Examine individual changes

'{{Short description|President of the United States from 1861 to 1865}} {{About|the president of the United States}} {{Redirect|Abe Lincoln|the jazz musician|Abe Lincoln (musician)}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Good article}} {{Use American English|date=July 2020}} {{Use mdy dates|date=May 2022}} {{Infobox officeholder | image = Abraham Lincoln O-77 matte collodion print.jpg | caption = Portrait by [[Alexander Gardner (photographer)|Alexander Gardner]], November 1863 | alt = A bearded Abraham Lincoln showing his head and shoulders. | order = 16th | office = President of the United States | vicepresident = {{plainlist| * [[Hannibal Hamlin]]<br>(1861–1865) * Andrew Johnson<br>(March–April 1865) }} | term_start = March 4, 1861 | term_end = April 15, 1865 | predecessor = [[James Buchanan]] | successor = [[Andrew Johnson]] | state1 = [[Illinois]] | district1 = {{ushr|IL|7|7th}} | term_start1 = March 4, 1847 | term_end1 = March 3, 1849 | predecessor1 = [[John Henry (representative)|John Henry]] | successor1 = [[Thomas L. Harris]] | office2 = Member of the<br />[[Illinois House of Representatives]]<br />from [[Sangamon County]] | term_start2 = December 1, 1834 | term_end2 = December 4, 1842 | birth_date = {{birth date|1809|2|12}} | birth_place = [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]], U.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|1865|4|15|1809|2|12}} | death_place = [[Washington, D.C.]], U.S. | death_cause = [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|Assassinated]]<br />(gunshot wound to the head) | occupation = {{hlist|Politician|lawyer}} | resting_place = [[Lincoln Tomb]] | party = {{plainlist| * [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] (before 1854) * [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] (1854–1864) * [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union]] (1864–1865) }} | height = 6 ft 4 in<ref name="LincolnHeight">{{cite book|last=Carpenter|first=Francis B.|title=Six Months in the White House: The Story of a Picture|url=https://archive.org/details/sixmonthsatwhit02carpgoog|year=1866|publisher=Hurd and Houghton.|page=[https://archive.org/details/sixmonthsatwhit02carpgoog/page/n225 217]}}</ref> | spouse = {{marriage|[[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]]|November 4, 1842}} | children = {{hlist|[[Robert Todd Lincoln|Robert]]|[[Edward Baker Lincoln|Edward]]|[[William Wallace Lincoln|Willie]]|[[Tad Lincoln|Tad]]}} | parents = [[Thomas Lincoln]]<br />[[Nancy Hanks Lincoln|Nancy Hanks]] | relatives = [[Lincoln family]] | signature = Abraham Lincoln 1862 signature.svg | signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink | allegiance = <!-- United States, Illinois --> | branch = [[Illinois Militia]] | serviceyears = 1832 | rank = {{plainlist| * [[Captain (United States O-3)|Captain]]{{Efn|name="Ranks"|Discharged from command-rank of Captain and re-enlisted at rank of Private.}} * [[Private (United States)|Private]]{{Efn|name="Ranks"}} }} | battles = {{tree list}} * [[American Indian Wars]] ** [[Black Hawk War]] *** [[Battle of Stillman's Run]] *** [[Battle of Kellogg's Grove]] }} {{Abraham Lincoln series}} '''Abraham Lincoln''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɪ|ŋ|k|ən}} {{Respell|LINK|ən}}; February 12, 1809&nbsp;– April 15, 1865) was an American lawyer and statesman who served as the 16th [[president of the United States]] from 1861 until [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|his assassination]] in 1865. Lincoln led the nation through the [[American Civil War]] and succeeded in preserving the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolishing]] [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]], bolstering the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]], and modernizing the [[U.S. economy]]. Abraham Lincoln two years into the civil war commissioned Robert E Lee to assist Grant in the war effort. Combined forces decidedly advanced the religion and pyramid of Egypt with the Pharaoh and His loyalist. Lincoln was born into poverty in a log cabin in [[Kentucky]] and was raised on the [[American frontier|frontier]], primarily in [[Indiana]]. He was self-educated and became a lawyer, [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]] leader, [[Illinois]] state [[Illinois House of Representatives|legislator]], and U.S. Congressman [[List of United States representatives from Illinois|from Illinois]]. In 1849, he returned to his law practice but became vexed by the opening of additional lands to slavery as a result of the [[Kansas–Nebraska Act]] of 1854. He reentered politics in 1854, becoming a leader in the new [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], and he reached a national audience in the [[Lincoln–Douglas debates|1858 Senate campaign debates]] against [[Stephen Douglas]]. Lincoln ran for President [[1860 United States presidential election|in 1860]], sweeping the [[Northern United States|North]] to gain victory. Pro-slavery elements in the [[Southern United States|South]] viewed his election as a threat to slavery, and Southern states began [[Secession|seceding from the Union]]. During this time the newly formed [[Confederate States of America]] began seizing federal military bases in the south. Just over one month after Lincoln assumed the presidency, the [[Confederate States]] [[Battle of Fort Sumter|attacked Fort Sumter]], a U.S. fort in South Carolina. Following the bombardment, Lincoln mobilized forces to suppress the rebellion and restore the Union. Lincoln, a [[Moderate Republicans (Reconstruction era)|moderate Republican]], had to navigate a contentious array of factions with friends and opponents from both the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] and Republican parties. His allies, the [[War Democrat]]s and the [[Radical Republicans]], demanded harsh treatment of the Southern Confederates. Anti-war Democrats (called "[[Copperhead (politics)|Copperheads]]") despised Lincoln, and irreconcilable pro-Confederate elements plotted his assassination. He managed the factions by exploiting their mutual enmity, carefully distributing political patronage, and by appealing to the American people. His [[Gettysburg Address]] came to be seen as one of the greatest and most influential statements of American national purpose. Lincoln closely supervised the strategy and tactics in the war effort, including the selection of generals, and implemented a [[Union blockade|naval blockade]] of the South's trade. He suspended ''[[habeas corpus]]'' in [[Maryland]], and he averted British intervention by defusing the [[Trent Affair|''Trent'' Affair]]. In 1863 he issued the [[Emancipation Proclamation]], which declared the slaves in the states "in rebellion" to be free. It also directed the Army and Navy to "recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons" and to receive them "into the armed service of the United States." Lincoln also pressured [[Border states (American Civil War)|border states]] to outlaw slavery, and he promoted the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]], which upon its ratification abolished slavery. Lincoln managed his own successful [[1864 United States presidential election|re-election campaign]]. He sought to heal the war-torn nation through reconciliation. On April 14, 1865, just days after [[Battle of Appomattox Court House|the war's end at Appomattox]], he was attending a play at [[Ford's Theatre]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], with his wife [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary]] when he was fatally shot by Confederate sympathizer [[John Wilkes Booth]]. Abraham Lincoln is remembered as a [[martyr]] and a national hero for his wartime leadership and for his efforts to preserve the Union and abolish slavery. Lincoln is often [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States#Scholar survey summary|ranked]] in both popular and scholarly polls as the greatest president in American history. {{TOC_limit|5}} ==Family and childhood== ===Early life=== {{Main|Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln}} Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, the second child of [[Thomas Lincoln]] and [[Nancy Lincoln|Nancy Hanks Lincoln]], in a log cabin on [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historical Park|Sinking Spring Farm]] near [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=20–22}} He was a descendant of [[Samuel Lincoln]], an Englishman who migrated from [[Hingham, Norfolk]], to its namesake, [[Hingham, Massachusetts]], in 1638. The family then migrated west, passing through [[New Jersey]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Virginia]].{{sfn|Warren|2017|p=3–4}} Lincoln's paternal grandparents, his namesake [[Abraham Lincoln (captain)|Captain Abraham Lincoln]] and wife Bathsheba (née Herring) moved the family from Virginia to [[Jefferson County, Kentucky]].{{efn|The identity of Lincoln's grandmother Bathsheba Herring, though without certainty, is the consensus of multiple Lincoln biographers.{{sfn|Harrison|1935|p=276}}}} The captain was killed in an [[Northwest Indian War|Indian raid]] in 1786.{{sfn|Warren|2017|p=4}} His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, Abraham's father, witnessed the attack.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=21}}{{efn|Thomas, born January 1778, would have been 8 at the attack, May 1786. Older sources use six.{{sfn|Wilson|Davis|Wilson|Herndon|1998|pp=35–36}}}} Thomas then worked at odd jobs in Kentucky and [[Tennessee]] before the family settled in [[Hardin County, Kentucky]], in the early 1800s.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=21}} The [[Nancy Hanks Lincoln heritage|heritage of Lincoln's mother Nancy]] remains unclear, but it is widely assumed that she was the daughter of Lucy Hanks.{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|p=79}} Thomas and Nancy married on June 12, 1806, in Washington County, and moved to [[Elizabethtown, Kentucky]].{{sfn|Warren|2017|p=9}} They had three children: [[Sarah Lincoln Grigsby|Sarah]], Abraham, and Thomas, who died as an infant.{{sfn|Warren|2017|p=9–10}} Thomas Lincoln bought or leased farms in Kentucky before losing all but {{convert|200|acre|ha}} of his land in court disputes over [[Title (property)|property titles]].{{sfn|Sandburg|1926|p=20}} In 1816, the family moved to [[Indiana]] where the land surveys and titles were more reliable.{{sfn|Warren|2017|p=13}} Indiana was a [[Slave states and free states|"free" (non-slaveholding)]] territory, and they settled in an "unbroken forest"{{sfn|Warren|2017|p=26}} in Hurricane Township, [[History of Perry County, Indiana|Perry County, Indiana]].{{sfn|Warren|2017|p=16, 43}}{{efn|Their land eventually became part of Space, when the county was established in 1818.{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|pp=3, 5, 16}}}} In 1860, Lincoln noted that the family's move to Indiana was "partly on account of slavery", but mainly due to land title difficulties.{{sfnm|Sandburg|1926|1p=20|Donald|1996|2pp=23–24}} [[File:Log Cabin at the Lincoln Living Historical Farm.jpg|thumb|right|The farm site where Lincoln grew up in [[Spencer County, Indiana]]]] In Kentucky and Indiana, Thomas worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter.{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|pp=34, 156}} At various times, he owned farms, livestock, and town lots, paid taxes, sat on juries, appraised estates, and served on county patrols. Thomas and Nancy were members of a [[Separate Baptists]] church, which forbade alcohol, dancing, and slavery.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=22–24}} Overcoming financial challenges, Thomas in 1827 obtained [[clear title]] to {{convert|80|acre|ha}} in Indiana, an area which became the [[Little Pigeon Creek Community]].{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|pp=24, 104}} ===Mother's death=== On October 5, 1818, Nancy Lincoln died from [[milk sickness]], leaving 11-year-old Sarah in charge of a household including her father, 9-year-old Abraham, and Nancy's 19-year-old orphan cousin, Dennis Hanks.{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|pp=22–23, 77}} Ten years later, on January 20, 1828, Sarah died while giving birth to a [[stillborn]] son, devastating Lincoln.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=34, 116}} On December 2, 1819, Thomas married [[Sarah Bush Lincoln|Sarah Bush Johnston]], a widow from Elizabethtown, Kentucky, with three children of her own.{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|pp=23, 83}} Abraham became close to his stepmother and called her "Mother".{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=26–27}} Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with farm life. His family even said he was lazy, for all his "reading, scribbling, writing, ciphering, writing Poetry, etc.".{{sfn|White|2009|pp=25, 31, 47}} His stepmother acknowledged he did not enjoy "physical labor", but loved to read.{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|p=66}} ===Education and move to Illinois=== Lincoln was largely self-educated.{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|pp=10, 33}} His formal schooling was from [[itinerant teacher]]s. It included two short stints in Kentucky, where he learned to read but probably not to write, at age seven,{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=23}} and in Indiana, where he went to school sporadically due to farm chores, for a total of less than 12 months in aggregate by the age of 15.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p= 29}} He persisted as an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning.{{sfn|Madison|2014|p=110}} Family, neighbors, and schoolmates recalled that his reading included the [[King James Version|King James Bible]], [[Aesop's Fables]], [[John Bunyan]]'s ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]'', [[Daniel Defoe]]'s ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'', and ''[[The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin]]''.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=29–31, 38–43}} As a teen, Lincoln took responsibility for chores and customarily gave his father all earnings from work outside the home until he was 21.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=30–33}} Lincoln was tall, strong, and athletic, and became adept at using an ax.{{sfn|Warren|2017|p=134–135}} He was an active wrestler during his youth and trained in the rough [[Catch wrestling|catch-as-catch-can]] style (also known as catch wrestling). He became county wrestling champion at the age of 21.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dellinger |first1=Bob |title=Wrestling in the USA |url=https://nwhof.org/stillwater/resources-library/history/wrestling-in-the-usa/ |website=National Wrestling Hall of Fame |access-date=April 9, 2021}}</ref> He gained a reputation for strength and audacity after winning a wrestling match with the renowned leader of ruffians known as "the Clary's Grove Boys".{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=41}} In March 1830, fearing another milk sickness outbreak, several members of the extended Lincoln family, including Abraham, moved west to Illinois, a free state, and settled in [[Macon County, Illinois|Macon County]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=36}}{{efn|Historians disagree on who initiated the move; Thomas Lincoln had no obvious reason to do so. One possibility is that other members of the family, including Dennis Hanks, may not have matched Thomas's stability and steady income.