegonium|archegonia]], which produce the female gamete.
During pollination, pollen grains are physically transferred between plants from the pollen cone to the ovule. Pollen is usually moved by wind or insects. Whole grains enter each ovule through a microscopic gap in the ovule coat ([[integument]]) called the micropyle. The pollen grains mature further inside the ovule and produce sperm cells. Two main modes of fertilization are found in gymnosperms. Cycads and ''[[Ginkgo]]'' have [[flagellum|flagellated]] motile sperm<ref name="AJB">{{cite journal |last1=Southworth |first1=Darlene |last2=Cresti |first2=Mauro |title=Comparison of flagellated and nonflagellated sperm in plants |journal=American Journal of Botany |pages=1301–1311 |doi=10.2307/2446056 |date=September 1997|volume=84 |issue=9 |jstor=2446056 |pmid=21708687 |doi-access=free }}</ref> that swim directly to the egg inside the ovule, whereas conifers and [[gnetophyte]]s have sperm with no flagella that are moved along a [[pollen tube]] to the egg. After [[Fertilisation|syngamy]] (joining of the sperm and egg cell), the zygote develops into an embryo (young sporophyte). More than one embryo is usually initiated in each gymnosperm seed. The mature seed comprises the embryo and the remains of the female [[Gametophyte#Seed plants|gametophyte]], which serves as a food supply, and the [[Seed-coat|seed coat]].<ref name="Walters1996">{{Cite book| last = Walters | first = Dirk R Walters Bonnie By| year = 1996| title = Vascular plant taxonomy| page = [https://archive.org/details/vascularplanttax00walt/page/124 124]| url = https://archive.org/details/vascularplanttax00walt| url-access = registration | quote = Gymnosperm seeds. | isbn = 978-0-7872-2108-9| publisher = Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co.| location = Dubuque, Iowa}}</ref>
==Genetics==
The first published sequenced genome for any gymnosperm was the genome of ''[[Picea abies]]'' in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal | title = The Norway spruce genome sequence and conifer genome evolution | journal = Nature | volume = 497 | issue = 7451| pages = 579–584 | doi = 10.1038/nature12211 | pmid=23698360 | date=May 2013 | last1 = Nystedt | first1 = B | last2 = Street | first2 = NR | last3 = Wetterbom | first3 = A | display-authors = etal | bibcode = 2013Natur.497..579N | doi-access = free | hdl = 1854/LU-4110028 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
==Uses==
Gymnosperms have major economic uses. Pine, fir, spruce, and cedar are all examples of conifers that are used for [[lumber]], paper production, and resin. Some other common uses for gymnosperms are [[soap]], [[varnish]], [[nail polish]], food, gum, and [[perfume]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Biswas |first1=C. |last2=Johri |first2=B.M. |year=1997 |chapter=Economic Importance |title=The Gymnosperms |pages=440–456 |publisher=Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-13164-0_23 |isbn=978-3-662-13166-4 |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-662-13164-0.pdf}}</ref>
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="Phylogenomics of gymnosperms">{{cite journal|vauthors=Yang Y, Ferguson DK, Liu B, Mao KS, Gao LM, Zhang SZ, Wan T, Rushforth K, Zhang ZX|title=Recent advances on phylogenomics of gymnosperms and a new classification|journal=Plant Diversity|date=2020|volume=44|issue=4|pages=340–350|doi=10.1016/j.pld.2022.05.003|pmid=35967253 |pmc=9363647 |bibcode=2022PlDiv..44..340Y |s2cid=249117306 |issn=2468-2659}}</ref>
}}
== General bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Cantino |first1=Philip D. |last2=Doyle |first2=James A. |last3=Graham |first3=Sean W. |last4=Judd |first4=Walter S. |last5=Olmstead |first5=Richard G. |last6=Soltis |first6=Douglas E. |last7=Soltis |first7=Pamela S. |last8=Donoghue |first8=Michael J. |title=Towards a phylogenetic nomenclature of Tracheophyta |journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]] |date=August 2007 |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=822–846 |doi=10.2307/25065864|jstor=25065864 |ref={{harvid|Cantino|2007}}}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Gymnosperms}}
{{wiktionary|gymnosperm}}
*[http://www.conifers.org/ Gymnosperm Database]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080409044237/http://www.huh.harvard.edu/research/mathews-lab/atolHtmlSite/ Gymnosperms on the Tree of Life]
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Gymnosperms|author=Albert Seward|author-link=Albert Seward|short=x}}
*[[Christopher Nigel Page]] (2023).The Evolution of Arborescent Gymnosperms. [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-1-009-26309-2}}. 2 volumes (volume one on the conifers of the Northern hemisphere and volume 2 on the conifers of the southern hemisphere).
{{Clear}}
{{Botany}}
{{Plant classification}}
{{Acrogymnospermae classification}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q133712}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Gymnosperms| 01]]
[[Category:Extant Late Devonian first appearances]]
*' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -442,5 +442,5 @@
==Life cycle==
-[[File:Gymnosperm life cycle (en).png|thumb|Example of gymnosperm lifecycle]]
+[[File:Gymnosperm like cycle (en).png|thumb|Example of gymnosperm lifecycle]]
Gymnosperms, like all [[vascular plants]], have a sporophyte-dominant life cycle, which means they spend most of their life cycle with diploid cells, while the [[gametophyte]] (gamete-bearing phase) is relatively short-lived. Like all [[seed plants]], they are [[heterospory|heterosporous]], having two spore types, [[Microspore|microspores]] (male) and [[Megaspore|megaspores]] (female) that are typically produced in pollen cones or ovulate cones, respectively.<ref name="Concepts of Biology">{{cite book |last1=Samantha |first1=Fowler |last2=Rebecca |first2=Roush |last3=James |first3=Wise |title=Concepts of Biology |date=2013 |publisher=OpenStax |location=Houston, Texas |url=https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/14-3-seed-plants-gymnosperms |access-date=31 March 2023 |chapter=14.3 Seed Plants: Gymnosperms}}</ref> The exception is the females in the cycad genus ''[[Cycas]]'', which form a loose structure called megasporophylls instead of cones.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yang|last2=Wang|first2=Sibo|last3=Li|first3=Linzhou|last4=Yang|first4=Ting|last5=Dong|first5=Shanshan|last6=Wei|first6=Tong|last7=Wu|first7=Shengdan|last8=Liu|first8=Yongbo|last9=Gong|first9=Yiqing|last10=Feng|first10=Xiuyan|last11=Ma|first11=Jianchao|last12=Chang|first12=Guanxiao|last13=Huang|first13=Jinling|last14=Yang|first14=Yong|last15=Wang|first15=Hongli|date=April 2022|title=The Cycas genome and the early evolution of seed plants|journal=Nature Plants|language=en|volume=8|issue=4|pages=389–401|doi=10.1038/s41477-022-01129-7|pmid=35437001 |pmc=9023351 |issn=2055-0278}}</ref> As with all heterosporous plants, the gametophytes develop within the spore wall. Pollen grains (microgametophytes) mature from microspores, and ultimately produce sperm cells.<ref name="Concepts of Biology" /> Megagametophytes develop from megaspores and are retained within the ovule. Gymnosperms produce multiple [[Archegonium|archegonia]], which produce the female gamete.