{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|pp=38–40}}}} Abraham then became increasingly distant from Thomas, in part due to his father's lack of education.{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|p=71}} In 1831, as Thomas and other family prepared to move to a [[Lincoln Log Cabin State Historic Site|new homestead]] in [[Coles County, Illinois]], Abraham struck out on his own.{{sfn|Oates|1974|pp=15–17}} He made his home in [[Lincoln's New Salem|New Salem, Illinois]], for six years.{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=23–53}} Lincoln and some friends took goods by [[flatboat]] to [[New Orleans, Louisiana]], where he was first exposed to slavery.{{sfnm|Sandburg|1926|1pp=22–23|Donald|1996|2p=38}} In 1865, Lincoln was asked how he came to acquire his rhetorical skills. He answered that in the practice of law he frequently came across the word "demonstrate" but had insufficient understanding of the term. So, he left Springfield for his father's home to study until he "could give any proposition in the six books of [[Euclid]] [here, referencing Euclid's [[Euclid's Elements|''Elements'']]] at sight."{{sfn|Ellenberg|2021}} ===Marriage and children=== {{Further|Lincoln family|Health of Abraham Lincoln|Sexuality of Abraham Lincoln}} {{Multiple image | direction=horizontal | width= | footer= | width1=192 | image1=A&TLincoln.jpg | alt1=A seated Lincoln holding a book as his young son looks at it | caption1=1864 photo of President Lincoln with youngest son, [[Tad Lincoln|Tad]] | width2=164 | image2=Mary Todd Lincoln2crop.jpg | alt2=Black and white photo of Mary Todd Lincoln's shoulders and head | caption2=[[Mary Todd Lincoln]], wife of Abraham Lincoln, in 1861 }} Lincoln's first romantic interest was [[Ann Rutledge]], whom he met when he moved to New Salem. By 1835, they were in a relationship but not formally engaged.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Gannett |first=Lewis |date=Winter 2005 |title="Overwhelming Evidence" of a Lincoln-Ann Rutledge Romance?: Reexamining Rutledge Family Reminiscences |url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/j/jala/2629860.0026.104/--overwhelming-evidence-of-a-lincoln-ann-rutledge-romance?rgn=main;view=fulltext |magazine=Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association |location=Springfield, IL |publisher=The Abraham Lincoln Association |pages=28–41 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403014805/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/j/jala/2629860.0026.104/--overwhelming-evidence-of-a-lincoln-ann-rutledge-romance?rgn=main;view=fulltext |archive-date=April 3, 2017 }}</ref> She died on August 25, 1835, most likely of [[typhoid fever]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=55–58}} In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky.{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=56–57, 69–70}} Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Owens if she returned to New Salem. Owens arrived that November and he courted her for a time; however, they both had second thoughts. On August 16, 1837, he wrote Owens a letter saying he would not blame her if she ended the relationship, and she never replied.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=67}} In 1839, Lincoln met [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]] in [[Springfield, Illinois]], and the following year they became engaged.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=80–86}} She was the daughter of [[Robert Smith Todd]], a wealthy lawyer and businessman in [[Lexington, Kentucky]].{{sfn|Lamb|Swain|2008|p=3}} A wedding set for January 1, 1841, was canceled at Lincoln's request, but they reconciled and married on November 4, 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's sister.{{sfn|Sandburg|1926|pp=46–51}} While anxiously preparing for the nuptials, he was asked where he was going and replied, "To hell, I suppose."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=93}} In 1844, the couple bought [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site|a house]] in Springfield near his law office. Mary kept house with the help of a hired servant and a relative.{{sfn|Baker|1989|p=142}} Lincoln was an affectionate husband and father of four sons, though his work regularly kept him away from home. The oldest, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]], was born in 1843 and was the only child to live to maturity. [[Edward Baker Lincoln]] (Eddie), born in 1846, died February 1, 1850, probably of tuberculosis. Lincoln's third son, [[William Wallace Lincoln|"Willie" Lincoln]] was born on December 21, 1850, and died of a fever at the [[White House]] on February 20, 1862. The youngest, [[Tad Lincoln|Thomas "Tad" Lincoln]], was born on April 4, 1853, and survived his father but died of heart failure at age 18 on July 16, 1871.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=179–181, 476}}{{efn|The Lincolns' last descendant, great-grandson [[Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith]], died in 1985.<ref>{{cite book|author=Emerson, Jason |title=Giant in the Shadows: The Life of Robert T. Lincoln|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=tPqgC3RS-7sC|page=420}}|year=2012|publisher=SIU Press|page=420|isbn=978-0-8093-3055-3|access-date=June 27, 2015}}</ref>}} Lincoln "was remarkably fond of children"{{sfn|White|2009|p=126}} and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own.{{sfn|Baker|1989|p=120}} In fact, Lincoln's law partner [[William H. Herndon]] would grow irritated when Lincoln brought his children to the law office. Their father, it seemed, was often too absorbed in his work to notice his children's behavior. Herndon recounted, "I have felt many and many a time that I wanted to wring their little necks, and yet out of respect for Lincoln I kept my mouth shut. Lincoln did not note what his children were doing or had done."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hertz |first1=Emanuel |title=The Hidden Lincoln |date=1938 |publisher=The Viking Press |page=105}}</ref> The deaths of their sons, Eddie and Willie, had profound effects on both parents. Lincoln suffered from "[[history of depression|melancholy]]", a condition now thought to be [[major depressive disorder|clinical depression]].<ref name="Atlanticoct2005">{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200510/lincolns-clinical-depression |title=Lincoln's Great Depression |first=Joshua Wolf |last=Shenk |date=October 2005 |work=The Atlantic |publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Group |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009044732/http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/10/lincoln-apos-s-great-depression/4247/ |archive-date=October 9, 2011 |url-status=live |access-date=October 8, 2009}}</ref> Later in life, Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons, and Robert committed her for a time to an asylum in 1875.{{sfn|Steers Jr.|2010|p=341}} ==Early career and militia service== {{Further|Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln|Abraham Lincoln in the Black Hawk War}} During 1831 and 1832, Lincoln worked at a general store in [[Lincoln's New Salem|New Salem, Illinois]]. In 1832 he declared his candidacy for the [[Illinois House of Representatives]], but interrupted his campaign to serve as a captain in the [[Illinois Militia]] during the [[Black Hawk War]].{{sfn|Winkle|2001|pp=86–95}} When Lincoln returned home from the [[Black Hawk War]], he planned to become a blacksmith, but instead formed a partnership with William Berry, 21, with whom he purchased a New Salem general store on credit. Because a license was required to sell customers single beverages, Berry obtained bartending licenses for $7 each for Lincoln and himself, and in 1833 the store became a tavern as well. As licensed bartenders, Lincoln and Berry were able to sell spirits, including liquor, for 12 cents a pint. They offered a wide range of alcoholic beverages as well as food, including takeout dinners. But Berry became an alcoholic, was often too drunk to work, and Lincoln ended up running the store by himself.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Blazeski |first=Goran |date=October 15, 2016 |title=Abraham Lincoln was the only President who was also a licensed bartender |url=https://www.thevintagenews.com/2016/10/15/abraham-lincoln-was-the-only-president-who-was-also-a-licensed-bartender/?chrome=1&A1c=1 |url-status=live |access-date=March 4, 2022 |website=The Vintage News}}</ref> Although the economy was booming, the business struggled and went into debt, causing Lincoln to sell his share. In his first campaign speech after returning from his military service, Lincoln observed a supporter in the crowd under attack, grabbed the assailant by his "neck and the seat of his trousers", and tossed him.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=36}} In the camopaign, Lincoln advocated for navigational improvements on the [[Sangamon River]]. He could draw crowds as a [[raconteur]], but lacked the requisite formal education, powerful friends, and money, and lost the election.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=hN7QQgAACAAJ}}|title=Life and Works of Abraham Lincoln Volume 3 |chapter=The Improvement of Sangamon River|last=Lincoln|first=Abraham|editor-first=Marion Mills |editor-last=Miller |year=1832|publisher=Wildside Press|isbn=978-1-4344-2497-6}} [[s:Life and Works of Abraham Lincoln/Volume 3/The Improvement of Sangamon River|WP article]]</ref> Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates (the top four were elected), though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct.{{sfn|Winkle|2001|pp=114–116}} Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor, but continued his voracious reading and decided to become a lawyer.<ref name="Zofia">{{cite book |last=Stone |first=Zofia |date=2016 |title=Abraham Lincoln: A Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hlw1DgAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 |publisher=Alpha Editions |page=16 |isbn=978-9-3863-6727-3 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Rather than studying in the office of an established attorney, as was the custom, Lincoln borrowed legal texts from attorneys [[John Todd Stuart]] and [[Thomas Drummond (judge)|Thomas Drummond]], purchased books including [[William Blackstone|Blackstone]]'s ''[[Commentaries on the Laws of England|Commentaries]]'' and [[Joseph Chitty|Chitty]]'s ''Pleadings'', and [[reading law|read law]] on his own.<ref name="Zofia"/> He later said of his legal education that "I studied with nobody."{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=53–55}} == Illinois state legislature (1834–1842) == [[File:Abes House.JPG|thumb|left|Lincoln's home in [[Springfield, Illinois]]]] Lincoln's second state house campaign in 1834, this time as a [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]], was a success over a powerful Whig opponent.{{sfn|White|2009|p=59}} Then followed his four terms in the [[Illinois House of Representatives]] for [[Sangamon County]].{{sfn|Simon|1990|p=283}} He championed construction of the [[Illinois and Michigan Canal]], and later was a Canal Commissioner.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abrahamlincolnsclassroom.org/abraham-lincoln-in-depth/abraham-lincoln-and-internal-improvements/#imc|title=Abraham Lincoln and Internal Improvements|last=Weik|first=Jesse William|work=Abraham Lincoln's Classroom|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212045823/http://abrahamlincolnsclassroom.org/abraham-lincoln-in-depth/abraham-lincoln-and-internal-improvements/#imc|archive-date=February 12, 2015|url-status=live|access-date=February 12, 2015}}</ref> He voted to expand suffrage beyond white landowners to all white males, but adopted a "free soil" stance opposing both slavery and [[abolitionism in the United States|abolition]].{{sfn|Simon|1990|p=130}} In 1837, he declared, "[The] Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=134}} He echoed [[Henry Clay]]'s support for the [[American Colonization Society]] which advocated a program of abolition in conjunction with settling freed slaves in [[Liberia]].{{sfn|Foner|2010|p=17–19, 67}} He was [[Admission to the bar in the United States|admitted]] to the Illinois bar in 1836,{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=64}} and moved to Springfield and began to practice law under [[John T. Stuart]], Mary Todd's cousin.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=71, 79, 108}} Lincoln emerged as a formidable trial combatant during cross-examinations and closing arguments. He partnered several years with [[Stephen T. Logan]], and in 1844 began [[Lincoln-Herndon Law Offices State Historic Site|his practice]] with [[William Herndon (lawyer)|William Herndon]], "a studious young man".{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=17}} ==U.S. House of Representatives (1847–1849)== [[File:Abraham Lincoln by Nicholas Shepherd, 1846-crop.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Middle aged clean shaven Lincoln from the hips up.|Lincoln in his late 30s as a member of the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]. Photo taken by one of Lincoln's law students around 1846.]] [[File:Abraham Lincoln in the United States Congress by.jpg|left|thumb|280x280px|Official Portrait of Lincoln in Congress by [[Ned Bittinger]]]]True to his record, Lincoln professed to friends in 1861 to be "an old line Whig, a disciple of Henry Clay".{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=222}} Their party favored economic modernization in banking, tariffs to fund [[internal improvements]] including railroads, and urbanization.{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|pp=137–153}} In 1843, Lincoln sought the Whig nomination for [[Illinois's 7th congressional district|Illinois' 7th district seat]] in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]; he was defeated by [[John J. Hardin]] though he prevailed with the party in limiting Hardin to one term. Lincoln not only pulled off his strategy of gaining the nomination in 1846 but also won the election. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, but as dutiful as any participated in almost all votes and made speeches that toed the party line.{{sfn|Oates|1974|p=79}} He was assigned to the [[United States House Committee on Post Office and Post Roads|Committee on Post Office and Post Roads]] and the [[United States House Committee on Expenditures in the War Department|Committee on Expenditures in the War Department]].<ref>{{cite web|title=US Congressman Lincoln – Abraham Lincoln Historical Society|url=http://www.abraham-lincoln-history.org/us-congressman-lincoln/|publisher=Abraham-lincoln-history.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215191236/http://www.abraham-lincoln-history.org/us-congressman-lincoln/|archive-date=December 15, 2018|access-date=February 2, 2019}}</ref> Lincoln teamed with [[Joshua R. Giddings]] on a bill to abolish slavery in the [[Washington, District of Columbia|District of Columbia]] with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. He dropped the bill when it eluded Whig support.