' |
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37 => 'https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/action/downloadSupplement?doi=10.1002/ajb2.1143&file=ajb21143-sup-0004-AppendixS4.pdf',
38 => 'https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-021-00964-4',
39 => 'https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/Gene_duplications_and_genomic_conflict_underlie_major_pulses_of_phenotypic_evolution_in_gymnosperms/14547354',
40 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249117306',
41 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52120430',
42 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232282918',
43 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86797396',
44 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:83644706',
45 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=HYkTvGq_RccC&q=armor%2520sclerenchymatous%2520leaf%2520bases&pg=PA247',
46 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=KDGdDwAAQBAJ&q=%2522exclusively%2520underground,%2520like%2520a%2520tuber%2520(e.g.%2520some%2520Zamia%2520species)%2522&pg=PA179',
47 => 'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9363647',
48 => 'https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pld.2022.05.003',
49 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2468-2659',
50 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35967253',
51 => 'https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.baae.2018.05.009',
52 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1439-1791',
53 => 'https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41477-019-0421-0',
54 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31061536',
55 => 'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5877938',
56 => 'https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1719588115',
57 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29463716',
58 => 'https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature09916',
59 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21478875',
60 => 'https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1181154',
61 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19892970',
62 => 'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2944650',
63 => 'https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1178338',
64 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19892981',
65 => 'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4760178',
66 => 'https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2015.2893',
67 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26842570',
68 => 'https://doi.org/10.21273%2FHORTSCI.44.3.848',
69 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-5345',
70 => 'https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0960428616000081',
71 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1474-0036',
72 => 'https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnews.2010.499',
73 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687',
74 => 'https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajb2.1143',
75 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30157290',
76 => 'https://doi.org/10.1101%2F2021.03.13.435279',
77 => 'https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41477-021-00964-4',
78 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34282286',
79 => 'https://doi.org/10.6084%2Fm9.figshare.14547354.v1',
80 => 'https://doi.org/10.11646%2Fphytotaxa.19.1.3',
81 => 'https://doi.org/10.3159%2F1095-5674(2006)133%5B119:PATBOS%5D2.0.CO;2',
82 => 'https://doi.org/10.11646%2Fphytotaxa.261.3.1',
83 => 'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9023351',
84 => 'https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41477-022-01129-7',
85 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2055-0278',
86 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35437001',
87 => 'https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2446056',
88 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/2446056',
89 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21708687',
90 => 'https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature12211',
91 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23698360',
92 => 'https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-662-13164-0_23',
93 => 'https://doi.org/10.2307%2F25065864',
94 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/25065864',
95 => 'https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/14-3-seed-plants-gymnosperms',
96 => 'https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85058078',
97 => 'https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8312.1989.tb00492.x',
98 => 'http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=61',
99 => 'http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007545698405171',
100 => 'https://hdl.handle.net/1854%2FLU-4110028',
101 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022PlDiv..44..340Y',
102 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018BApEc..31....1W'
] |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Clade of non-flowering, naked-seeded vascular plants</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with the flowering plant genera <i><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperma" title="Gymnosperma">Gymnosperma</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Gymnospermium" title="Gymnospermium">Gymnospermium</a></i>.</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%">
<tbody><tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(180,250,180)">Gymnosperm<br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: <span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a>–<a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Present</a></span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;">
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:18.073846153846px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.710769230769px; width:14.08px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:69.790769230769px; width:8.3261538461539px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:78.116923076923px; width:20.409230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.526153846154px; width:20.307692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.089230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:170.92307692308px; width:26.738461538462px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.543692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20523076923px; width:6.9215384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div>
<div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:111.69230769231px; width:108.30769230769px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:110.60923076923px; width:109.39076923077px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:111.60923076923px; width:107.39076923077px; background-color:#6c3;"></div>
</div>
</div></span></div>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Gymnospermae.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Gymnospermae.jpg/220px-Gymnospermae.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Gymnospermae.jpg/330px-Gymnospermae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Gymnospermae.jpg/440px-Gymnospermae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5371" data-file-height="4074" /></a></span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Various gymnosperms.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <span class="plainlinks" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Gymnosperms" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>Kingdom:
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>Clade</i>:
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Tracheophytes</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>Clade</i>:
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Seed_plant" title="Seed plant">Spermatophytes</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>Clade</i>:
</td>
<td><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gymnospermae</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(180,250,180)">Living orders<sup id="cite_ref-Phylogenomics_of_gymnosperms_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phylogenomics_of_gymnosperms-1">[1]</a></sup>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: left">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycadopsida" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadopsida">Cycadopsida</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycadales" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadales">Cycadales</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ginkgoopsida" title="Ginkgoopsida">Ginkgoopsida</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ginkgoales" title="Ginkgoales">Ginkgoales</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pinopsida" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinopsida">Pinopsida</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cupressidae" title="Cupressidae">Cupressidae</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Araucariales" class="mw-redirect" title="Araucariales">Araucariales</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cupressales" class="mw-redirect" title="Cupressales">Cupressales</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pinidae" title="Pinidae">Pinidae</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pinales" title="Pinales">Pinales</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gnetidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnetidae">Gnetidae</a>
<ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ephedrales" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephedrales">Ephedrales</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Welwitschiales" class="mw-redirect" title="Welwitschiales">Welwitschiales</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gnetales" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnetales">Gnetales</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<p>The <b>gymnosperms</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ɜːr/: 'ur' in 'fur'">ɜːr</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span>-<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span></span>-/</a></span> <span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/e\/e6\/En-us-gymnosperm.ogg\/En-us-gymnosperm.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-gymnosperm.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/En-us-gymnosperm.ogg/En-us-gymnosperm.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-gymnosperm.ogg" title="File:En-us-gymnosperm.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">JIM</span>-nə-spurmz, -⁠noh-</i></a>; <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span>'revealed seeds') are a group of <a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">seed-producing plants</a> that includes <a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">conifers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cycad" title="Cycad">cycads</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ginkgo" title="Ginkgo">Ginkgo</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">gnetophytes</a>, forming the clade <b>Gymnospermae</b>. The term <i>gymnosperm</i> comes from the composite word in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span lang="el">γυμνόσπερμος</span> (<span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">γυμνός</span></span>, <span title="Greek-language romanization"><i lang="el-Latn">gymnos</i></span>, 'naked' and <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">σπέρμα</span></span>, <span title="Greek-language romanization"><i lang="el-Latn">sperma</i></span>, 'seed'), literally meaning 'naked seeds'. The name is based on the unenclosed condition of their seeds (called <a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">ovules</a> in their unfertilized state). The non-encased condition of their seeds contrasts with the seeds and ovules of flowering plants (<a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">angiosperms</a>), which are enclosed within an <a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">ovary</a>. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaves</a>, which are often modified to form <a href="/wiki/Conifer_cone" title="Conifer cone">cones</a>, or on their own as in <a href="/wiki/Taxus" title="Taxus">yew</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Torreya" title="Torreya">Torreya</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ginkgo" title="Ginkgo">Ginkgo</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-TPL_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TPL-2">[2]</a></sup> Gymnosperm lifecycles involve <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">alternation of generations</a>. They have a dominant <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> <a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">sporophyte</a> phase and a reduced <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a> phase which is dependent on the sporophytic phase. The term "gymnosperm" is often used in <a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">paleobotany</a> to refer to (the <a href="/wiki/Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</a> group of) all non-angiosperm seed plants. In that case, to specify the modern <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a> group of gymnosperms, the term <b>Acrogymnospermae</b> is sometimes used.
</p><p>The gymnosperms and <a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">angiosperms</a> together comprise the <a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">spermatophytes</a> or seed plants. The spermatophytes are subdivided into five <a href="/wiki/Division_(botany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Division (botany)">divisions</a>, the angiosperms and four divisions of gymnosperms: the <a href="/wiki/Cycadophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadophyta">Cycadophyta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ginkgophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginkgophyta">Ginkgophyta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetophyta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">Pinophyta</a> (also known as Coniferophyta). Newer classification place the gnetophytes among the conifers.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> Numerous extinct seed plant groups are recognised including those considered <a href="/wiki/Pteridospermatophyta" title="Pteridospermatophyta">pteridosperms/seed ferns</a>, as well other groups like the <a href="/wiki/Bennettitales" title="Bennettitales">Bennettitales</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Raven-2013_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raven-2013-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>By far the largest group of living gymnosperms are the conifers (pines, cypresses, and relatives), followed by cycads, gnetophytes (<i><a href="/wiki/Gnetum" title="Gnetum">Gnetum</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ephedra_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephedra (genus)">Ephedra</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Welwitschia" title="Welwitschia">Welwitschia</a></i>), and <i><a href="/wiki/Ginkgo_biloba" title="Ginkgo biloba">Ginkgo biloba</a></i> (a single living species). About 65% of gymnosperms are <a href="/wiki/Dioecy" title="Dioecy">dioecious</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> but conifers are almost all <a href="/wiki/Monoecy" title="Monoecy">monoecious</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Walasetal_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walasetal-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some genera have <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">mycorrhiza</a>, fungal associations with roots (<i>Pinus</i>), while in some others (<i>Cycas</i>) small specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with nitrogen-fixing <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Diversity_and_origin"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Diversity and origin</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Classification"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Classification</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Extinct_groupings"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Extinct groupings</span></a></li>
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</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Life_cycle"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Life cycle</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Genetics"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Genetics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Uses"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Uses</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#General_bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">General bibliography</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Diversity_and_origin">Diversity and origin</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gymnosperm&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Diversity and origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Encephalartos_sclavoi_reproductive_cone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Encephalartos_sclavoi_reproductive_cone.jpg/170px-Encephalartos_sclavoi_reproductive_cone.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="428" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Encephalartos_sclavoi_reproductive_cone.jpg/255px-Encephalartos_sclavoi_reproductive_cone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Encephalartos_sclavoi_reproductive_cone.jpg/340px-Encephalartos_sclavoi_reproductive_cone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3441" data-file-height="8670" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Encephalartos_sclavoi" title="Encephalartos sclavoi">Encephalartos sclavoi</a></i> cone, about 30 cm long</figcaption></figure>