{{sfnm|Harris|2007|1p=54|Foner|2010|2p=57}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=LINCOLN, Abraham {{!}} US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives |url=https://history.house.gov/People/Listing/L/LINCOLN,-Abraham-(L000313)/ |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=history.house.gov |language=en}}</ref> === Political views === On foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke against the [[Mexican–American War]], which he imputed to President [[James K. Polk]]'s desire for "military glory—that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood".{{sfn|Heidler|Heidler|2006|pp=181–183}} He supported the [[Wilmot Proviso]], a failed proposal to ban slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico.{{sfn|Holzer|2004|p=63}} Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his [[Spot Resolutions]]. The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico, and Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had "invaded our territory and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our own soil".{{sfn|Oates|1974|pp=79–80}} Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil.{{sfn|Graebner|1959|pp=199–202}} The resolution was ignored in both Congress and the national papers, and it cost Lincoln political support in his district. One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln".<ref name="MuellerSchamel">{{cite web |url=https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/lincoln-resolutions/ |title=Lincoln's Spot Resolutions |publisher=National Archives |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920053345/http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/lincoln-resolutions/ |archive-date=September 20, 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date=March 12, 2009}}</ref> Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on presidential war-making powers.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=128}} Lincoln had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House. Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, he supported General [[Zachary Taylor]] for the Whig nomination in the [[1848 United States presidential election|1848 presidential election]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=124–126}} Taylor won and Lincoln hoped in vain to be appointed Commissioner of the [[General Land Office]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=140}} The administration offered to appoint him secretary or governor of the [[Oregon Territory]] as consolation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Isaac Newton |date=1885 |title=The Life of Abraham Lincoln |volume=2 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=3zgDAAAAYAAJ|page=81}} |location=Chicago, IL |publisher=Janses, McClurg, & Company |page=81 }}</ref> This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold, and acceptance of the post would have disrupted his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice.{{sfn|Harris|2007|pp=55–57}} ==Prairie lawyer== {{See also|List of cases involving Abraham Lincoln}} [[File:Abraham Lincoln by Hesler, 1857.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Lincoln in 1857]] In his Springfield practice, Lincoln handled "every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer".{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=96}} Twice a year he appeared for 10 consecutive weeks in county seats in the Midstate county courts; this continued for 16 years.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=105–106, 158}} Lincoln handled transportation cases in the midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly river barge conflicts under the many new railroad bridges. As a riverboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented whoever hired him.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=142–143}} He later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in ''[[Hurd v. Rock Island Bridge Company]]'', a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge.<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=o30wBAAAQBAJ}}|title=Lincoln's Greatest Case: The River, the Bridge, and the Making of America|last=McGinty|first=Brian|date=February 9, 2015|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-87140-785-6}}</ref> In 1849, he received [[Abraham Lincoln's patent|a patent for a flotation device]] for the movement of boats in shallow water. The idea was never commercialized, but it made Lincoln the only president to hold a patent.<ref>{{cite web |title= Abraham Lincoln's Patent Model: Improvement for Buoying Vessels Over Shoals |publisher= Smithsonian Institution |url= http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_213141 |access-date= April 28, 2017 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170825232337/http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_213141 |archive-date= August 25, 2017 |df= mdy-all}}</ref> Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases; he was sole counsel in 51 cases, of which 31 were decided in his favor.{{sfn|Richards|2015|p=440}} From 1853 to 1860, one of his largest clients was the [[Illinois Central Railroad]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=155–156, 196–197}} His legal reputation gave rise to the nickname "Honest Abe".<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=5GJ6Un1JA_8C}}|title=The Wisdom of Abraham Lincoln|last=Library|first=Philosophical|date=November 9, 2010|publisher=Open Road Media|isbn=978-1-4532-0281-4}}</ref> Lincoln argued in an 1858 criminal trial, defending [[William "Duff" Armstrong]], who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=150–151}} The case is famous for Lincoln's use of a fact established by [[judicial notice]] to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness. After an opposing witness testified to seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a ''[[Farmers' Almanac]]'' showing the moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Armstrong was acquitted.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=150–151}} Leading up to his presidential campaign, Lincoln elevated his profile in an 1859 murder case, with his defense of Simeon Quinn "Peachy" Harrison who was a third cousin;{{efn|Lincoln was a descendant of the [[Harrison family of Virginia]] through his grandmother, Bathsheba Herring.{{sfn|Harrison|1935|pp=280–286, 350–351}}}} Harrison was also the grandson of Lincoln's political opponent, [[Peter Cartwright (revivalist)|Rev. Peter Cartwright]].{{sfn|Harrison|1935}} Harrison was charged with the murder of Greek Crafton who, as he lay dying of his wounds, confessed to Cartwright that he had provoked Harrison.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.history.com/news/abraham-lincoln-last-trial-murder-case|title=The Grisly Murder Trial That Raised Lincoln's Profile|publisher=History Channel|access-date=March 26, 2020}}</ref> Lincoln angrily protested the judge's initial decision to exclude Cartwright's testimony about the confession as inadmissible [[hearsay]]. Lincoln argued that the testimony involved a [[dying declaration]] and was not subject to the hearsay rule. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as expected, the judge, a Democrat, reversed his ruling and admitted the testimony into evidence, resulting in Harrison's acquittal.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=150–151}} ==Republican politics (1854–1860)== {{Main|Abraham Lincoln in politics, 1849–1861}} ===Emergence as Republican leader=== {{Further|Slave states and free states|Abraham Lincoln and slavery}} [[File:Abraham Lincoln by Byers, 1858 - crop.jpg|thumb|upright|Lincoln in 1858, the year of [[Lincoln–Douglas debates|his debates]] with [[Stephen A. Douglas|Stephen Douglas]] over slavery]] The debate over the status of slavery in the territories failed to alleviate tensions between the slave-holding South and the free North, with the failure of the [[Compromise of 1850]], a legislative package designed to address the issue.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=175–176}} In his 1852 eulogy for Clay, Lincoln highlighted the latter's support for gradual emancipation and opposition to "both extremes" on the slavery issue.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=182–185}} As the slavery debate in the [[Nebraska Territory|Nebraska]] and [[Kansas Territory|Kansas]] territories became particularly acrimonious, Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas proposed [[Popular sovereignty in the United States#Emergence of the term "popular sovereignty" and its pejorative connotation|popular sovereignty]] as a compromise; the measure would allow the electorate of each territory to decide the status of slavery. The legislation alarmed many Northerners, who sought to prevent the spread of slavery that could result, but Douglas's [[Kansas–Nebraska Act]] narrowly passed Congress in May 1854.{{sfn|White|2009|p=188–190}} Lincoln did not comment on the act until months later in his "[[Abraham Lincoln's Peoria speech|Peoria Speech]]" of October 1854. Lincoln then declared his opposition to slavery, which he repeated en route to the presidency.{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=148–152}} He said the Kansas Act had a "''declared'' indifference, but as I must think, a covert ''real'' zeal for the spread of slavery. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world&nbsp;..."{{sfn|Graebner|1959|p=255}} Lincoln's attacks on the Kansas–Nebraska Act marked his return to political life.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=203–205}} Nationally, the Whigs were irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act and other efforts to compromise on the slavery issue. Reflecting on the demise of his party, Lincoln wrote in 1855, "I think I am a Whig, but others say there are no Whigs, and that I am an abolitionist.... I do no more than oppose the ''extension'' of slavery."{{sfn|White|2009|pp=215–216}} The new [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] was formed as a northern party dedicated to antislavery, drawing from the antislavery wing of the Whig Party and combining [[Free Soil Party|Free Soil]], [[Liberty Party (United States, 1840)|Liberty]], and antislavery [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] members,{{sfn|McGovern|2009|pp=38–39}} Lincoln resisted early Republican entreaties, fearing that the new party would become a platform for extreme abolitionists.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=203–204}} Lincoln held out hope for rejuvenating the Whigs, though he lamented his party's growing closeness with the nativist [[Know Nothing]] movement.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=191–194}} In 1854, Lincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature but declined to take his seat. The year's elections showed the strong opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, and in the aftermath, Lincoln sought election to the United States Senate.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=203–205}} At that time, senators were elected by the state legislature.{{sfn|Oates|1974|p=119}} After leading in the first six rounds of voting, he was unable to obtain a majority. Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for [[Lyman Trumbull]]. Trumbull was an antislavery Democrat, and had received few votes in the earlier ballots; his supporters, also antislavery Democrats, had vowed not to support any Whig. Lincoln's decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull's antislavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate, [[Joel Aldrich Matteson]].{{sfn|White|2009|pp=205–208}} ==== 1856 campaign ==== [[Bleeding Kansas|Violent political confrontations in Kansas]] continued, and opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act remained strong throughout the North. As the [[United States elections, 1856|1856 elections]] approached, Lincoln joined the Republicans and attended the [[Bloomington Convention]], which formally established the [[Illinois Republican Party]]. The convention platform endorsed Congress's right to regulate slavery in the territories and backed the admission of Kansas as a free state. Lincoln gave the [[Lincoln's Lost Speech|final speech]] of the convention supporting the party platform and called for the preservation of the Union.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=216–221}} At the June [[1856 Republican National Convention]], though Lincoln received support to run as vice president, [[John C. Frémont]] and [[William Dayton]] comprised the ticket, which Lincoln supported throughout Illinois. The Democrats nominated former Secretary of State [[James Buchanan]] and the Know-Nothings nominated former Whig President [[Millard Fillmore]].{{sfn|White|2009|pp=224–228}} Buchanan prevailed, while Republican [[William Henry Bissell]] won election as Governor of Illinois, and Lincoln became a leading Republican in Illinois.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=229–230}}{{efn|[[Eric Foner]] contrasts the abolitionists and anti-slavery Radical Republicans of the Northeast, who saw slavery as a sin, with the conservative Republicans, who thought it was bad because it hurt white people and blocked progress. Foner argues that Lincoln was in the middle, opposing slavery primarily because it violated the [[republicanism in the United States|republicanism principles]] of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Fathers]], especially the equality of all men and democratic self-government as expressed in the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]].{{sfn|Foner|2010|pp=84–88}}}} [[File:Oil on Canvas Portrait of Dred Scott (cropped).jpg|alt=Painting|thumb|A portrait of [[Dred Scott]], petitioner in ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'']] ==== ''Dred Scott v. Sandford'' ==== [[Dred Scott]] was a slave whose master took him from a slave state to a free territory under the Missouri Compromise. After Scott was returned to the slave state he petitioned a federal court for his freedom. His petition was denied in ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'' (1857).{{Efn|Although the name of the Supreme Court case is ''Dred Scott v. Sandford'', the respondent's [[surname]] was actually "Sanford". A [[court clerk|clerk]] misspelled the name, and the court never corrected the error.<ref>{{Cite journal| last=Vishneski|first=John| year=1988| title=What the Court Decided in Dred Scott v. Sandford|journal= The American Journal of Legal History|volume=32|issue=4|pages=373–390|jstor= 845743|publisher=Temple University|doi=10.2307/845743}}</ref>}} Supreme Court Chief Justice [[Roger B. Taney]] in the decision wrote that blacks were not citizens and derived no rights from the Constitution. While many Democrats hoped that ''Dred Scott'' would end the dispute over slavery in the territories, the decision sparked further outrage in the North.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=236–238}} Lincoln denounced it as the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the [[Slave Power]].{{sfn|Zarefsky|1993|pp=69–110}} He argued the decision was at variance with the Declaration of Independence; he said that while the founding fathers did not believe all men equal in every respect, they believed all men were equal "in certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness".{{sfn|Jaffa|2000|pp=299–300}} ===Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech=== {{Further|Lincoln–Douglas debates|Cooper Union speech}} In 1858, Douglas was up for re-election in the U.S. Senate, and Lincoln hoped to defeat him. Many in the party felt that a former Whig should be nominated in 1858, and Lincoln's 1856 campaigning and support of Trumbull had earned him a favor.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=247–248}} Some eastern Republicans supported Douglas for his opposition to the [[Lecompton Constitution]] and admission of Kansas as a [[slave state]].{{sfn|Oates|1974|pp=138–139}} Many Illinois Republicans resented this eastern interference. For the first time, Illinois Republicans held a convention to agree upon a Senate candidate, and Lincoln won the nomination with little opposition.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=247–250}} [[File:Lincoln O-17 by Brady, 1860.png|thumb|left|''Abraham Lincoln'', a portrait by [[Mathew Brady]] taken February 27, 1860, the day of Lincoln's [[Cooper Union speech]]]] Lincoln accepted the nomination with great enthusiasm and zeal. After his nomination he delivered his [[Lincoln's House Divided Speech|House Divided Speech]], with the biblical reference [[Mark 3]]:25, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other."{{sfn|White|2009|p=251}} The speech created a stark image of the danger of disunion.{{sfn|Harris|2007|p=98}} The stage was then set for the election of the Illinois legislature which would, in turn, select Lincoln or Douglas.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=209}} When informed of Lincoln's nomination, Douglas stated, "[Lincoln] is the strong man of the party&nbsp;... and if I beat him, my victory will be hardly won."{{sfn|White|2009|pp=257–258}} The Senate campaign featured seven [[Lincoln–Douglas debates|debates]] between Lincoln and Douglas. These were the most famous political debates in American history; they had an atmosphere akin to a prizefight and drew crowds in the thousands.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=214–218}} The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically. Lincoln warned that Douglas' "Slave Power" was threatening the values of republicanism, and accused Douglas of distorting the Founding Fathers' premise that [[all men are created equal]]. Douglas emphasized his [[Freeport Doctrine]], that local settlers were free to choose whether to allow slavery and accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=214–224}} Lincoln's argument assumed a moral tone, as he claimed Douglas represented a conspiracy to promote slavery. Douglas's argument was more legal, claiming that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court in the ''Dred Scott'' decision.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=223}} Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas. Lincoln's articulation of the issues gave him a national political presence.{{sfn|Carwardine|2003|pp=89–90}} In May 1859, Lincoln purchased the ''Illinois Staats-Anzeiger'', a German-language newspaper that was consistently supportive; most of the state's 130,000 German Americans voted Democratically but the German-language paper mobilized Republican support.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=242, 412}} In the aftermath of the 1858 election, newspapers frequently mentioned Lincoln as a potential Republican presidential candidate, rivaled by [[William H. Seward]], [[Salmon P. Chase]], [[Edward Bates]], and [[Simon Cameron]]. While Lincoln was popular in the Midwest, he lacked support in the Northeast and was unsure whether to seek office.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=291–293}} In January 1860, Lincoln told a group of political allies that he would accept the nomination if offered, and in the following months' several local papers endorsed his candidacy.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=307–308}} Over the coming months, Lincoln was tireless, making nearly fifty speeches along the campaign trail. By the quality and simplicity of his rhetoric, he quickly became the champion of the Republican party. However, despite his overwhelming support in the [[Midwestern United States]], he was less appreciated in the east. [[Horace Greeley]], editor of the New York Tribune, at that time wrote up an unflattering account of Lincoln's compromising position on slavery and his reluctance to challenge the court's Dred-Scott ruling, which was promptly used against him by his political rivals.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=200}}{{sfn|Morse|1893|p=112}} On February 27, 1860, powerful New York Republicans invited Lincoln to give a [[Cooper Union speech|speech at Cooper Union]], in which he argued that the [[Founding Fathers of the United States]] had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery. He insisted that morality required opposition to slavery, and rejected any "groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong".{{sfn|Jaffa|2000|p=473}} Many in the audience thought he appeared awkward and even ugly.{{sfn|Holzer|2004|pp=108–111}} But Lincoln demonstrated intellectual leadership that brought him into contention. Journalist [[Noah Brooks]] reported, "No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience."{{sfnm|Carwardine|2003|1p=97|Holzer|2004|2p=157}} Historian [[David Herbert Donald]] described the speech as a "superb political move for an unannounced candidate, to appear in one rival's (Seward) own state at an event sponsored by the second rival's (Chase) loyalists, while not mentioning either by name during its delivery".{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=240}} In response to an inquiry about his ambitions, Lincoln said, "The taste ''is'' in my mouth a little."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=241}} ===1860 presidential election=== {{Main|1860 United States presidential election}} [[File:AbrLincoln1860ColeT.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Timothy Cole]] wood engraving taken from a May 20, 1860, ambrotype of Lincoln, two days following his nomination for president]] On May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=244}} Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by [[David Davis (Supreme Court justice)|David Davis]], [[Norman B. Judd|Norman Judd]], [[Leonard Swett]], and Jesse DuBois, and Lincoln received his first endorsement.{{sfn|Oates|1974|pp=175–176}} Exploiting his embellished frontier legend (clearing land and splitting fence rails), Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of "The Rail Candidate".{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=245}} In 1860, Lincoln described himself: "I am in height, six feet, four inches, nearly; lean in flesh, weighing, on an average, one hundred and eighty pounds; dark complexion, with coarse black hair, and gray eyes."<ref>{{cite letter |first=Abraham |last=Lincoln |recipient=Jesse W. Fell |subject=Herewith is a little sketch, as you requested |date=December 20, 1859 |url=https://www.nps.gov/libo/learn/historyculture/abraham_lincoln.htm |access-date=November 6, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107024658/https://www.nps.gov/libo/learn/historyculture/abraham_lincoln.htm |archive-date=November 7, 2017 }}</ref> Michael Martinez wrote about the effective imaging of Lincoln by his campaign. At times he was presented as the plain-talking "Rail Splitter" and at other times he was "Honest Abe", unpolished but trustworthy.<ref>{{cite book|author=Martinez, J. Michael |title=Coming for to Carry Me Home: Race in America from Abolitionism to Jim Crow|url={{google books|plainurl=y| id=PoJ2uyDrg5MC |page=59}}|year=2011 |page=59|isbn=978-1-4422-1500-9}}</ref> On May 18, at the [[1860 Republican National Convention|Republican National Convention]] in Chicago, Lincoln won the nomination on the third ballot, beating candidates such as Seward and Chase. A former Democrat, [[Hannibal Hamlin]] of Maine, was nominated for vice president to [[Ticket balance|balance the ticket]]. Lincoln's success depended on his campaign team, his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, and his strong support for internal improvements and the tariff.{{sfn|Luthin|1944|pp=609–629}} Pennsylvania put him over the top, led by the state's iron interests who were reassured by his tariff support.{{sfn|Hofstadter|1938|pp=50–55}} Lincoln's managers had focused on this delegation while honoring Lincoln's dictate to "Make no contracts that will bind me".{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=247–250}} As the Slave Power tightened its grip on the national government, most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party. Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln had doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession.{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|pp=10, 13, 18}} When Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats, delegates from eleven slave states walked out of the [[1860 Democratic National Convention|Democratic convention]]; they opposed Douglas's position on popular sovereignty, and selected incumbent Vice President [[John C. Breckinridge]] as their candidate.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=253}} A group of former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]] and nominated [[John Bell (Tennessee politician)|John Bell]] of Tennessee. Lincoln and Douglas competed for votes in the North, while Bell and Breckinridge primarily found support in the South.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=247–248}} {{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | total_width = 500 | image1 = The Rail Candidate.jpg |alt1= Lincoln being carried by two men on a long board. | caption1 = ''The Rail Candidate''—Lincoln's 1860 platform, portrayed as being held up by a slave and his party | image2 = ElectoralCollege1860.svg |alt2= Map of the U.S. showing Lincoln winning the North-east and West, Breckinridge winning the South, Douglas winning Missouri, and Bell winning Virginia, West Virginia, and Kentucky.| caption2 = In 1860, northern and western [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral]] votes (shown in red) put Lincoln into the White House. }} Prior to the Republican convention, the Lincoln campaign began cultivating a nationwide youth organization, the [[Wide Awakes]], which it used to generate popular support throughout the country to spearhead voter registration drives, thinking that new voters and young voters tended to embrace new parties.<ref name=Audacious>{{cite book|title=Lincoln for President: An Unlikely Candidate, An Audacious Strategy, and the Victory No One Saw Coming|last=Chadwick|first=Bruce|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=2PQqZzyw4uAC|page=l49}}|pages=147–149|publisher=Sourcebooks|location=Naperville, Illinois|date=2009|access-date=April 1, 2017|isbn=978-1-4022-4756-9}}</ref> People of the Northern states knew the Southern states would vote against Lincoln and rallied supporters for Lincoln.<ref name="murrin">Murrin, John (2006). ''Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People''. Belmont: Clark Baxter. p. 464. {{ISBN|978-0-495-91588-1}}</ref> As Douglas and the other candidates campaigned, Lincoln gave no speeches, relying on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North and produced an abundance of campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials. Republican speakers focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln's life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty. The goal was to demonstrate the power of "free labor", which allowed a common farm boy to work his way to the top by his own efforts.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=254–256}} The Republican Party's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition; a ''Chicago Tribune'' writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln's life and sold 100,000–200,000 copies.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=254}} Though he did not give public appearances, many sought to visit him and write him. In the runup to the election, he took an office in the Illinois state capitol to deal with the influx of attention. He also hired [[John George Nicolay]] as his personal secretary, who would remain in that role during the presidency.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=251–252|p=}} On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th president. He was the first Republican president and his victory was entirely due to his support in the North and West. No ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states, an omen of the impending Civil War.{{sfn|Mansch|2005|p=61}}{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=256}} Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, or 39.8% of the total in a four-way race, carrying the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon.{{sfn|White|2009|p=350}} His victory in the [[United States Electoral College|electoral college]] was decisive: Lincoln had 180 votes to 123 for his opponents.{{sfn|Nevins|1947|p=4:312}} ==Presidency (1861–1865)== {{Main|Presidency of Abraham Lincoln}} ===Secession and inauguration=== [[File:Abraham lincoln inauguration 1861.jpg|thumb|alt=A large crowd in front of a large building with many pillars.|[[Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address|Lincoln's first inaugural]] at the [[United States Capitol]], March 4, 1861. [[United States Capitol dome|The Capitol dome]] above the rotunda was still under construction.]] [[File:18610304 Affairs of the Nation - Abraham Lincoln inauguration - The New York Times.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5 | ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' headlines covering Lincoln's first inauguration on March 4, 1861. Less than six weeks later, on April 12, the South attacked [[Fort Sumter]], launching the [[American Civil War]]<ref name=NYTimes_18610304>{{cite news |title=Affairs of the Nation / The Change of Administration To-Day |url=https://newspaperarchive.com/new-york-times-mar-04-1861-p-1/ |work=The New York Times |date=March 4, 1861 |page=1}}</ref>]] {{See main|Presidential transition of Abraham Lincoln}} {{Further|Secession winter|Baltimore Plot}} The South was outraged by Lincoln's election, and in response secessionists implemented plans to leave the Union before he took office in March 1861.{{sfn|Edgar|1998|p=350}} On December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1p=267|Potter|1977|p2=498}} Six of these states declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the [[Confederate States of America]], and adopted a constitution.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=267}} The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) initially rejected the secessionist appeal.{{sfn|White|2009|p=362}} President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal.{{sfn|Potter|1977|pp=520, 569–570}} The Confederacy selected [[Jefferson Davis]] as its provisional president on February 9, 1861.{{sfn|White|2009|p=369}} Attempts at compromise followed but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected the proposed [[Crittenden Compromise]] as contrary to the Party's platform of free-soil in the [[Territories of the United States|territories]].{{sfn|White|2009|pp=360–361}} Lincoln said, "I will suffer death before I consent&nbsp;... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=268}} Lincoln tacitly supported the [[Corwin Amendment]] to the Constitution, which passed Congress and was awaiting ratification by the states when Lincoln took office. That doomed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed.{{sfnm|Vorenberg|2001|1p=22|Vile|2003|2pp=280–281}} A few weeks before the war, Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congress had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution.{{sfn|Lupton|2006|p=34}} En route to his inauguration, Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=273–277}} He gave a particularly emotional [[Abraham Lincoln's farewell address|farewell address]] upon leaving Springfield; he would never again return to Springfield alive.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|title=Broadside, "President Lincoln's Farewell Address to His Old Neighbors, Springfield, February 12, 1861" – The Henry Ford|url=https://www.thehenryford.org/collections-and-research/digital-collections/artifact/236607/|access-date=December 5, 2020|website=www.thehenryford.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Lincoln's Farewell Address – Illinois History & Lincoln Collections|url=https://publish.illinois.edu/ihlc-blog/2018/01/27/lincolns-farewell-address/|access-date=December 5, 2020|language=en-US}}</ref> The president-elect evaded suspected [[Baltimore Plot|assassins in Baltimore]]. On February 23, 1861, he arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C., which was placed under substantial military guard.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=277–279}} Lincoln directed [[Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address|his inaugural address]] to the South, proclaiming once again that he had no inclination to abolish slavery in the Southern states: {{Blockquote|Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern States, that by the accession of a Republican Administration, their property, and their peace, and personal security, are to be endangered. There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension. Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while existed, and been open to their inspection. It is found in nearly all the published speeches of him who now addresses you. I do but quote from one of those speeches when I declare that "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so."|[[Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address|First inaugural address]], 4 March 1861<ref>[https://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln4/1:389?hi=0;rgn=div1;singlegenre=All;size=25;sort=occur;start=1;subview=detail;type=boolean;view=fulltext;q1=apprehension;op2=and;q2=seems+to+exist Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 4.]</ref>{{sfn|Sandburg|2002|p=212}}|source=}} Lincoln cited his plans for banning the expansion of slavery as the key source of conflict between North and South, stating "One section of our country believes slavery is right and ought to be extended, while the other believes it is wrong and ought not to be extended. This is the only substantial dispute." The president ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: "We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies.... The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every living heart and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature."{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=283–284}} The failure of the [[Peace Conference of 1861]] signaled that legislative compromise was impossible. By March 1861, no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. Meanwhile, Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=268, 279}} In his [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]], Lincoln looked back on the situation at the time and said: "Both parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than let the Nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish, and the war came." ===Civil War=== {{Main|American Civil War|Battle of Fort Sumter}} [[File:Maryland, Antietam, President Lincoln on the Battlefield - NARA - 533297.jpg|thumb|Lincoln with officers after the [[Battle of Antietam]]. Notable figures (from left) are 1. Col. [[Delos Bennett Sackett|Delos Sackett]]; 4. Gen. [[George W. Morell]]; 5. [[Alexander S. Webb]], Chief of Staff, V Corps; 6. McClellan;. 8. Dr. [[Jonathan Letterman]]; 10. Lincoln; 11. [[Henry J. Hunt]]; 12. [[Fitz John Porter]]; 15. [[Andrew A. Humphreys]]; 16. Capt. [[George Armstrong Custer]].|alt=Lincoln among a group of soldiers in a military camp]] [[Robert Anderson (Civil War)|Major Robert Anderson]], commander of the Union's [[Fort Sumter]] in Charleston, South Carolina, sent a request for provisions to Washington, and Lincoln's order to meet that request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces fired on Union troops [[Battle of Fort Sumter|at Fort Sumter]] and began the fight. Historian [[Allan Nevins]] argued that the newly inaugurated Lincoln made three miscalculations: underestimating the gravity of the crisis, exaggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South, and overlooking [[Southern Unionist]] opposition to an invasion.{{sfn|Nevins|1959|p=5:29}} [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was "sadly disappointed" at his failure to realize that "the country was sleeping on a volcano" and that the South was preparing for war.{{sfn|Sherman|1990|pp=185–186}} Donald concludes that, "His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft. Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he also vowed not to surrender the forts. The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first shot; they did just that."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=293}} On April 15, Lincoln called on the states to send a total of [[President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers|75,000 volunteer troops]] to recapture forts, protect Washington, and "preserve the Union", which, in his view, remained intact despite the seceding states. This call forced states to choose sides. Virginia seceded and was rewarded with the designation of [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] as the Confederate capital, despite its exposure to Union lines. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas followed over the following two months. Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland, but did not prevail; Kentucky remained neutral.{{sfn|Oates|1974|p=226}} The Fort Sumter attack rallied Americans north of the [[Mason-Dixon line]] to defend the nation. As States sent Union regiments south, on April 19, Baltimore mobs in control of the rail links [[Baltimore riot of 1861|attacked Union troops]] who were changing trains. Local leaders' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital and the Army responded by arresting [[Maryland in the American Civil War#Imposition of martial law|local Maryland]] officials. Lincoln suspended the writ of ''[[Habeas corpus in the United States#Suspension during the Civil War|habeas corpus]]'' where needed for the security of troops trying to reach Washington.{{sfn|Heidler|Heidler|Coles|2002|p=174}} [[John Merryman]], one Maryland official hindering the U.S. troop movements, petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney to issue a writ of ''habeas corpus.'' In June, in [[Ex parte Merryman]], Taney, not ruling on behalf of the Supreme Court,<ref>"One significant point of disagreement among historians and political scientists is whether Roger Taney heard ''Ex parte Merryman'' as a U.S. circuit judge or as a Supreme Court justice in chambers." White, Jonathan W., ''Abraham Lincoln and Treason in the Civil War: The Trials of John Merryman'', Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2011, pp. 38-39.</ref> issued the writ, believing that Article I, section 9 of the Constitution authorized only Congress and not the president to suspend it. But Lincoln persisted with the policy of suspension in select areas.{{sfn|Harris|2011|pp=59–71}}{{sfn|Neely Jr.|1992|pp=3–31}} ====Union military strategy==== Lincoln took executive control of the war and shaped the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] military strategy. He responded to the unprecedented political and military crisis as [[commander-in-chief]] by exercising unprecedented authority. He expanded his war powers, imposed a blockade on Confederate ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, suspended ''habeas corpus'', and arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln gained the support of Congress and the northern public for these actions. Lincoln also had to reinforce Union sympathies in the border slave states and keep the war from becoming an international conflict.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=303–304|Carwardine|2003|2pp=163–164}} [[File:RunningtheMachine-LincAdmin.jpg|thumb|alt=A group of men sitting at a table as another man creates money on a wooden machine.|''Running the Machine'': An 1864 political cartoon satirizing Lincoln's administration – featuring [[William Fessenden]], [[Edwin Stanton]], [[William H. Seward|William Seward]], [[Gideon Welles]], Lincoln, and others]] It was clear from the outset that bipartisan support was essential to success, and that any compromise alienated factions on both sides of the aisle, such as the appointment of Republicans and Democrats to command positions. Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on slavery. The Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=315–339, 417}} On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the [[Confiscation Act of 1861|Confiscation Act]] that authorized judicial proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederates. The law had little practical effect, but it signaled political support for abolishing slavery.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1p=314|Carwardine|2003|2p=178}} In August 1861, General John C. Frémont, the 1856 Republican presidential nominee, without consulting Washington, issued a martial edict freeing slaves of the rebels. Lincoln canceled the illegal proclamation as politically motivated and lacking military necessity.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=314–317}} As a result, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri increased by over 40,000.{{sfn|Carwardine|2003|p=181}} Internationally, Lincoln wanted to forestall foreign military aid to the Confederacy.{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|pp=213–214}} He relied on his combative Secretary of State [[William Seward]] while working closely with [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] chairman [[Charles Sumner]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=322}} In the 1861 [[Trent Affair]] which threatened war with Great Britain, the U.S. Navy illegally intercepted a British mail ship, the ''Trent'', on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys; Britain protested vehemently while the U.S. cheered. Lincoln ended the crisis by releasing the two diplomats. Biographer [[James G. Randall]] dissected Lincoln's successful techniques:<ref>{{cite book|first=James Garfield|last= Randall|title=Lincoln the President: Springfield to Gettysburg|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Vi8aAQAAIAAJ|page=50}}|year=1946|page=50|isbn=978-0-306-80754-1}} quoted in Peraino, Kevin (2013) ''Lincoln in the World: The Making of a Statesman and the Dawn of American Power''. pp. 160–61. {{ISBN|978-0-307-88720-7}}</ref> {{Blockquote|his restraint, his avoidance of any outward expression of truculence, his early softening of State Department's attitude toward Britain, his deference toward Seward and Sumner, his withholding of his paper prepared for the occasion, his readiness to arbitrate, his golden silence in addressing Congress, his shrewdness in recognizing that war must be averted, and his clear perception that a point could be clinched for America's true position at the same time that satisfaction was given to a friendly country.}} Lincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraph reports coming into the War Department. He tracked all phases of the effort, consulting with governors, and selecting generals based on their success, their state, and their party. In January 1862, after complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced [[United States Secretary of War|War Secretary]] Simon Cameron with [[Edwin Stanton]]. Stanton centralized the War Department's activities, auditing and canceling contracts, saving the federal government $17,000,000.{{sfn|Oates|1974|p=115}} Stanton was a staunch Unionist, pro-business, conservative Democrat who gravitated toward the Radical Republican faction. He worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than any other senior official. "Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together", say Thomas and Hyman.<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=WTGTAAAAIAAJ|page=385}}|title=Stanton: The Life and Times of Lincoln's Secretary of War|last1=Thomas|first1=Benjamin Platt|last2=Hyman|first2=Harold Melvin|date=1962|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|pages= 71, 87, 229–30, 385 (quote)}}</ref> Lincoln's war strategy embraced two priorities: ensuring that Washington was well-defended and conducting an aggressive war effort for a prompt, decisive victory.{{efn|Major Northern newspapers, however, demanded more—they expected victory within 90 days.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=295–296}}}} Twice a week, Lincoln met with his cabinet in the afternoon. Occasionally Mary prevailed on him to take a carriage ride, concerned that he was working too hard.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=391–392}} For his edification Lincoln relied upon a book by his chief of staff General [[Henry Halleck]] entitled ''Elements of Military Art and Science''; Halleck was a disciple of the European strategist [[Antoine-Henri Jomini]]. Lincoln began to appreciate the critical need to control strategic points, such as the [[Mississippi River]].{{sfn|Ambrose|1996|pp=7, 66, 159}} Lincoln saw the importance of [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]] and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing territory.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=432–436}} In directing the Union's war strategy, Lincoln valued the advice of [[Winfield Scott|Gen. Winfield Scott]], even after his retirement as [[Commanding General of the United States Army]]. On June 23–24, 1862, President Lincoln made an unannounced visit to [[United States Military Academy|West Point]], where he spent five hours consulting with Scott regarding the handling of the Civil War and the staffing of the [[United States Department of War|War Department]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/?clipping_id=102390793/ |title=The President at West Point |date=June 26, 1862 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=May 23, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523163528/https://www.newspapers.com/image/?clipping_id=102390793/|archive-date=May 23, 2022|url-status=live |location=New York |page=8 |via=Newspapers.com |quote=the President and Gen. Scott spent several hours in discussing the state of military affairs, the doings and misdoings of certain Generals, the desirability of continuing the existing Departmental divisions, the necessity of further enlistments, the prospect of the armies of the Potomac and of the Virginia valleys . . . .