<p>Over 1,000 living species of gymnosperm exist.<sup id="cite_ref-TPL_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TPL-2">[2]</a></sup> It was previously widely accepted that the gymnosperms originated in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Carboniferous" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Carboniferous">Late Carboniferous</a> period, replacing the <a href="/wiki/Lycopodiophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopodiophyta">lycopsid</a> rainforests of the tropical region, but more recent phylogenetic evidence indicates that they diverged from the ancestors of <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">angiosperms</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Early_Carboniferous" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Carboniferous">Early Carboniferous</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> The radiation of gymnosperms during the late Carboniferous appears to have resulted from a whole <a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">genome duplication</a> event around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=319">319</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jiao2011_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jiao2011-9">[9]</a></sup> Early characteristics of seed plants are evident in fossil <a href="/wiki/Progymnosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Progymnosperms">progymnosperms</a> of the late <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> period around 383 million years ago. It has been suggested that during the mid-Mesozoic era, pollination of some extinct groups of gymnosperms was by extinct species of <a href="/wiki/Mecoptera" title="Mecoptera">scorpionflies</a> that had specialized <a href="/wiki/Proboscis" title="Proboscis">proboscis</a> for feeding on pollination drops. The scorpionflies likely engaged in pollination mutualisms with gymnosperms, long before the similar and independent coevolution of nectar-feeding insects on angiosperms.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ren_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ren-11">[11]</a></sup> Evidence has also been found that mid-Mesozoic gymnosperms were pollinated by <a href="/wiki/Kalligrammatidae" title="Kalligrammatidae">Kalligrammatid lacewings</a>, a now-extinct family with members which (in an example of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>) resembled the modern butterflies that arose far later.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zamia_integrifolia02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Zamia_integrifolia02.jpg/220px-Zamia_integrifolia02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Zamia_integrifolia02.jpg/330px-Zamia_integrifolia02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Zamia_integrifolia02.jpg/440px-Zamia_integrifolia02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><i>Zamia integrifolia,</i> a cycad native to Florida</figcaption></figure>
<p>All gymnosperms are <a href="/wiki/Perennial" title="Perennial">perennial</a> <a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">woody plants</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
Unlike in other extant gymnosperms the soft and highly <a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue#Parenchyma" title="Ground tissue">parenchymatous</a> wood in cycads is poorly lignified,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> and their main structural support comes from an armor of sclerenchymatous leaf bases covering the stem,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> with the exception of species with underground stems.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> There are no <a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">herbaceous</a> gymnosperms and compared to angiosperms they occupy fewer <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">ecological niches</a>, but have evolved both parasites (<i><a href="/wiki/Parasitaxus" title="Parasitaxus">Parasitaxus</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Epiphyte" title="Epiphyte">epiphytes</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Zamia_pseudoparasitica" title="Zamia pseudoparasitica">Zamia pseudoparasitica</a></i>) and <a href="/wiki/Rheophyte" title="Rheophyte">rheophytes</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Retrophyllum_minus" title="Retrophyllum minus">Retrophyllum minus</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">Conifers</a> are by far the most abundant extant group of gymnosperms with six to eight families, with a total of 65–70 genera and 600–630 species (696 accepted names).<sup id="cite_ref-Catalogue_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catalogue-18">[18]</a></sup> Most conifers are <a href="/wiki/Evergreen" title="Evergreen">evergreens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaves</a> of many conifers are long, thin and needle-like, while other species, including most <a href="/wiki/Cupressaceae" title="Cupressaceae">Cupressaceae</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Podocarpaceae" title="Podocarpaceae">Podocarpaceae</a>, have flat, triangular scale-like leaves. <i><a href="/wiki/Agathis" title="Agathis">Agathis</a></i> in Araucariaceae and <i><a href="/wiki/Nageia" title="Nageia">Nageia</a></i> in Podocarpaceae have broad, flat strap-shaped leaves.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Cycad" title="Cycad">Cycads</a> are the next most abundant group of gymnosperms, with two or three families, 11 genera, and approximately 338 species. A majority of cycads are native to tropical climates and are most abundantly found in regions near the equator. The other extant groups are the 95–100 species of <a href="/wiki/Gnetum" title="Gnetum">Gnetales</a> and one species of <i><a href="/wiki/Ginkgo" title="Ginkgo">Ginkgo</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Raven-2013_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raven-2013-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>Today gymnosperms are the most threatened of all plant groups.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Classification">Classification</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gymnosperm&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<td style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold; border: 0; padding: 0;">Phylogeny of Gymnosperms<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup>
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<td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Pinaceae" title="Pinaceae">Pinaceae</a>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">Pinoideae
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Larix" class="mw-redirect" title="Larix">Larix</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Pseudotsuga" title="Pseudotsuga">Pseudotsuga</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Pinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinus">Pinus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Cathaya" title="Cathaya">Cathaya</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Picea" class="mw-redirect" title="Picea">Picea</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">Abietoideae
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Cedrus" title="Cedrus">Cedrus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Abies" class="mw-redirect" title="Abies">Abies</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Keteleeria" title="Keteleeria">Keteleeria</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Pseudolarix" title="Pseudolarix">Pseudolarix</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Nothotsuga" title="Nothotsuga">Nothotsuga</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Tsuga" title="Tsuga">Tsuga</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first"><b><a href="/wiki/Araucariales" class="mw-redirect" title="Araucariales">Araucariales</a></b>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Araucariaceae" title="Araucariaceae">Araucariaceae</a>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">Araucarieae
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Araucaria" title="Araucaria">Araucaria</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">Agathideae
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Agathis" title="Agathis">Agathis</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Wollemia" title="Wollemia">Wollemia</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Podocarpaceae" title="Podocarpaceae">Podocarpaceae</a>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">Phyllocladoideae
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r928595387">.mw-parser-output table.clade div.mw-collapsible>div>span:not(.mw-customtoggle){display:none}</style><table style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="nomobile" style="padding:0 0 0.0em 0;"><div class="mw-collapsible" id="mw-customcollapsible-expandSymbol1"><div class="mw-collapsible-content mw-customtoggle-expandSymbol1"><span class="mw-customtoggle-myClade1 mw-customtoggle-collapseSymbol1 mw-customtoggle-expandSymbol1" style="font-size:100;">⊞</span></div></div></td><td class="nomobile" style="padding:0 0 0.0em 0;"><div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" id="mw-customcollapsible-collapseSymbol1"><div class="mw-collapsible-content mw-customtoggle-collapseSymbol1"><span class="mw-customtoggle-expandSymbol1 mw-customtoggle-myClade1 mw-customtoggle-collapseSymbol1" style="font-size:100;">⊟</span></div></div></td><td style="padding:0;" class="clade-interactive"><div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" id="mw-customcollapsible-myClade1"><div class="mw-collapsible-content mw-customtoggle-NOT_ON_CONTENT">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Halocarpus" title="Halocarpus">Halocarpus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Pectinopitys" title="Pectinopitys">Pectinopitys</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Prumnopitys" title="Prumnopitys">Prumnopitys</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Sundacarpus" title="Sundacarpus">Sundacarpus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Lepidothamnus" title="Lepidothamnus">Lepidothamnus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Phyllocladus" title="Phyllocladus">Phyllocladus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Parasitaxus" title="Parasitaxus">Parasitaxus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Lagarostrobos" title="Lagarostrobos">Lagarostrobos</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Manoao" title="Manoao">Manoao</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">Podocarpoideae
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r928595387"><table style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="nomobile" style="padding:0 0 0.0em 0;"><div class="mw-collapsible" id="mw-customcollapsible-expandSymbol2"><div class="mw-collapsible-content mw-customtoggle-expandSymbol2"><span class="mw-customtoggle-myClade2 mw-customtoggle-collapseSymbol2 mw-customtoggle-expandSymbol2" style="font-size:100;">⊞</span></div></div></td><td class="nomobile" style="padding:0 0 0.0em 0;"><div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" id="mw-customcollapsible-collapseSymbol2"><div class="mw-collapsible-content mw-customtoggle-collapseSymbol2"><span class="mw-customtoggle-expandSymbol2 mw-customtoggle-myClade2 mw-customtoggle-collapseSymbol2" style="font-size:100;">⊟</span></div></div></td><td style="padding:0;" class="clade-interactive"><div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" id="mw-customcollapsible-myClade2"><div class="mw-collapsible-content mw-customtoggle-NOT_ON_CONTENT">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Saxegothaea" title="Saxegothaea">Saxegothaea</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Microcachrys" title="Microcachrys">Microcachrys</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Pherosphaera" title="Pherosphaera">Pherosphaera</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Acmopyle" title="Acmopyle">Acmopyle</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Dacrycarpus" title="Dacrycarpus">Dacrycarpus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Dacrydium" title="Dacrydium">Dacrydium</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Falcatifolium" title="Falcatifolium">Falcatifolium</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Podocarpus" title="Podocarpus">Podocarpus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Retrophyllum" title="Retrophyllum">Retrophyllum</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Afrocarpus" title="Afrocarpus">Afrocarpus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Nageia" title="Nageia">Nageia</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label"><b><a href="/wiki/Cupressales" class="mw-redirect" title="Cupressales">Cupressales</a></b>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Sciadopityaceae" title="Sciadopityaceae">Sciadopityaceae</a>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Sciadopitys" title="Sciadopitys">Sciadopitys</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Taxaceae" title="Taxaceae">Taxaceae</a>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">Cephalotaxeae
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Cephalotaxus" title="Cephalotaxus">Cephalotaxus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">Taxoideae
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Amentotaxus" title="Amentotaxus">Amentotaxus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Torreya" title="Torreya">Torreya</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Austrotaxus" title="Austrotaxus">Austrotaxus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Pseudotaxus" title="Pseudotaxus">Pseudotaxus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Taxus" title="Taxus">Taxus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Cupressaceae" title="Cupressaceae">Cupressaceae</a>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">Cunninghamioideae
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Cunninghamia" title="Cunninghamia">Cunninghamia</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">Taiwanioideae
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Taiwania" title="Taiwania">Taiwania</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">Athrotaxidoideae
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Athrotaxis" title="Athrotaxis">Athrotaxis</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">Sequoioideae
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Metasequoia" title="Metasequoia">Metasequoia</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Sequoiadendron" title="Sequoiadendron">Sequoiadendron</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Sequoia_(genus)" title="Sequoia (genus)">Sequoia</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">Taxodioideae
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Cryptomeria" title="Cryptomeria">Cryptomeria</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Glyptostrobus" title="Glyptostrobus">Glyptostrobus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Taxodium" title="Taxodium">Taxodium</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">Actinostroboideae
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r928595387"><table style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="nomobile" style="padding:0 0 0.0em 0;"><div class="mw-collapsible" id="mw-customcollapsible-expandSymbol3"><div class="mw-collapsible-content mw-customtoggle-expandSymbol3"><span class="mw-customtoggle-myClade3 mw-customtoggle-collapseSymbol3 mw-customtoggle-expandSymbol3" style="font-size:100;">⊞</span></div></div></td><td class="nomobile" style="padding:0 0 0.0em 0;"><div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" id="mw-customcollapsible-collapseSymbol3"><div class="mw-collapsible-content mw-customtoggle-collapseSymbol3"><span class="mw-customtoggle-expandSymbol3 mw-customtoggle-myClade3 mw-customtoggle-collapseSymbol3" style="font-size:100;">⊟</span></div></div></td><td style="padding:0;" class="clade-interactive"><div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" id="mw-customcollapsible-myClade3"><div class="mw-collapsible-content mw-customtoggle-NOT_ON_CONTENT">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Papuacedrus" title="Papuacedrus">Papuacedrus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Austrocedrus" title="Austrocedrus">Austrocedrus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Libocedrus" title="Libocedrus">Libocedrus</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Pilgerodendron" title="Pilgerodendron">Pilgerodendron</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Callitris" title="Callitris">Callitris</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Neocallitropsis" class="mw-redirect" title="Neocallitropsis">Neocallitropsis</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Widdringtonia" title="Widdringtonia">Widdringtonia</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Diselma" title="Diselma">Diselma</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Fitzroya" title="Fitzroya">Fitzroya</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">Cupressoideae
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r928595387"><table style="border-spacing:0;margin:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="nomobile" style="padding:0 0 0.0em 0;"><div class="mw-collapsible" id="mw-customcollapsible-expandSymbol4"><div class="mw-collapsible-content mw-customtoggle-expandSymbol4"><span class="mw-customtoggle-myClade4 mw-customtoggle-collapseSymbol4 mw-customtoggle-expandSymbol4" style="font-size:100;">⊞</span></div></div></td><td class="nomobile" style="padding:0 0 0.0em 0;"><div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" id="mw-customcollapsible-collapseSymbol4"><div class="mw-collapsible-content mw-customtoggle-collapseSymbol4"><span class="mw-customtoggle-expandSymbol4 mw-customtoggle-myClade4 mw-customtoggle-collapseSymbol4" style="font-size:100;">⊟</span></div></div></td><td style="padding:0;" class="clade-interactive"><div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" id="mw-customcollapsible-myClade4"><div class="mw-collapsible-content mw-customtoggle-NOT_ON_CONTENT">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Thuja" title="Thuja">Thuja</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Thujopsis" title="Thujopsis">Thujopsis</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129740115">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><i><a href="/wiki/Chamaecyparis" title="Chamaecyparis">Chamaecyparis</a></i>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophyte</a></div>
<p>A formal classification of the living gymnosperms is the "Acrogymnospermae", which form a <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic group">monophyletic group</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">spermatophytes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECantino2007_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECantino2007-25">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Christenhusz-2011_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christenhusz-2011-26">[26]</a></sup> The wider "Gymnospermae" group includes extinct gymnosperms and is thought to be <a href="/wiki/Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly">paraphyletic</a>. The fossil record of gymnosperms includes many distinctive <a href="/wiki/Taxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxa">taxa</a> that do not belong to the four modern groups, including seed-bearing trees that have a somewhat <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">fern</a>-like vegetative morphology (the so-called "seed ferns" or <a href="/wiki/Pteridosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridosperm">pteridosperms</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> When fossil gymnosperms such as these and the <a href="/wiki/Bennettitales" title="Bennettitales">Bennettitales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glossopterid" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossopterid">glossopterids</a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Caytonia" title="Caytonia">Caytonia</a></i> are considered, it is clear that angiosperms are nested within a larger gymnospermae clade, although which group of gymnosperms is their closest relative remains unclear.