}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/?clipping_id=102386846/ |title=The President at West Point |date=June 25, 1862 |newspaper=Brooklyn Evening Star |access-date=May 23, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523165456/https://www.newspapers.com/image/?clipping_id=102386846/ |archive-date=May 23, 2022|url-status=live |agency=Copy from N.Y. Express |location=New York |page=3 |via=Newspapers.com |quote=they were in earnest conversation for five hours}}</ref> ====General McClellan==== After the Union rout at [[First Battle of Bull Run|Bull Run]] and [[Winfield Scott]]'s retirement, Lincoln appointed Major General [[George B. McClellan]] general-in-chief.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=318–319}} McClellan then took months to plan his Virginia [[Peninsula Campaign]]. McClellan's slow progress frustrated Lincoln, as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington. McClellan, in turn, blamed the failure of the campaign on Lincoln's reservation of troops for the capitol.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=349–352}} [[File:Lincoln and McClellan 1862-10-03.jpg|alt=Photograph of Lincoln and McClellan sitting at a table in a field tent|thumb|Lincoln and [[George B. McClellan|McClellan]], October 3, 1862]] In 1862, Lincoln removed McClellan for the general's continued inaction. He elevated Henry Halleck in July and appointed [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]] as head of the new [[Army of Virginia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/biographies/henry-w-halleck|title=Henry W. Halleck|date=June 15, 2011|website=American Battlefield Trust|access-date=October 7, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008062810/https://www.battlefields.org/learn/biographies/henry-w-halleck|archive-date=October 8, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Pope satisfied Lincoln's desire to advance on Richmond from the north, thus protecting Washington from counterattack.{{sfn|Nevins|1947|pp=159–162}} But Pope was then soundly defeated at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] in the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac back to defend Washington.{{sfn|Nevins|1959|pp=159–162}} Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln restored him to command of all forces around Washington.{{sfn|Goodwin|2005|pp=478–479}} Two days after McClellan's return to command, General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s forces crossed the [[Potomac River]] into Maryland, leading to the [[Battle of Antietam]].{{sfn|Goodwin|2005|pp=478–480}} That battle, a Union victory, was among the bloodiest in American history; it facilitated Lincoln's [[Emancipation Proclamation]] in January.{{sfn|Goodwin|2005|p=481}} McClellan then resisted the president's demand that he pursue Lee's withdrawing army, while General [[Don Carlos Buell]] likewise refused orders to move the [[Army of the Ohio]] against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee. Lincoln replaced Buell with [[William Rosecrans]]; and after the [[1862 and 1863 United States House of Representatives elections|1862 midterm elections]] he replaced McClellan with [[Ambrose Burnside]]. The appointments were both politically neutral and adroit on Lincoln's part.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=389–390}} Burnside, against presidential advice, launched an offensive across the [[Rappahannock River]] and was [[Battle of Fredericksburg|defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg]] in December. Desertions during 1863 came in the thousands and only increased after Fredericksburg, so Lincoln replaced Burnside with [[Joseph Hooker]].{{sfnm|Nevins|1947|1pp=433–444|Donald|1996|2pp=429–431}} In the 1862 midterm elections the Republicans suffered severe losses due to rising inflation, high taxes, rumors of corruption, suspension of ''habeas corpus'', [[Conscription|military draft law]], and fears that freed slaves would come North and undermine the labor market. The Emancipation Proclamation gained votes for Republicans in rural New England and the upper Midwest, but cost votes in the Irish and German strongholds and in the lower Midwest, where many Southerners had lived for generations.{{sfn|Nevins|1947|p=322}} In the spring of 1863 Lincoln was sufficiently optimistic about upcoming military campaigns to think the end of the war could be near; the plans included attacks by Hooker on Lee north of Richmond, Rosecrans on Chattanooga, [[Ulysses S. Grant|Grant]] on Vicksburg, and a naval assault on Charleston.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=422–423}} Hooker was routed by Lee at the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] in May, then resigned and was replaced by [[George Meade]].{{sfn|Nevins|1947|pp=432–450}} Meade followed Lee north into Pennsylvania and beat him in the [[Gettysburg Campaign]], but then failed to follow up despite Lincoln's demands. At the same time, Grant captured Vicksburg and gained control of the Mississippi River, splitting the far western rebel states.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=444–447}} ====Emancipation Proclamation==== {{Main|Abraham Lincoln and slavery|Emancipation Proclamation}} <imagemap> Image:Emancipation proclamation.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|''[[First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln]]'' by [[Francis Bicknell Carpenter]] (1864) <small>''(Clickable image—use cursor to identify.)''</small>|alt=A dark-haired, bearded, middle-aged man holding documents is seated among seven other men. poly 269 892 254 775 193 738 130 723 44 613 19 480 49 453 75 434 58 376 113 344 133 362 143 423 212 531 307 657 357 675 409 876 [[Edwin M. Stanton|Edwin Stanton]] poly 169 282 172 244 244 201 244 148 265 117 292 125 305 166 304 204 321 235 355 296 374 348 338 395 341 469 [[Salmon P. Chase|Salmon Chase]] poly 569 893 535 708 427 613 357 562 377 456 393 404 468 351 451 317 473 259 520 256 544 283 530 339 526 374 559 401 594 431 639 494 715 542 692 551 693 579 672 546 623 552 596 617 698 629 680 852 [[Abraham Lincoln]] poly 692 514 740 441 788 407 772 350 800 303 831 297 861 329 867 381 868 409 913 430 913 471 847 532 816 533 709 533 [[Gideon Welles]] poly 703 783 752 769 825 627 907 620 929 569 905 538 886 563 833 563 873 502 930 450 1043 407 1043 389 1036 382 1042 363 1058 335 1052 333 1052 324 1081 318 1124 338 1133 374 1116 412 1132 466 1145 509 1117 588 1087 632 1083 706 [[William H. Seward|William Seward]] poly 905 418 941 328 987 295 995 284 982 244 990 206 1036 207 1046 247 1047 284 1066 312 1071 314 1049 327 1044 354 1033 383 1033 407 921 453 [[Caleb Blood Smith|Caleb Smith]] poly 1081 308 1102 255 1095 220 1093 181 1109 161 1145 160 1169 191 1153 227 1153 246 1199 268 1230 310 1239 377 1237 443 1220 486 1125 451 1118 412 1136 378 1124 342 [[Montgomery Blair]] poly 1224 479 1298 416 1304 379 1295 329 1325 310 1360 324 1370 359 1371 385 1371 397 1413 425 1422 497 1440 563 1348 555 1232 517 [[Edward Bates]] poly 625 555 595 620 699 625 730 550 [[Emancipation Proclamation]] poly 120 80 120 300 3 300 3 80 [[Simon Cameron|Portrait of Simon Cameron]] poly 752 196 961 189 948 8 735 10 [[Andrew Jackson|Portrait of Andrew Jackson]] </imagemap> The Federal government's power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution, which before 1865 was understood to reserve the issue to the individual states. Lincoln believed that slavery would be rendered obsolete if its expansion into new territories were prevented, because these territories would be admitted to the Union as free states, and free states would come to outnumber slave states. He sought to persuade the states to agree to [[compensated emancipation|compensation]] for emancipating their slaves.<ref name="Mackubin">{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalreview.com/books/owens200403251139.asp |title=The Liberator |first=Thomas Owens |last=Mackubin |date=March 25, 2004 |work=National Review |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216125903/http://old.nationalreview.com/books/owens200403251139.asp |archive-date=February 16, 2012 |url-status=live |access-date=December 12, 2008}}</ref> Lincoln rejected Major General [[John C. Frémont]]'s August 1861 [[Frémont Emancipation|emancipation]] attempt, as well as one by Major General [[David Hunter]] in May 1862, on the grounds that it was not within their power and might upset loyal border states enough for them to secede.{{sfn|Guelzo|1999|pp=290–291}} In June 1862, Congress passed an act banning slavery on all federal territory, which Lincoln signed. In July, the [[Confiscation Act of 1862]] was enacted, providing court procedures to free the slaves of those convicted of aiding the rebellion; Lincoln approved the bill despite his belief that it was unconstitutional. He felt such action could be taken only within the war powers of the commander-in-chief, which he planned to exercise. Lincoln at this time reviewed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=364–365}} Privately, Lincoln concluded that the Confederacy's slave base had to be eliminated. Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification; Republican editor [[Horace Greeley]] of the ''New York Tribune'' agreed.{{sfn|McPherson|1992|p=124}} In a letter of August 22, 1862, Lincoln said that while he personally wished all men could be free, regardless of that, his first obligation as president was to preserve the Union:{{sfn|Guelzo|2004|pp=147–153}} {{Blockquote|My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that. What I do about slavery, and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union&nbsp;... [¶] I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty; and I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free.{{sfn|Graebner|1959|p=388}}}} On September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/american_originals_iv/sections/transcript_preliminary_emancipation.html|title=The Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, 1862|website=www.archives.gov}}</ref> which announced that, in states still in rebellion on January 1, 1863, the slaves would be freed. He kept his word and, on January 1, 1863, issued the Emancipation Proclamation,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation/transcript.html|title=Transcript of the Proclamation|date=October 6, 2015|website=National Archives}}</ref> freeing the slaves in 10 states not then under Union control,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/anjo/learn/historyculture/johnson-and-tn-emancipation.htm|title=Andrew Johnson and Emancipation in Tennessee - Andrew Johnson National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service)|first1=Mailing|last1=Address|first2=rew Johnson National Historic Site 121 Monument Ave|last2=Greeneville|first3=TN 37743 Phone: 423 638-3551 Contact|last3=Us|website=www.nps.gov}}</ref> with exemptions specified for areas under such control.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=379}} Lincoln's comment on signing the Proclamation was: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=407}} He spent the next 100 days preparing the army and the nation for emancipation, while Democrats rallied their voters by warning of the threat that freed slaves posed to northern whites.<ref>Louis P. Masur. (2012). ''Lincoln's Hundred Days: The Emancipation Proclamation and the War for the Union.'' Harvard University Press.</ref> With the abolition of slavery in the rebel states now a military objective, Union armies advancing south liberated all three million slaves in the Confederacy.<ref>James M. McPherson, "Who Freed the Slaves?" ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' 139.1 (1995): 1-10.</ref> The Emancipation Proclamation having stated that freedmen would be "received into the armed service of the United States," enlisting these freedmen became official policy. By the spring of 1863, Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in more than token numbers. In a letter to Tennessee military governor [[Andrew Johnson]] encouraging him to lead the way in raising black troops, Lincoln wrote, "The bare sight of 50,000 armed and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once".{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=430–431}} By the end of 1863, at Lincoln's direction, General [[Lorenzo Thomas]] had recruited 20 regiments of blacks from the Mississippi Valley.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=431}} ====Gettysburg Address (1863)==== {{Main|Gettysburg Address}} [[File:Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Gettysburg, highlighted version.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Lincoln (absent his usual [[top hat]] and highlighted in red) at [[Gettysburg Battlefield|Gettysburg]] on November 19, 1863. Roughly three hours later, he delivered the [[Gettysburg Address]], one of the best known speeches in [[history of the United States|American history]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Conant |first=Sean |date=2015 |title=The Gettysburg Address: Perspectives on Lincoln's Greatest Speech |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_bmyBwAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 |location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press |page=ix |isbn=978-0-19-022745-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Holsinger |first=M. Paul |date=1999 |title=War and American Popular Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oe4AOVHkJ9oC&pg=PA102 |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |page=102 |isbn=978-0-313-29908-7}}</ref>|alt=Large group of people]] Lincoln spoke at the dedication of the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=453–460}} In 272 words, and three minutes, Lincoln asserted that the nation was born not in 1789, but in 1776, "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal". He defined the war as dedicated to the principles of liberty and equality for all. He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldiers would not be in vain, that slavery would end, and the future of democracy would be assured, that "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth".{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=460–466|Wills|2012|2pp=20, 27, 105, 146}} Defying his prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here", the Address became the most quoted speech in American history.{{sfn|Bulla|Borchard|2010|p=222}} ====Promoting General Grant==== <imagemap> Image:The Peacemakers 1868.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|''[[The Peacemakers]]'', an 1868 painting by [[George P.A. Healy]] of events aboard the ''[[River Queen (steamboat)|River Queen]]'' in March 1865 <small>''(Clickable image—use cursor to identify.)''