</p><p>The extant gymnosperms include 12 main families and 83 genera which contain more than 1000 known species.<sup id="cite_ref-TPL_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TPL-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Christenhusz-2011_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christenhusz-2011-26">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Christenhusz-Byng2016_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christenhusz-Byng2016-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p><p><b>Subclass <a href="/wiki/Cycadidae" title="Cycadidae">Cycadidae</a></b>
</p>
<ul><li>Order <b><a href="/wiki/Cycadales" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadales">Cycadales</a></b>
<ul><li>Family <b><a href="/wiki/Cycadaceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadaceae">Cycadaceae</a></b>: <i><a href="/wiki/Cycas" title="Cycas">Cycas</a></i></li>
<li>Family <b><a href="/wiki/Zamiaceae" title="Zamiaceae">Zamiaceae</a></b>: <i><a href="/wiki/Dioon" title="Dioon">Dioon</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Bowenia" title="Bowenia">Bowenia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Macrozamia" title="Macrozamia">Macrozamia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Lepidozamia" title="Lepidozamia">Lepidozamia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Encephalartos" title="Encephalartos">Encephalartos</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Stangeria" title="Stangeria">Stangeria</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ceratozamia" title="Ceratozamia">Ceratozamia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Microcycas" title="Microcycas">Microcycas</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Zamia" title="Zamia">Zamia</a></i></li></ul></li></ul>
<p><b>Subclass <a href="/wiki/Ginkgoidae" title="Ginkgoidae">Ginkgoidae</a></b>
</p>
<ul><li>Order <b><a href="/wiki/Ginkgoales" title="Ginkgoales">Ginkgoales</a></b>
<ul><li>Family <b><a href="/wiki/Ginkgoaceae" title="Ginkgoaceae">Ginkgoaceae</a></b>: <i><a href="/wiki/Ginkgo" title="Ginkgo">Ginkgo</a></i></li></ul></li></ul>
<p><b>Subclass <a href="/wiki/Gnetidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnetidae">Gnetidae</a></b>
</p>
<ul><li>Order <b><a href="/wiki/Welwitschiales" class="mw-redirect" title="Welwitschiales">Welwitschiales</a></b>
<ul><li>Family <b><a href="/wiki/Welwitschiaceae" title="Welwitschiaceae">Welwitschiaceae</a></b>: <i><a href="/wiki/Welwitschia" title="Welwitschia">Welwitschia</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li>Order <b><a href="/wiki/Gnetales" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnetales">Gnetales</a></b>
<ul><li>Family <b><a href="/wiki/Gnetaceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnetaceae">Gnetaceae</a></b>: <i><a href="/wiki/Gnetum" title="Gnetum">Gnetum</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li>Order <b><a href="/wiki/Ephedrales" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephedrales">Ephedrales</a></b>
<ul><li>Family <b><a href="/wiki/Ephedraceae" title="Ephedraceae">Ephedraceae</a></b>: <i><a href="/wiki/Ephedra_(plant)" title="Ephedra (plant)">Ephedra</a></i></li></ul></li></ul>
<p><b>Subclass <a href="/wiki/Pinidae" title="Pinidae">Pinidae</a></b>
</p>
<ul><li>Order <b><a href="/wiki/Pinales" title="Pinales">Pinales</a></b>
<ul><li>Family <b><a href="/wiki/Pinaceae" title="Pinaceae">Pinaceae</a></b>: <i><a href="/wiki/Cedrus" title="Cedrus">Cedrus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Pinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinus">Pinus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Cathaya" title="Cathaya">Cathaya</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Picea" class="mw-redirect" title="Picea">Picea</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Pseudotsuga" title="Pseudotsuga">Pseudotsuga</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Larix" class="mw-redirect" title="Larix">Larix</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Pseudolarix" title="Pseudolarix">Pseudolarix</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Tsuga" title="Tsuga">Tsuga</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Nothotsuga" title="Nothotsuga">Nothotsuga</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Keteleeria" title="Keteleeria">Keteleeria</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Abies" class="mw-redirect" title="Abies">Abies</a></i></li></ul></li></ul>
<ul><li>Order <b><a href="/wiki/Araucariales" class="mw-redirect" title="Araucariales">Araucariales</a></b>
<ul><li>Family <b><a href="/wiki/Araucariaceae" title="Araucariaceae">Araucariaceae</a></b>: <i><a href="/wiki/Araucaria" title="Araucaria">Araucaria</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Wollemia" title="Wollemia">Wollemia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Agathis" title="Agathis">Agathis</a></i></li>
<li>Family <b><a href="/wiki/Podocarpaceae" title="Podocarpaceae">Podocarpaceae</a></b>: <i><a href="/wiki/Phyllocladus" title="Phyllocladus">Phyllocladus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Lepidothamnus" title="Lepidothamnus">Lepidothamnus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Prumnopitys" title="Prumnopitys">Prumnopitys</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Sundacarpus" title="Sundacarpus">Sundacarpus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Halocarpus" title="Halocarpus">Halocarpus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Parasitaxus" title="Parasitaxus">Parasitaxus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Lagarostrobos" title="Lagarostrobos">Lagarostrobos</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Manoao" title="Manoao">Manoao</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Saxegothaea" title="Saxegothaea">Saxegothaea</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Microcachrys" title="Microcachrys">Microcachrys</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Pherosphaera" title="Pherosphaera">Pherosphaera</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Acmopyle" title="Acmopyle">Acmopyle</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Dacrycarpus" title="Dacrycarpus">Dacrycarpus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Dacrydium" title="Dacrydium">Dacrydium</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Falcatifolium" title="Falcatifolium">Falcatifolium</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Retrophyllum" title="Retrophyllum">Retrophyllum</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Nageia" title="Nageia">Nageia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Afrocarpus" title="Afrocarpus">Afrocarpus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Podocarpus" title="Podocarpus">Podocarpus</a></i></li></ul></li></ul>
<ul><li>Order <b><a href="/wiki/Cupressales" class="mw-redirect" title="Cupressales">Cupressales</a></b>
<ul><li>Family <b><a href="/wiki/Sciadopityaceae" title="Sciadopityaceae">Sciadopityaceae</a></b>: <i><a href="/wiki/Sciadopitys" title="Sciadopitys">Sciadopitys</a></i></li>
<li>Family <b><a href="/wiki/Cupressaceae" title="Cupressaceae">Cupressaceae</a></b>: <i><a href="/wiki/Cunninghamia" title="Cunninghamia">Cunninghamia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Taiwania" title="Taiwania">Taiwania</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Athrotaxis" title="Athrotaxis">Athrotaxis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Metasequoia" title="Metasequoia">Metasequoia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Sequoioideae" title="Sequoioideae">Sequoia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Sequoiadendron" title="Sequoiadendron">Sequoiadendron</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Cryptomeria" title="Cryptomeria">Cryptomeria</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Glyptostrobus" title="Glyptostrobus">Glyptostrobus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Taxodium" title="Taxodium">Taxodium</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Papuacedrus" title="Papuacedrus">Papuacedrus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Austrocedrus" title="Austrocedrus">Austrocedrus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Libocedrus" title="Libocedrus">Libocedrus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Pilgerodendron" title="Pilgerodendron">Pilgerodendron</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Widdringtonia" title="Widdringtonia">Widdringtonia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Diselma" title="Diselma">Diselma</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Fitzroya" title="Fitzroya">Fitzroya</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Callitris" title="Callitris">Callitris</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Actinostrobus" title="Actinostrobus">Actinostrobus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Neocallitropsis" class="mw-redirect" title="Neocallitropsis">Neocallitropsis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Thujopsis" title="Thujopsis">Thujopsis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Thuja" title="Thuja">Thuja</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Fokienia" title="Fokienia">Fokienia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Chamaecyparis" title="Chamaecyparis">Chamaecyparis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Cupressus" title="Cupressus">Cupressus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Juniperus" class="mw-redirect" title="Juniperus">Juniperus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Calocedrus" title="Calocedrus">Calocedrus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Tetraclinis" title="Tetraclinis">Tetraclinis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Platycladus" title="Platycladus">Platycladus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Microbiota_(plant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbiota (plant)">Microbiota</a></i></li>
<li>Family <b><a href="/wiki/Taxaceae" title="Taxaceae">Taxaceae</a></b>: <i><a href="/wiki/Austrotaxus" title="Austrotaxus">Austrotaxus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Pseudotaxus" title="Pseudotaxus">Pseudotaxus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Taxus" title="Taxus">Taxus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Cephalotaxus" title="Cephalotaxus">Cephalotaxus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Amentotaxus" title="Amentotaxus">Amentotaxus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Torreya" title="Torreya">Torreya</a></i></li></ul></li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Extinct_groupings">Extinct groupings</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gymnosperm&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Extinct groupings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li>Order <a href="/wiki/Cordaitales" title="Cordaitales">Cordaitales</a></li>
<li>Order <a href="/wiki/Calamopityales" class="mw-redirect" title="Calamopityales">Calamopityales</a></li>
<li>Order <a href="/wiki/Callistophytales" title="Callistophytales">Callistophytales</a></li>
<li>Order <a href="/wiki/Caytoniales" title="Caytoniales">Caytoniales</a></li>
<li>Order <a href="/wiki/Gigantopteridales" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigantopteridales">Gigantopteridales</a></li>
<li>Order <a href="/wiki/Glossopteridales" title="Glossopteridales">Glossopteridales</a></li>
<li>Order <a href="/wiki/Lyginopteridales" title="Lyginopteridales">Lyginopteridales</a></li>
<li>Order <a href="/wiki/Medullosales" title="Medullosales">Medullosales</a></li>
<li>Order <a href="/wiki/Peltaspermales" title="Peltaspermales">Peltaspermales</a></li>
<li>Order <a href="/wiki/Corystospermales" class="mw-redirect" title="Corystospermales">Corystospermales</a> (also known as Umkomasiales)</li>
<li>Order <a href="/wiki/Czekanowskiales" title="Czekanowskiales">Czekanowskiales</a></li>
<li>Order <a href="/wiki/Bennettitales" title="Bennettitales">Bennettitales</a> (cycadeoids<b>)</b></li>
<li>Order <a href="/wiki/Erdtmanithecales" title="Erdtmanithecales">Erdtmanithecales</a></li>
<li>Order <a href="/wiki/Pentoxylales" title="Pentoxylales">Pentoxylales</a></li>
<li>Order <a href="/wiki/Czekanowskiales" title="Czekanowskiales">Czekanowskiales</a></li>
<li>Order <a href="/w/index.php?title=Petriellales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Petriellales (page does not exist)">Petriellales</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Life_cycle">Life cycle</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gymnosperm&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Life cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Gymnosperm_like_cycle_(en).png" class="new" title="File:Gymnosperm like cycle (en).png"><span class="mw-file-element mw-broken-media" data-width="180">File:Gymnosperm like cycle (en).png</span></a><figcaption>Example of gymnosperm lifecycle</figcaption></figure>
<p>Gymnosperms, like all <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Vascular plants">vascular plants</a>, have a sporophyte-dominant life cycle, which means they spend most of their life cycle with diploid cells, while the <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a> (gamete-bearing phase) is relatively short-lived. Like all <a href="/wiki/Seed_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Seed plants">seed plants</a>, they are <a href="/wiki/Heterospory" title="Heterospory">heterosporous</a>, having two spore types, <a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">microspores</a> (male) and <a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">megaspores</a> (female) that are typically produced in pollen cones or ovulate cones, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Concepts_of_Biology_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Concepts_of_Biology-29">[29]</a></sup> The exception is the females in the cycad genus <i><a href="/wiki/Cycas" title="Cycas">Cycas</a></i>, which form a loose structure called megasporophylls instead of cones.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> As with all heterosporous plants, the gametophytes develop within the spore wall. Pollen grains (microgametophytes) mature from microspores, and ultimately produce sperm cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Concepts_of_Biology_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Concepts_of_Biology-29">[29]</a></sup> Megagametophytes develop from megaspores and are retained within the ovule. Gymnosperms produce multiple <a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">archegonia</a>, which produce the female gamete.
</p><p>During pollination, pollen grains are physically transferred between plants from the pollen cone to the ovule. Pollen is usually moved by wind or insects. Whole grains enter each ovule through a microscopic gap in the ovule coat (<a href="/wiki/Integument" title="Integument">integument</a>) called the micropyle. The pollen grains mature further inside the ovule and produce sperm cells. Two main modes of fertilization are found in gymnosperms. Cycads and <i><a href="/wiki/Ginkgo" title="Ginkgo">Ginkgo</a></i> have <a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">flagellated</a> motile sperm<sup id="cite_ref-AJB_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AJB-31">[31]</a></sup> that swim directly to the egg inside the ovule, whereas conifers and <a href="/wiki/Gnetophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnetophyte">gnetophytes</a> have sperm with no flagella that are moved along a <a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">pollen tube</a> to the egg. After <a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">syngamy</a> (joining of the sperm and egg cell), the zygote develops into an embryo (young sporophyte). More than one embryo is usually initiated in each gymnosperm seed. The mature seed comprises the embryo and the remains of the female <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte#Seed_plants" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a>, which serves as a food supply, and the <a href="/wiki/Seed-coat" class="mw-redirect" title="Seed-coat">seed coat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Walters1996_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walters1996-32">[32]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Genetics">Genetics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gymnosperm&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The first published sequenced genome for any gymnosperm was the genome of <i><a href="/wiki/Picea_abies" title="Picea abies">Picea abies</a></i> in 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Uses">Uses</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gymnosperm&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Gymnosperms have major economic uses. Pine, fir, spruce, and cedar are all examples of conifers that are used for <a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">lumber</a>, paper production, and resin. Some other common uses for gymnosperms are <a href="/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">soap</a>, <a href="/wiki/Varnish" title="Varnish">varnish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nail_polish" title="Nail polish">nail polish</a>, food, gum, and <a href="/wiki/Perfume" title="Perfume">perfumes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gymnosperm&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;">
<ol class="references">
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFYangFergusonLiuMao2022" class="citation journal cs1">Yang, Yong; Ferguson, David Kay; Liu, Bing; Mao, Kang-Shan; Gao, Lian-Ming; Zhang, Shou-Zhou; Wan, Tao; Rushforth, Keith; Zhang, Zhi-Xiang (2022-07-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9363647">"Recent advances on phylogenomics of gymnosperms and a new classification"</a>. <i>Plant Diversity</i>. <b>44</b> (4): 340–350. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022PlDiv..44..340Y">2022PlDiv..44..340Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pld.2022.05.003">10.1016/j.pld.2022.05.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2468-2659">2468-2659</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9363647">9363647</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35967253">35967253</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+Diversity&rft.atitle=Recent+advances+on+phylogenomics+of+gymnosperms+and+a+new+classification&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=340-350&rft.date=2022-07-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9363647%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022PlDiv..44..340Y&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35967253&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.pld.2022.05.003&rft.issn=2468-2659&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Yong&rft.au=Ferguson%2C+David+Kay&rft.au=Liu%2C+Bing&rft.au=Mao%2C+Kang-Shan&rft.au=Gao%2C+Lian-Ming&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Shou-Zhou&rft.au=Wan%2C+Tao&rft.au=Rushforth%2C+Keith&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Zhi-Xiang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9363647&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGymnosperm" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWalasMandrykThomasTyrała-Wierucka2018" class="citation journal cs1">Walas, Łukasz; Mandryk, Wojciech; Thomas, Peter A.; Tyrała-Wierucka, Żanna; Iszkuło, Grzegorz (2018-09-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1439179117304498">"Sexual systems in gymnosperms: A review"</a>. <i>Basic and Applied Ecology</i>. <b>31</b>: 1–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018BApEc..31....1W">2018BApEc..31....1W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.baae.2018.05.009">10.1016/j.baae.2018.05.009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1439-1791">1439-1791</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:90740232">90740232</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Basic+and+Applied+Ecology&rft.atitle=Sexual+systems+in+gymnosperms%3A+A+review&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=1-9&rft.date=2018-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.baae.2018.05.009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A90740232%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1439-1791&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018BApEc..31....1W&rft.aulast=Walas&rft.aufirst=%C5%81ukasz&rft.au=Mandryk%2C+Wojciech&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Peter+A.&rft.au=Tyra%C5%82a-Wierucka%2C+%C5%BBanna&rft.au=Iszku%C5%82o%2C+Grzegorz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS1439179117304498&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGymnosperm" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFStullQuParins-FukuchiYang2021" class="citation journal cs1">Stull, Gregory W.; Qu, Xiao-Jian; Parins-Fukuchi, Caroline; Yang, Ying-Ying; Yang, Jun-Bo; Yang, Zhi-Yun; Hu, Yi; Ma, Hong; Soltis, Pamela S.; Soltis, Douglas E.; Li, De-Zhu; Smith, Stephen A.; Yi, Ting-Shuang; et al. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-021-00964-4">"Gene duplications and phylogenomic conflict underlie major pulses of phenotypic evolution in gymnosperms"</a>. <i>Nature Plants</i>. <b>7</b> (8): 1015–1025. <a href="/wiki/BioRxiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="BioRxiv (identifier)">bioRxiv</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1101%2F2021.03.13.435279">10.1101/2021.03.13.435279</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41477-021-00964-4">10.1038/s41477-021-00964-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34282286">34282286</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232282918">232282918</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Plants&rft.atitle=Gene+duplications+and+phylogenomic+conflict+underlie+major+pulses+of+phenotypic+evolution+in+gymnosperms&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1015-1025&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41477-021-00964-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232282918%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34282286&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1101%2F2021.03.13.435279%23id-name%3DbioRxiv&rft.aulast=Stull&rft.aufirst=Gregory+W.&rft.au=Qu%2C+Xiao-Jian&rft.au=Parins-Fukuchi%2C+Caroline&rft.au=Yang%2C+Ying-Ying&rft.au=Yang%2C+Jun-Bo&rft.au=Yang%2C+Zhi-Yun&rft.au=Hu%2C+Yi&rft.au=Ma%2C+Hong&rft.au=Soltis%2C+Pamela+S.&rft.au=Soltis%2C+Douglas+E.&rft.au=Li%2C+De-Zhu&rft.au=Smith%2C+Stephen+A.&rft.au=Yi%2C+Ting-Shuang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41477-021-00964-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGymnosperm" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Christenhusz-2011-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Christenhusz-2011_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Christenhusz-2011_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFChristenhuszRevealFarjonGardner2011" class="citation journal cs1">Christenhusz, M.J.M.; Reveal, J.L.; Farjon, A.; Gardner, M.F.; Mill, R.R.; Chase, M.W. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2011/f/pt00019p070.pdf">"A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Phytotaxa</i>. <b>19</b>: 55–70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11646%2Fphytotaxa.19.1.3">10.11646/phytotaxa.19.1.3</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86797396">86797396</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phytotaxa&rft.atitle=A+new+classification+and+linear+sequence+of+extant+gymnosperms&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=55-70&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11646%2Fphytotaxa.19.1.3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A86797396%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Christenhusz&rft.aufirst=M.J.M.&rft.au=Reveal%2C+J.L.&rft.au=Farjon%2C+A.&rft.au=Gardner%2C+M.F.&rft.au=Mill%2C+R.R.&rft.au=Chase%2C+M.W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mapress.com%2Fphytotaxa%2Fcontent%2F2011%2Ff%2Fpt00019p070.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGymnosperm" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHiltonBateman2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hilton, Jason; Bateman, Richard M. (January 2006). "Pteridosperms are the backbone of seed-plant phylogeny 1". <i>The Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society</i>. <b>133</b> (1): 119–168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3159%2F1095-5674%282006%29133%5B119%3APATBOS%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.3159/1095-5674(2006)133[119:PATBOS]2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86395036">86395036</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Torrey+Botanical+Society&rft.atitle=Pteridosperms+are+the+backbone+of+seed-plant+phylogeny+1&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=119-168&rft.date=2006-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3159%2F1095-5674%282006%29133%5B119%3APATBOS%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A86395036%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hilton&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft.au=Bateman%2C+Richard+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGymnosperm" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Christenhusz-Byng2016-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Christenhusz-Byng2016_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFChristenhusz,_M._J._M.Byng,_J._W.2016" class="citation journal cs1">Christenhusz, M. J. M.; Byng, J. W. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.3.1/20598">"The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase"</a>. <i>Phytotaxa</i>. <b>261</b> (3): 201–217. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11646%2Fphytotaxa.261.3.1">10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phytotaxa&rft.atitle=The+number+of+known+plants+species+in+the+world+and+its+annual+increase&rft.volume=261&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=201-217&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11646%2Fphytotaxa.261.3.1&rft.au=Christenhusz%2C+M.+J.+M.&rft.au=Byng%2C+J.+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbiotaxa.org%2FPhytotaxa%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2Fphytotaxa.261.3.1%2F20598&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGymnosperm" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Concepts_of_Biology-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Concepts_of_Biology_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Concepts_of_Biology_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSamanthaRebeccaJames2013" class="citation book cs1">Samantha, Fowler; Rebecca, Roush; James, Wise (2013). "14.3 Seed Plants: Gymnosperms". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/14-3-seed-plants-gymnosperms"><i>Concepts of Biology</i></a>. Houston, Texas: OpenStax<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=14.3+Seed+Plants%3A+Gymnosperms&rft.btitle=Concepts+of+Biology&rft.place=Houston%2C+Texas&rft.pub=OpenStax&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Samantha&rft.aufirst=Fowler&rft.au=Rebecca%2C+Roush&rft.au=James%2C+Wise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenstax.org%2Fbooks%2Fconcepts-biology%2Fpages%2F14-3-seed-plants-gymnosperms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGymnosperm" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLiuWangLiYang2022" class="citation journal cs1">Liu, Yang; Wang, Sibo; Li, Linzhou; Yang, Ting; Dong, Shanshan; Wei, Tong; Wu, Shengdan; Liu, Yongbo; Gong, Yiqing; Feng, Xiuyan; Ma, Jianchao; Chang, Guanxiao; Huang, Jinling; Yang, Yong; Wang, Hongli (April 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9023351">"The Cycas genome and the early evolution of seed plants"</a>. <i>Nature Plants</i>. <b>8</b> (4): 389–401. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41477-022-01129-7">10.1038/s41477-022-01129-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2055-0278">2055-0278</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9023351">9023351</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35437001">35437001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Plants&rft.atitle=The+Cycas+genome+and+the+early+evolution+of+seed+plants&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=389-401&rft.date=2022-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9023351%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2055-0278&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35437001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41477-022-01129-7&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Yang&rft.au=Wang%2C+Sibo&rft.au=Li%2C+Linzhou&rft.au=Yang%2C+Ting&rft.au=Dong%2C+Shanshan&rft.au=Wei%2C+Tong&rft.au=Wu%2C+Shengdan&rft.au=Liu%2C+Yongbo&rft.au=Gong%2C+Yiqing&rft.au=Feng%2C+Xiuyan&rft.au=Ma%2C+Jianchao&rft.au=Chang%2C+Guanxiao&rft.au=Huang%2C+Jinling&rft.au=Yang%2C+Yong&rft.au=Wang%2C+Hongli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9023351&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGymnosperm" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-AJB-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AJB_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSouthworthCresti1997" class="citation journal cs1">Southworth, Darlene; Cresti, Mauro (September 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2446056">"Comparison of flagellated and nonflagellated sperm in plants"</a>. <i>American Journal of Botany</i>. <b>84</b> (9): 1301–1311. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2446056">10.2307/2446056</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2446056">2446056</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21708687">21708687</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=Comparison+of+flagellated+and+nonflagellated+sperm+in+plants&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1301-1311&rft.date=1997-09&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21708687&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2446056%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2446056&rft.aulast=Southworth&rft.aufirst=Darlene&rft.au=Cresti%2C+Mauro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2307%252F2446056&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGymnosperm" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Walters1996-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Walters1996_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWalters1996" class="citation book cs1">Walters, Dirk R Walters Bonnie By (1996). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vascularplanttax00walt"><i>Vascular plant taxonomy</i></a></span>. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vascularplanttax00walt/page/124">124</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7872-2108-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7872-2108-9"><bdi>978-0-7872-2108-9</bdi></a>. <q>Gymnosperm seeds.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vascular+plant+taxonomy&rft.place=Dubuque%2C+Iowa&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Kendall%2FHunt+Pub.+Co.&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-7872-2108-9&rft.aulast=Walters&rft.aufirst=Dirk+R+Walters+Bonnie+By&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvascularplanttax00walt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGymnosperm" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFNystedtStreetWetterbom2013" class="citation journal cs1">Nystedt, B; Street, NR; Wetterbom, A; et al. (May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature12211">"The Norway spruce genome sequence and conifer genome evolution"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>497</b> (7451): 579–584. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Natur.497..579N">2013Natur.497..579N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature12211">10.1038/nature12211</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1854%2FLU-4110028">1854/LU-4110028</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23698360">23698360</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+Norway+spruce+genome+sequence+and+conifer+genome+evolution&rft.volume=497&rft.issue=7451&rft.pages=579-584&rft.date=2013-05&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1854%2FLU-4110028&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23698360&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature12211&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013Natur.497..579N&rft.aulast=Nystedt&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Street%2C+NR&rft.au=Wetterbom%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fnature12211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGymnosperm" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBiswasJohri1997" class="citation book cs1">Biswas, C.; Johri, B.M. (1997). "Economic Importance". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-662-13164-0.pdf"><i>The Gymnosperms</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 440–456. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-662-13164-0_23">10.1007/978-3-662-13164-0_23</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-662-13166-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-662-13166-4"><bdi>978-3-662-13166-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Economic+Importance&rft.btitle=The+Gymnosperms&rft.pages=440-456&rft.pub=Springer%2C+Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-662-13164-0_23&rft.isbn=978-3-662-13166-4&rft.aulast=Biswas&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Johri%2C+B.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fcontent%2Fpdf%2F10.1007%252F978-3-662-13164-0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGymnosperm" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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</ol></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="General_bibliography">General bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gymnosperm&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: General bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin" style="">
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCantino2007" class="citation journal cs1">Cantino, Philip D.; Doyle, James A.; Graham, Sean W.; Judd, Walter S.; Olmstead, Richard G.; Soltis, Douglas E.; Soltis, Pamela S.; Donoghue, Michael J. (August 2007). "Towards a phylogenetic nomenclature of Tracheophyta". <i><a href="/wiki/Taxon_(journal)" title="Taxon (journal)">Taxon</a></i>. <b>56</b> (3): 822–846. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F25065864">10.2307/25065864</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25065864">25065864</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taxon&rft.atitle=Towards+a+phylogenetic+nomenclature+of+Tracheophyta&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=822-846&rft.date=2007-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F25065864&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25065864%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cantino&rft.aufirst=Philip+D.&rft.au=Doyle%2C+James+A.&rft.au=Graham%2C+Sean+W.&rft.au=Judd%2C+Walter+S.&rft.au=Olmstead%2C+Richard+G.&rft.au=Soltis%2C+Douglas+E.&rft.au=Soltis%2C+Pamela+S.&rft.au=Donoghue%2C+Michael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGymnosperm" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gymnosperm&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Gymnosperms" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Gymnosperms">Gymnosperms</a></span>.</div></div>
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<div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div>
<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gymnosperm" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:gymnosperm">gymnosperm</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>
</div>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.conifers.org/">Gymnosperm Database</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080409044237/http://www.huh.harvard.edu/research/mathews-lab/atolHtmlSite/">Gymnosperms on the Tree of Life</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAlbert_Seward1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Seward" title="Albert Seward">Albert Seward</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gymnosperms"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Gymnosperms">"Gymnosperms" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gymnosperms&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.au=Albert+Seward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGymnosperm" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Nigel_Page" title="Christopher Nigel Page">Christopher Nigel Page</a> (2023).The Evolution of Arborescent Gymnosperms. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-26309-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-26309-2">978-1-009-26309-2</a>. 2 volumes (volume one on the conifers of the Northern hemisphere and volume 2 on the conifers of the southern hemisphere).</li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_botany" title="Outline of botany">Outline</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gymnosperm</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Botany" title="Category:Botany">Category</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Classification_of_Archaeplastida_or_Plantae_s.l." style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Plant_classification" title="Template:Plant classification"><abbr title="View this template" style="background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Plant_classification" title="Template talk:Plant classification"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Plant_classification" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Plant classification"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Classification_of_Archaeplastida_or_Plantae_s.l." style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Classification of <a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a> or <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae <span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="sensu lato; in the broad sense"><i>s.l.</i></span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div><div class="hlist">
<dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain</a></span></dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Archaea_classification" title="Template:Archaea classification">Archaea</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Bacteria_classification" title="Template:Bacteria classification">Bacteria</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Eukaryota" title="Template:Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a></dd>
<dt><span class="nobold">(major groups</span></dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Excavata" title="Template:Excavata">Excavata</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a>
<dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Hacrobia" title="Template:Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhizaria" title="Template:Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Alveolata" title="Template:Alveolata">Alveolata</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Stramenopile" title="Template:Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Plant_classification" title="Template:Plant classification">Plants</a></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a>
<dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Amoebozoa" title="Template:Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Opisthokont_protists" title="Template:Opisthokont protists">Opisthokonta</a>
<dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia">Animals</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Fungi_classification" title="Template:Fungi classification">Fungi</a>)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl>
</div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Archaeplastida" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.0em; background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin:-40px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Picozoa" title="Picozoa">Picozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Picomonas" class="mw-redirect" title="Picomonas">Picomonas</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Rhodelphis" title="Rhodelphis">Rhodelphidia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhodelphis" title="Rhodelphis">Rhodelphis</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">Rhodophyta</a><br /><span class="nobold">(red algae)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyanidiophyceae" title="Cyanidiophyceae">Cyanidiophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Porphyridiophyceae" title="Porphyridiophyceae">Porphyridiophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stylonematophyceae" title="Stylonematophyceae">Stylonematophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Compsopogonophyceae" title="Compsopogonophyceae">Compsopogonophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhodellophyceae" title="Rhodellophyceae">Rhodellophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bangiophyceae" title="Bangiophyceae">Bangiophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Florideophyceae" title="Florideophyceae">Florideophyceae</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">Glaucophyta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">Glaucocystophyceae</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><i>incertae sedis</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algospongia" title="Algospongia">Algospongia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Viridiplantae" title="Viridiplantae">Viridiplantae</a> <br /> <span class="nobold">or <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae <span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="sensu stricto; in the strict sense"><i>s.s.