</small>|alt=Painting of four men conferring in a ship's cabin, entitled "The Peacemakers". poly 486 710 579 672 663 739 687 863 649 936 579 965 739 1133 782 1037 800 956 910 905 905 1025 855 1305 576 1223 513 1371 620 1388 687 1467 846 1510 1010 2035 1160 2140 869 2135 718 1682 663 1685 634 2000 725 2030 489 2095 504 1800 362 1775 263 1710 225 1516 252 1226 269 1046 324 948 434 913 481 866 446 782 [[William Tecumseh Sherman|General Sherman]] poly 1092 794 1182 823 1188 892 1162 970 1220 1023 1330 1179 1429 1153 1478 1223 1388 1498 1440 1548 1397 1568 1397 1788 1429 1826 1385 1867 1301 1838 1275 1571 1243 1533 1243 1478 1095 1492 985 1588 924 1133 970 1028 1046 991 1028 907 1034 837 [[Ulysses S. Grant|General Grant]] poly 1634 802 1715 770 1794 825 1800 950 1933 962 2194 1072 2188 1185 2116 1347 2029 1396 2032 1547 1669 1544 1740 1947 1527 1945 1579 1875 1620 1852 1599 1730 1565 1883 1394 1930 1408 1872 1454 1817 1559 1333 1568 1260 1599 1182 1672 980 1620 886 [[Abraham Lincoln|President Lincoln]] poly 2620 780 2740 775 2754 889 2745 991 2855 1064 2864 1316 2800 1420 2766 1516 2806 1600 2772 1942 2664 1919 2577 1791 2508 1780 2496 1719 2455 1745 2496 2052 2348 2145 2308 2128 2345 2038 2293 1759 2229 2081 1977 2076 1997 2035 2058 2009 2093 1965 2174 1537 2461 1429 2453 1290 2357 1382 2287 1336 2290 1287 2354 1203 2412 1179 2499 1133 2540 1072 2560 988 2595 837 [[David Dixon Porter|Admiral Porter]] </imagemap> [[Ulysses S. Grant|General Ulysses Grant's]] victories at the [[Battle of Shiloh]] and in the [[Vicksburg campaign]] impressed Lincoln. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln had said, "I can't spare this man. He fights."{{sfn|Thomas|2008|p=315}} With Grant in command, Lincoln felt the Union Army could advance in multiple theaters, while also including black troops. Meade's failure to capture Lee's army after Gettysburg and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac persuaded Lincoln to promote Grant to supreme commander. Grant then assumed command of Meade's army.{{sfn|Nevins|1947|pp=4:6–17}} Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a presidential candidacy in 1864. He arranged for an intermediary to inquire into Grant's political intentions, and once assured that he had none, Lincoln promoted Grant to the newly revived rank of Lieutenant General, a rank which had been unoccupied since [[George Washington]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=490–492}} Authorization for such a promotion "with the advice and consent of the Senate" was provided by a new bill which Lincoln signed the same day he submitted Grant's name to the Senate. His nomination was confirmed by the Senate on March 2, 1864.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/legislative/features/grant|title=Message of President Abraham Lincoln Nominating Ulysses S. Grant to Be Lieutenant General of the Army|date=August 15, 2016|website=National Archives}}</ref> Grant in 1864 waged the bloody [[Overland Campaign]], which exacted heavy losses on both sides.{{sfn|McPherson|2009|p=113}} When Lincoln asked what Grant's plans were, the persistent general replied, "I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=501}} Grant's army moved steadily south. Lincoln traveled to Grant's headquarters at [[City Point, Virginia]], to confer with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman.<ref name="whitehousehistory">{{cite web |url=http://www.whitehousehistory.org/whha_about/whitehouse_collection/whitehouse_collection-art-06.html |title=The Peacemakers |publisher=The White House Historical Association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927000627/http://www.whitehousehistory.org/whha_about/whitehouse_collection/whitehouse_collection-art-06.html |archive-date=September 27, 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date=May 3, 2009}}</ref> Lincoln reacted to Union losses by mobilizing support throughout the North.{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=422–424}} Lincoln authorized Grant to target infrastructure—plantations, railroads, and bridges—hoping to weaken the South's morale and fighting ability. He emphasized defeat of the Confederate armies over destruction (which was considerable) for its own sake.{{sfn|Neely Jr.|2004|pp=434–458}} Lincoln's engagement became distinctly personal on one occasion in 1864 when Confederate general [[Jubal Early]] [[Battle of Fort Stevens|raided Washington, D.C.]] Legend has it that while Lincoln watched from an exposed position, Union Captain (and future [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court Justice]]) [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]] shouted at him, "Get down, you damn fool, before you get shot!"{{sfn|Thomas|2008|p=434}} As Grant continued to weaken Lee's forces, efforts to discuss peace began. Confederate Vice President [[Alexander H. Stephens|Stephens]] led a group meeting with Lincoln, Seward, and others at [[Hampton Roads Conference|Hampton Roads]]. Lincoln refused to negotiate with the Confederacy as a coequal; his objective to end the fighting was not realized.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=565}} On April 1, 1865, Grant nearly encircled Petersburg in a siege. The Confederate government evacuated Richmond and Lincoln visited the conquered capital. On April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at [[Appomattox Court House National Historical Park|Appomattox]], officially ending the war.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=589}} ===Reelection=== {{Main|1864 United States presidential election}} [[File:ElectoralCollege1864.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=Map of the U.S. showing Lincoln winning all the Union states except for Kentucky, New Jersey, and Delaware. The Southern states are not included.|An [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral]] landslide for Lincoln (in red) in the 1864 election; southern states (brown) and territories (gray) not in play]] [[File:Republican presidential ticket 1864b.jpg|thumb|A poster of the 1864 election campaign with [[Andrew Johnson]] as the candidate for vice president]] Lincoln ran for reelection in 1864, while uniting the main Republican factions, along with [[War Democrats]] [[Edwin M. Stanton]] and Andrew Johnson. Lincoln used conversation and his patronage powers—greatly expanded from peacetime—to build support and fend off the Radicals' efforts to replace him.{{sfnm|Fish|1902|1pp=53–69|Tegeder|1948|2pp=77–90}} At its convention, the Republicans selected Johnson as his running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the new [[National Union Party (United States)|Union Party]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=494–507}} Grant's bloody stalemates damaged Lincoln's re-election prospects, and many Republicans feared defeat. Lincoln confidentially pledged in writing that if he should lose the election, he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House;{{sfn|Grimsley|Simpson|2001|p=80}} Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope. The pledge read as follows:{{blockquote|text=This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterward.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lincoln|first=Abraham|url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln7/1:1124?rgn=div1;view=fulltext|title=Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 7|orig-date=1953|page=514|chapter=Memorandum Concerning His Probable Failure of Re-election|year=2001}}</ref>}} The Democratic platform followed the "Peace wing" of the party and called the war a "failure"; but their candidate, McClellan, supported the war and repudiated the platform. Meanwhile, Lincoln emboldened Grant with more troops and Republican party support. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September and [[David Farragut]]'s capture of Mobile ended defeatism.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=531}} The Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln. The National Union Party was united by Lincoln's support for emancipation. State Republican parties stressed the [[perfidy]] of the Copperheads.{{sfn|Randall|Current|1955|p=307}} On November 8, Lincoln carried all but three states, including 78 percent of Union soldiers.{{sfnm|1a1=Grimsley|1a2=Simpson|1y=2001|1p=80|2a1=Paludan|2y=1994|2pp=274–293}} [[File:Abraham Lincoln second inaugural address.jpg|thumb|alt=A large crowd in front of a large building with many pillars|Lincoln's [[Abraham Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]] at the almost completed Capitol building, March 4, 1865]] On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address. In it, he deemed the war casualties to be God's will. Historian [[Mark Noll]] places the speech "among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world;" it is inscribed in the [[Lincoln Memorial]].{{sfn|Noll|2002|p=426}} Lincoln said: {{Blockquote|Fondly do we hope—fervently do we pray—that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by the [[wikt:bondman|bond-man's]] 250 years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said 3,000 years ago, so still it must be said, "the judgments of the Lord, are true and righteous altogether". With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan—to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.<ref>Lincoln, Abraham ''Abraham Lincoln: Selected Speeches and Writings'' (Library of America edition, 2009) p 450</ref>}} ===Reconstruction=== {{Main|Reconstruction era}} Reconstruction preceded the war's end, as Lincoln and his associates considered the reintegration of the nation, and the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. When a general asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates were to be treated, Lincoln replied, "Let 'em up easy."{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=509–512}} Lincoln was determined to find meaning in the war in its aftermath, and did not want to continue to outcast the southern states. His main goal was to keep the union together, so he proceeded by focusing not on whom to blame, but on how to rebuild the nation as one.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Forged in Crisis: The Making of Five Legendary Leaders|last=Koehn|first=Nancy|publisher=Scribner|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5011-7444-5|location=NY|page=191}}</ref> Lincoln led the moderates in Reconstruction policy and was opposed by the Radicals, under Rep. [[Thaddeus Stevens]], Sen. Charles Sumner and Sen. [[Benjamin Wade]], who otherwise remained Lincoln's allies. Determined to reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held. His [[Ten percent plan|Amnesty Proclamation]] of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office and had not mistreated Union prisoners, if they were willing to sign an oath of allegiance.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=471–472}} [[File:Lincoln and Johnsond.jpg|alt=Cartoon of Lincoln and Johnson attempting to stitch up the broken Union|thumb|A political cartoon of Vice President Andrew Johnson (a former tailor) and Lincoln, 1865, entitled ''The 'Rail Splitter' At Work Repairing the Union''. The caption reads (Johnson): "Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever." (Lincoln): "A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended."]] As Southern states fell, they needed leaders while their administrations were restored. In Tennessee and Arkansas, Lincoln respectively appointed Johnson and [[Frederick Steele]] as military governors. In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered General [[Nathaniel P. Banks]] to promote a plan that would reestablish statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed, and only if the reconstructed states abolished slavery. Democratic opponents accused Lincoln of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations. The Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient, and passed their own plan, the 1864 [[Wade–Davis Bill]], which Lincoln vetoed. The Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat elected representatives from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=485–486}} Lincoln's appointments were designed to harness both moderates and Radicals. To fill Chief Justice Taney's seat on the Supreme Court, he named the Radicals' choice, Salmon P. Chase, who Lincoln believed would uphold his emancipation and paper money policies.{{sfn|Nevins|1947|p=4:206}} After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the nation with a constitutional amendment. He declared that such an amendment would "clinch the whole matter" and by December 1863 an amendment was brought to Congress.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=561}} This first attempt fell short of the required two-thirds majority in the House of Representatives. Passage became part of Lincoln's reelection platform, and after his successful reelection, the second attempt in the House passed on January 31, 1865.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=562–563|History.com}} With ratification, it became the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] on December 6, 1865.<ref>{{cite web |title=Primary Documents in American History: 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution |url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/13thamendment.html |publisher=Library of Congress |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111010110013/http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/13thamendment.html |archive-date=October 10, 2011 |url-status=live |access-date=October 20, 2011}}</ref> Lincoln believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen. He signed Senator Charles Sumner's [[Freedmen's Bureau]] bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate needs of former slaves. The law opened land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln announced a Reconstruction plan that involved short-term military control, pending readmission under the control of southern Unionists.{{sfn|Carwardine|2003|pp=242–243}} Historians agree that it is impossible to predict exactly how Reconstruction would have proceeded had Lincoln lived. Biographers James G. Randall and [[Richard Current]], according to David Lincove, argue that:<ref>{{cite book|last=Lincove|first=David A.|title=Reconstruction in the United States: An Annotated Bibliography|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=3EQcT7-Dpi0C|page=80}}|year= 2000|publisher=Greenwood|page=80|isbn=978-0-313-29199-9}}</ref> {{Blockquote|It is likely that had he lived, Lincoln would have followed a policy similar to Johnson's, that he would have clashed with congressional Radicals, that he would have produced a better result for the freedmen than occurred, and that his political skills would have helped him avoid Johnson's mistakes.}} [[Eric Foner]] argues that:{{sfn|Foner|2010|p=335}} {{Blockquote|Unlike Sumner and other Radicals, Lincoln did not see Reconstruction as an opportunity for a sweeping political and social revolution beyond emancipation. He had long made clear his opposition to the confiscation and redistribution of land. He believed, as most Republicans did in April 1865, that the voting requirements should be determined by the states. He assumed that political control in the South would pass to white Unionists, reluctant secessionists, and forward-looking former Confederates. But time and again during the war, Lincoln, after initial opposition, had come to embrace positions first advanced by abolitionists and Radical Republicans.&nbsp;... Lincoln undoubtedly would have listened carefully to the outcry for further protection for the former slaves&nbsp;... It is entirely plausible to imagine Lincoln and Congress agreeing on a Reconstruction policy that encompassed federal protection for basic civil rights plus limited black suffrage, along the lines Lincoln proposed just before his death.