</i></span></a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a> &<br /> land plants)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Prasinodermophyta" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Prasinodermophyta" title="Prasinodermophyta">Prasinodermophyta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prasinoderma" title="Prasinoderma">Prasinodermophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Palmophyllophyceae" title="Palmophyllophyceae">Palmophyllophyceae</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"> <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;">Prasinophytina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mamiellophyceae" title="Mamiellophyceae">Mamiellophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyramimonadophyceae" title="Pyramimonadophyceae">Pyramimonadophyceae</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;">Chlorophytina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nephroselmidaceae" title="Nephroselmidaceae">Nephroselmidophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Picocystis" title="Picocystis">Picocystophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chloropicophyceae" title="Chloropicophyceae">Chloropicophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pedinophyceae" title="Pedinophyceae">Pedinophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chlorodendrales" title="Chlorodendrales">Chlorodendrophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/UTC_clade" title="UTC clade">UTC clade</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ulvophyceae" title="Ulvophyceae">Ulvophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trebouxiophyceae" title="Trebouxiophyceae">Trebouxiophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyceae" title="Chlorophyceae">Chlorophyceae</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Streptophyta" title="Streptophyta">Streptophyta</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesostigmatophyceae" title="Mesostigmatophyceae">Mesostigmatophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chlorokybophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorokybophyceae">Chlorokybophyceae</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Spirotaenia" title="Spirotaenia">Spirotaenia</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Klebsormidiophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Klebsormidiophyceae">Klebsormidiophyceae</a></li></ul>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Phragmoplastophyta" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplastophyta" title="Phragmoplastophyta">Phragmoplastophyta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charophyceae" title="Charophyceae">Charophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coleochaetophyceae" title="Coleochaetophyceae">Coleochaetophyceae</a></li></ul>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;">Anydrophyta</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zygnematophyceae" title="Zygnematophyceae">Zygnematophyceae</a></li></ul>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Embryophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryophyta">Embryophyta</a><br /><span class="nobold">(land plants)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>(see below↓)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div id="Embryophytes_or_Plantae_sensu_strictissimo" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">Embryophytes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae <span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="in the strictest sense"><i>sensu strictissimo</i></span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bryophytes" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -25px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophytes</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">Marchantiophyta</a><br /><span class="nobold">(liverworts)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haplomitriopsida" title="Haplomitriopsida">Haplomitriopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marchantiopsida" title="Marchantiopsida">Marchantiopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jungermanniopsida" title="Jungermanniopsida">Jungermanniopsida</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Hornwort" title="Hornwort">Anthocerotophyta</a><br /><span class="nobold">(hornworts)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leiosporoceros" title="Leiosporoceros">Leiosporocerotopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hornwort" title="Hornwort">Anthocerotopsida</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">Bryophyta</a><br /><span class="nobold">(mosses)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Takakia" title="Takakia">Takakiopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sphagnopsida" title="Sphagnopsida">Sphagnopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Andreaeobryum" title="Andreaeobryum">Andreaeobryopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Andreaeaceae" title="Andreaeaceae">Andreaeopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oedipodium" title="Oedipodium">Oedipodiopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tetraphidaceae" title="Tetraphidaceae">Tetraphidopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polytrichaceae" title="Polytrichaceae">Polytrichopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bryopsida" title="Bryopsida">Bryopsida</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -55px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"> <a href="/wiki/Polysporangiophyte" title="Polysporangiophyte">Polysporangiophytes</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="†Protracheophytes*" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span class="nobold">†</span>Protracheophytes*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Horneophytopsida" title="Horneophytopsida">Horneophytopsida</a></li>
<li>†<i><a href="/wiki/Aglaophyton" title="Aglaophyton">Aglaophyton</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -25px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Tracheophytes</a><br /><span class="nobold">(vascular plants)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="†Paratracheophytes*" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span class="nobold">†</span>Paratracheophytes*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooksoniopsida&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cooksoniopsida (page does not exist)">Cooksoniopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/wiki/Rhyniophyte" title="Rhyniophyte">Rhyniopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaliales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Renaliales (page does not exist)">Renaliales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -40px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);">Eutracheophytes</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Lycophytes" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophytes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Barinophyte" title="Barinophyte">Barinophytopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/wiki/Zosterophyll" title="Zosterophyll">Zosterophyllopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lycopodiopsida" title="Lycopodiopsida">Lycopodiopsida</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lycopodiaceae" title="Lycopodiaceae">clubmosses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selaginella" title="Selaginella">spikemosses</a> & <a href="/wiki/Isoetes" title="Isoetes">quillworts</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -35px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Euphyllophyte" title="Euphyllophyte">Euphyllophytes</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Eophyllophyton" title="Eophyllophyton">Eophyllophytopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/wiki/Trimerophytopsida" title="Trimerophytopsida">Trimerophytopsida</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Moniliformopses" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;">Moniliformopses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibykales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibykales (page does not exist)">Ibykales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/wiki/Cladoxylopsida" title="Cladoxylopsida">Cladoxylopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Polypodiopsida</a> (ferns and <a href="/wiki/Equisetum" title="Equisetum">horsetails</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -30px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);">Lignophytes</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="†Progymnosperms*" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span class="nobold">†</span><a href="/wiki/Progymnosperm" title="Progymnosperm">Progymnosperms</a>*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Noeggerathiopsida&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Noeggerathiopsida (page does not exist)">Noeggerathiopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aneurophytopsida&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aneurophytopsida (page does not exist)">Aneurophytopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeopteridopsida&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Archaeopteridopsida (page does not exist)">Archaeopteridopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Protopityales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Protopityales (page does not exist)">Protopityales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -25px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a><br /><span class="nobold">(seed plants)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span class="nobold">†</span><a href="/wiki/Pteridospermatophyta" title="Pteridospermatophyta">Pteridosperms</a><span class="nobold">*</span><br /><span class="nobold">(seed ferns)<br />and other extinct<br /> seed plant groups</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Bennettitales" title="Bennettitales">Bennettitales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/wiki/Calamopityales" class="mw-redirect" title="Calamopityales">Calamopityales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/wiki/Callistophytales" title="Callistophytales">Callistophytales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/wiki/Caytoniales" title="Caytoniales">Caytoniales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/wiki/Cordaitales" title="Cordaitales">Cordaitales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/wiki/Corystospermaceae" title="Corystospermaceae">Corystospermales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/wiki/Czekanowskiales" title="Czekanowskiales">Czekanowskiales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/wiki/Gigantopteridales" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigantopteridales">Gigantopteridales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/wiki/Glossopteridales" title="Glossopteridales">Glossopteridales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/wiki/Lyginopteridales" title="Lyginopteridales">Lyginopteridopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/wiki/Medullosales" title="Medullosales">Medullosales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/wiki/Peltaspermales" title="Peltaspermales">Peltaspermopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/wiki/Pentoxylales" title="Pentoxylales">Pentoxylopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Petriellales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Petriellales (page does not exist)">Petriellales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Acrogymnospermae</a><br /><span class="nobold">(living gymnosperms)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycad" title="Cycad">Cycadopsida (cycads)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ginkgoales" title="Ginkgoales">Ginkgoales (<i>Ginkgo</i>)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">Pinopsida (conifers)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetopsida</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiospermae</a><br /><span class="nobold">(flowering plants)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basal_angiosperms" title="Basal angiosperms">Basal angiosperms</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mesangiospermae" title="Mesangiospermae">Core angiosperms</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnoliids" title="Magnoliids">Magnoliids</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monocotyledon" title="Monocotyledon">Monocots</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eudicots" title="Eudicots">Eudicots</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div>
<ul><li>*<a href="/wiki/Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</a> groups</li>
<li>† = <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinct</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_plant_orders" title="List of plant orders">List of plant orders</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plant#Current_definitions_of_Plantae" title="Plant">Current definitions of Plantae</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Classification_of_Acrogymnospermae_(living_Gymnosperms)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Acrogymnospermae_classification" title="Template:Acrogymnospermae classification"><abbr title="View this template" style="background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Acrogymnospermae_classification" title="Template talk:Acrogymnospermae classification"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Acrogymnospermae_classification" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Acrogymnospermae classification"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Classification_of_Acrogymnospermae_(living_Gymnosperms)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Classification of <a href="/wiki/Acrogymnospermae" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrogymnospermae">Acrogymnospermae</a> (living <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gymnosperms</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div>
<ul><li>Supergroup <a href="/wiki/Template:Plant_classification" title="Template:Plant classification">Plant</a>:</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Template:Bryophyta" title="Template:Bryophyta">Bryophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Template:Marchantiophyta" title="Template:Marchantiophyta">Marchantiophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Template:Fern_classification" title="Template:Fern classification">Polypodiophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Template:Acrogymnospermae_classification" title="Template:Acrogymnospermae classification">Acrogymnospermae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Template:Angiosperm_families" title="Template:Angiosperm families">Angiospermae</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.0em; background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Ginkgoidae" title="Ginkgoidae">Ginkgoidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ginkgoales" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ginkgoales" title="Ginkgoales">Ginkgoales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ginkgoaceae" title="Ginkgoaceae">Ginkgoaceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ginkgo" title="Ginkgo">Ginkgo</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.0em; background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Cycadidae" title="Cycadidae">Cycadidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Cycadales" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cycadales" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadales">Cycadales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cycadaceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadaceae">Cycadaceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cycas" title="Cycas">Cycas</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zamiaceae" title="Zamiaceae">Zamiaceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diooideae</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dioon" title="Dioon">Dioon</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Zamioideae</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Macrozamia" title="Macrozamia">Macrozamia</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Lepidozamia" title="Lepidozamia">Lepidozamia</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Encephalartos" title="Encephalartos">Encephalartos</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Bowenia" title="Bowenia">Bowenia</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Ceratozamia" title="Ceratozamia">Ceratozamia</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Stangeria" title="Stangeria">Stangeria</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Zamia" title="Zamia">Zamia</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Microcycas" title="Microcycas">Microcycas</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.0em; background: #D4EED4;"><a href="/wiki/Pinidae" title="Pinidae">Pinidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gnetales" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnetales">Gnetales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ephedraceae" title="Ephedraceae">Ephedraceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ephedra_(plant)" title="Ephedra (plant)">Ephedra</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gnetaceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnetaceae">Gnetaceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gnetum" title="Gnetum">Gnetum</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Welwitschiaceae" title="Welwitschiaceae">Welwitschiaceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Welwitschia" title="Welwitschia">Welwitschia</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pinales" title="Pinales">Pinales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Pinaceae" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pinaceae" title="Pinaceae">Pinaceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Abietoideae</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cedrus" title="Cedrus">Cedrus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pseudolarix" title="Pseudolarix">Pseudolarix</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Nothotsuga" title="Nothotsuga">Nothotsuga</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Tsuga" title="Tsuga">Tsuga</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Keteleeria" title="Keteleeria">Keteleeria</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Abies" class="mw-redirect" title="Abies">Abies</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pinoideae</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pseudotsuga" title="Pseudotsuga">Pseudotsuga</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Larix" class="mw-redirect" title="Larix">Larix</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Cathaya" title="Cathaya">Cathaya</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Picea" class="mw-redirect" title="Picea">Picea</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinus">Pinus</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Araucariales" class="mw-redirect" title="Araucariales">Araucariales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Araucariaceae" title="Araucariaceae">Araucariaceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wollemia" title="Wollemia">Wollemia</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Agathis" title="Agathis">Agathis</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Araucaria" title="Araucaria">Araucaria</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Podocarpaceae" title="Podocarpaceae">Podocarpaceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phyllocladoideae</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Halocarpus" title="Halocarpus">Halocarpus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pectinopitys" title="Pectinopitys">Pectinopitys</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Sundacarpus" title="Sundacarpus">Sundacarpus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Prumnopitys" title="Prumnopitys">Prumnopitys</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Parasitaxus" title="Parasitaxus">Parasitaxus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Lagarostrobos" title="Lagarostrobos">Lagarostrobos</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Manoao" title="Manoao">Manoao</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Lepidothamnus" title="Lepidothamnus">Lepidothamnus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Phyllocladus" title="Phyllocladus">Phyllocladus</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Podocarpoideae</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Saxegothaea" title="Saxegothaea">Saxegothaea</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Microcachrys" title="Microcachrys">Microcachrys</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pherosphaera" title="Pherosphaera">Pherosphaera</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Acmopyle" title="Acmopyle">Acmopyle</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Dacrycarpus" title="Dacrycarpus">Dacrycarpus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Falcatifolium" title="Falcatifolium">Falcatifolium</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Dacrydium" title="Dacrydium">Dacrydium</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Retrophyllum" title="Retrophyllum">Retrophyllum</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Afrocarpus" title="Afrocarpus">Afrocarpus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Nageia" title="Nageia">Nageia</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Podocarpus" title="Podocarpus">Podocarpus</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cupressales" class="mw-redirect" title="Cupressales">Cupressales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sciadopityaceae" title="Sciadopityaceae">Sciadopityaceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sciadopitys" title="Sciadopitys">Sciadopitys</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taxaceae" title="Taxaceae">Taxaceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cephalotaxeae</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cephalotaxus" title="Cephalotaxus">Cephalotaxus</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Taxoideae</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amentotaxus" title="Amentotaxus">Amentotaxus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Torreya" title="Torreya">Torreya</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Austrotaxus" title="Austrotaxus">Austrotaxus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pseudotaxus" title="Pseudotaxus">Pseudotaxus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Taxus" title="Taxus">Taxus</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cupressaceae" title="Cupressaceae">Cupressaceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cunninghamioideae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cunninghamioideae">Cunninghamioideae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cunninghamia" title="Cunninghamia">Cunninghamia</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanioideae" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanioideae">Taiwanioideae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Taiwania" title="Taiwania">Taiwania</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Athrotaxidoideae" class="mw-redirect" title="Athrotaxidoideae">Athrotaxidoideae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Athrotaxis" title="Athrotaxis">Athrotaxis</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sequoioideae" title="Sequoioideae">Sequoioideae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Metasequoia" title="Metasequoia">Metasequoia</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Sequoiadendron" title="Sequoiadendron">Sequoiadendron</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Sequoia_(genus)" title="Sequoia (genus)">Sequoia</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taxodioideae" title="Taxodioideae">Taxodioideae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cryptomeria" title="Cryptomeria">Cryptomeria</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Glyptostrobus" title="Glyptostrobus">Glyptostrobus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Taxodium" title="Taxodium">Taxodium</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Callitroideae" class="mw-redirect" title="Callitroideae">Callitroideae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Papuacedrus" title="Papuacedrus">Papuacedrus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Austrocedrus" title="Austrocedrus">Austrocedrus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pilgerodendron" title="Pilgerodendron">Pilgerodendron</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Libocedrus" title="Libocedrus">Libocedrus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Diselma" title="Diselma">Diselma</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Fitzroya" title="Fitzroya">Fitzroya</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Widdringtonia" title="Widdringtonia">Widdringtonia</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Neocallitropsis" class="mw-redirect" title="Neocallitropsis">Neocallitropsis</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Callitris" title="Callitris">Callitris</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cupressoideae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cupressoideae">Cupressoideae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Thujopsis" title="Thujopsis">Thujopsis</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Thuja" title="Thuja">Thuja</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Chamaecyparis" title="Chamaecyparis">Chamaecyparis</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Tetraclinis" title="Tetraclinis">Tetraclinis</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Microbiota" title="Microbiota">Microbiota</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Platycladus" title="Platycladus">Platycladus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Calocedrus" title="Calocedrus">Calocedrus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Cupressus" title="Cupressus">Cupressus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Xanthocyparis" title="Xanthocyparis">Xanthocyparis</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Hesperocyparis" title="Hesperocyparis">Hesperocyparis</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Juniperus" class="mw-redirect" title="Juniperus">Juniperus</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><i>Gymnospermae</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133712" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q133712">Q133712</a></span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Gymnospermae" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Gymnospermae">Gymnospermae</a></span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_North_America" title="Flora of North America">FNA</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=61">61</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">ITIS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=846506">846506</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">PPE: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bladmineerders.nl/host-plants/plantae/spermatopsida/gymnosperma/">gymnosperma</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Tropicos" title="Tropicos">Tropicos</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://legacy.tropicos.org/Name/43000115">43000115</a></span></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133712#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Gymnospermes"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11934879x">France</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Gymnospermes"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11934879x">BnF data</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Nacktsamer"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4129481-6">Germany</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007545698405171">Israel</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Gymnosperms"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85058078">United States</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00569301">Japan</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="nahosemenné rostliny"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph115415&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1710226962' |