}} ===Native American policy=== Lincoln's experience with Indians followed the death of his grandfather Abraham by Indian assailants, in the presence of his father and uncles. Lincoln was a veteran of the Black Hawk War, which was fought in Wisconsin and Illinois in 1832. He volunteered with the goal of expelling Indians from Illinois, but he saw no combat. During his presidency, Lincoln's policy toward Indians was driven by politics. He used the Indian Bureau as a source of patronage, making appointments to his loyal followers in Minnesota and Wisconsin. He faced difficulties guarding Western settlers, railroads, and telegraphs, from Indian attacks.{{sfn|Nichols|1974|pp=3,4}} On August 17, 1862, the [[Dakota War of 1862|Dakota uprising]] in Minnesota, supported by the [[Yankton Sioux Tribe|Yankton Indians]], killed hundreds of white settlers, forced 30,000 from their homes, and deeply alarmed Washington.{{sfn|Bulla|Borchard|2010|p=480}} Some feared incorrectly that it might represent a conspiracy by the Confederacy to launch a war on the Northwestern front.{{sfn|Nichols|1974|pp=4–5,7}} Lincoln sent General John Pope to Minnesota as commander of the new [[Department of the Northwest]].{{sfn|Nichols|1974|p=7}} Lincoln ordered thousands of Confederate prisoners of war sent by railroad to put down the Dakota Uprising.{{sfnm|Burlingame|2008|1p=481|Nichols|1974|2p=7}} When the Confederates protested forcing Confederate prisoners to fight Indians, Lincoln revoked the policy.{{sfn|Bulla|Borchard|2010|p=481}} Pope fought hard against the Indians. He ordered Indian farms and food supplies be destroyed, and Indian warriors be killed.{{sfn|Nichols|1974|p=7}} Aiding Pope, Minnesota Congressman Col. [[Henry Hastings Sibley|Henry H. Sibley]] led militiamen and regular troops to defeat the Dakota at [[Battle of Wood Lake|Wood Lake]].{{sfn|Bulla|Borchard|2010|p=481}} By October 9, Pope considered the uprising to be ended; hostilities ceased on December 26.{{sfn|Nichols|1974|p=8}} An unusual military court was set up to prosecute captured natives, with Lincoln effectively acting as the route of appeal.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Chomsky|first=Carol|date=1990|title=The United States-Dakota War Trials: A Study in Military Injustice|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1228993|journal=Stanford Law Review|volume=43|issue=1|pages=13–98|doi=10.2307/1228993|jstor=1228993|issn=0038-9765}}</ref> Lincoln personally reviewed each of 303 execution warrants for [[Sioux#Santee (Isáŋyathi or Eastern Dakota)|Santee Dakota]] convicted of killing innocent farmers; he commuted the sentences of all but 39 (one was later reprieved).{{sfn|Cox|2005|p=182}}<ref name=":1" /> Lincoln sought to be lenient, but still send a message. He also faced significant public pressure, including threats of mob justice should any of the Dakota be spared.<ref name=":1" /> Former Governor of Minnesota [[Alexander Ramsey]] told Lincoln, in 1864, that he would have gotten more presidential election support had he executed all 303 of the Indians. Lincoln responded, "I could not afford to hang men for votes."{{sfn|Bulla|Borchard|2010|p=483}} ===Whig theory of a presidency=== Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of a presidency focused on executing laws while deferring to Congress' responsibility for legislating. Lincoln vetoed only four bills, including the [[Wade-Davis Bill]] with its harsh Reconstruction program.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=137}} The [[1862 Homestead Act]] made millions of acres of Western government-held land available for purchase at low cost. The 1862 [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]] provided government grants for [[List of agricultural universities and colleges|agricultural colleges]] in each state. The [[Pacific Railway Acts]] of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' [[First Transcontinental Railroad]], which was completed in 1869.{{sfn|Paludan|1994|p=116}} The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was enabled by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s.{{sfn|McPherson|2009|pp=450–452}} In the selection and use of his cabinet, Lincoln employed the strengths of his opponents in a manner that emboldened his presidency. Lincoln commented on his thought process, "We need the strongest men of the party in the Cabinet. We needed to hold our own people together. I had looked the party over and concluded that these were the very strongest men. Then I had no right to deprive the country of their services."{{sfn|Goodwin|2005|p=319}} Goodwin described the group in her biography as a ''[[Team of Rivals]]''.{{sfn|Goodwin|2005}} {{Infobox U.S. Cabinet | Name = Lincoln | President = Abraham Lincoln | President date = 1861–1865 | Vice President = [[Hannibal Hamlin]] | Vice President date = 1861–1865 | Vice President 2 = [[Andrew Johnson]] | Vice President date 2 = 1865 | State = [[William H. Seward]] | State date = 1861–1865 | Treasury = [[Salmon P. Chase]] | Treasury date = 1861–1864 | Treasury 2 = [[William P. Fessenden]] | Treasury date 2 = 1864–1865 | Treasury 3 = [[Hugh McCulloch]] | Treasury date 3 = 1865 | War = [[Simon Cameron]] | War date = 1861–1862 | War 2 = [[Edwin M. Stanton]] | War date 2 = 1862–1865 | Justice = [[Edward Bates]] | Justice date = 1861–1864 | Justice 2 = [[James Speed]] | Justice date 2 = 1864–1865 | Post = [[Montgomery Blair]] | Post date = 1861–1864 | Post 2 = [[William Dennison Jr.]] | Post date 2 = 1864–1865 | Navy = [[Gideon Welles]] | Navy date = 1861–1865 | Interior = [[Caleb Blood Smith]] | Interior date = 1861–1862 | Interior 2 = [[John Palmer Usher]] | Interior date 2 = 1863–1865 | source =<ref>{{cite web |author=Summers, Robert |title=Abraham Lincoln |url=http://www.ipl.org/div/potus/alincoln.html |work=Internet Public Library 2 (IPL2) |publisher=U. Michigan and Drexel U. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002203536/http://www.ipl.org/div/potus/alincoln.html |archive-date=October 2, 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date=December 9, 2012}}</ref> }} There were two measures passed to raise revenues for the Federal government: tariffs (a policy with long precedent), and a [[Income tax in the United States|Federal income tax]]. In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and third [[Morrill Tariff]]s, following the first enacted by Buchanan. He also signed the [[Revenue Act of 1861]], creating the first U.S. income tax—a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes above $800 (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|800|1861|r=-2}}}} in current dollar terms).{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=424}} The [[Revenue Act of 1862]] adopted rates that increased with income.{{sfn|Paludan|1994|p=111}} The Lincoln Administration presided over the expansion of the federal government's economic influence in other areas. The [[National Banking Act]] created the system of national banks. The US issued paper currency for the first time, known as [[Greenback (1860s money)|greenbacks]]—printed in green on the reverse side.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brands |first=H. W. |year=2011 |title=Greenback Planet: How the Dollar Conquered the World and Threatened Civilization as We Know It |publisher=University of Texas Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p3IweU12jH0C |page=1|isbn=978-0-292-73933-8 }}</ref> In 1862, Congress created the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=424}} In response to rumors of a renewed draft, the editors of the ''[[New York World]]'' and the ''[[The Journal of Commerce|Journal of Commerce]]'' published a false draft proclamation that created an opportunity for the editors and others to corner the gold market. Lincoln attacked the media for such behavior, and ordered a military seizure of the two papers which lasted for two days.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=501–502}} Lincoln is largely responsible for the [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving holiday]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=471}} Thanksgiving had become a regional holiday in New England in the 17th century. It had been sporadically proclaimed by the federal government on irregular dates. The prior proclamation had been during [[James Madison]]'s presidency 50 years earlier. In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksgiving.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=471}} In June 1864, Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as [[Yosemite National Park]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Schaffer|first=Jeffrey P.|title=Yosemite National Park: A Natural History Guide to Yosemite and Its Trails|publisher=Wilderness Press|page=48|location=Berkeley|year=1999|isbn=978-0-89997-244-2}}</ref> ===Supreme Court appointments=== {| class="wikitable" |+Supreme Court Justices !Justice !Nominated !Appointed |- |[[Noah Haynes Swayne]] |January 21, 1862 |January 24, 1862 |- |[[Samuel Freeman Miller]] |July 16, 1862 |July 16, 1862 |- |[[David Davis (Supreme Court justice)|David Davis]] |December 1, 1862 |December 8, 1862 |- |[[Stephen Johnson Field]] |March 6, 1863 |March 10, 1863 |- |[[Salmon P. Chase|Salmon Portland Chase]] (Chief Justice) |December 6, 1864 |December 6, 1864 |} Lincoln's philosophy on court nominations was that "we cannot ask a man what he will do, and if we should, and he should answer us, we should despise him for it. Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=471}} Lincoln made five appointments to the Supreme Court. [[Noah Haynes Swayne]] was an anti-slavery lawyer who was committed to the Union. [[Samuel Freeman Miller]] supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was an avowed abolitionist. David Davis was Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860 and had served as a judge in the Illinois court circuit where Lincoln practiced. Democrat [[Stephen Johnson Field]], a previous California Supreme Court justice, provided geographic and political balance. Finally, Lincoln's Treasury Secretary, Salmon P. Chase, became Chief Justice. Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist, would support Reconstruction legislation, and that his appointment united the Republican Party.{{sfn|Blue|1987|p=245}} ===Foreign policy=== {{Main|Presidency of Abraham Lincoln#Foreign policy|Diplomacy of the American Civil War}} Lincoln named his main political rival William H. Seward as Secretary of State, and left most diplomatic issues in his portfolio. However Lincoln did select some of the top diplomats as part of his patronage policy.<ref>Neill F. Sanders, " 'When A House Is on Fire': The English Consulates and Lincoln's Patronage Policy." ''Lincoln Herald'' (1981) 83#4 pp 579-59.</ref> He also closely watched the handling of the [[Trent Affair]] in late 1861 to make sure there was no escalation into a war with Britain.<ref>Kevin Peraino, ''Lincoln in the World: The Making of a Statesman and the Dawn of American Power'' (2014). pp 138–169.</ref> Seward's main role was to keep Britain and France from supporting the Confederacy. He was successful after indicating to London and Paris that Washington would declare war on them if they supported Richmond.<ref>Peraino, ''Lincoln in the World'' pp 3–16.</ref> ==Assassination== {{Main|Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|}} [[File:Lincoln assassination slide c1900 - Restoration.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Painting of Lincoln being shot by Booth while sitting in a theater booth.|Shown in the presidential booth of Ford's Theatre, from left to right, are assassin [[John Wilkes Booth]], Abraham Lincoln, [[Mary Todd Lincoln]], [[Clara Harris]], and [[Henry Rathbone]].]] [[John Wilkes Booth]] was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; though he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts with the Confederate secret service.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=586–587}} After attending an April 11, 1865 speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks, Booth hatched a plot to assassinate the President.{{sfn|Harrison|2010|pp=3–4}} When Booth learned of the Lincolns' intent to attend a play with General Grant, he planned to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at [[Ford's Theatre]]. Lincoln and his wife attended the play ''[[Our American Cousin]]'' on the evening of April 14, just five days after the Union victory at the [[Battle of Appomattox Courthouse]]. At the last minute, Grant decided to go to New Jersey to visit his children instead of attending the play.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=594–597}} On April 14, 1865, hours before he was assassinated, Lincoln signed legislation establishing the United States Secret Service,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Klein |first=Christopher |date=November 16, 2012 |title=10 Things You May Not Know About Abraham Lincoln |url=https://www.history.com/news/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-abraham-lincoln |access-date=March 4, 2022 |website=History.com}}</ref> and, at 10:15 in the evening, Booth entered the back of Lincoln's theater box, crept up from behind, and fired at the back of Lincoln's head, mortally wounding him. Lincoln's guest, Major [[Henry Rathbone]], momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1p=597|Martin|2010}} After being attended by [[Charles Leale|Doctor Charles Leale]] and two other doctors, Lincoln was taken across the street to [[Petersen House]]. After remaining in a [[coma]] for eight hours, Lincoln died at 7:22 in the morning on April 15.{{sfn|Steers Jr.|2010|p=153}}{{efn|At the moment of death some observers said his face seemed to relax into a smile.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fox|first1=Richard|title=Lincoln's Body: A Cultural History|date=2015|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-24724-4}}</ref><ref name="Abel4">{{cite book|last1=Abel|first1=E. Lawrence|isbn=978-1-4408-3118-8|title=A Finger in Lincoln's Brain: What Modern Science Reveals about Lincoln, His Assassination, and Its Aftermath|date=2015|publisher=ABC-CLIO|at= Chapter 14}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1865/04/17/news/our-great-loss-assassination-president-lincolndetails-fearful-crimeclosing.html|title=OUR GREAT LOSS; The Assassination of President Lincoln.|date=April 17, 1865|newspaper=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331|access-date=April 12, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180113072328/http://www.nytimes.com/1865/04/17/news/our-great-loss-assassination-president-lincolndetails-fearful-crimeclosing.html|archive-date=January 13, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hay|first=John|title=The Life and Letters of John Hay Volume 1|date=1915|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company.|url=https://archive.org/stream/lifeandlettersof007751mbp/lifeandlettersof007751mbp_djvu.txt|access-date=July 9, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809132012/https://archive.org/stream/lifeandlettersof007751mbp/lifeandlettersof007751mbp_djvu.txt|archive-date=August 9, 2016|url-status=live}} Quote's original source is Hay's diary which is quoted in "Abraham Lincoln: A History", Volume 10, Page 292 by John G. Nicolay and John Hay</ref>}} Stanton saluted and said, "Now he belongs to the ages."{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=598–599, 686}}{{efn|Other versions of the quotation have been offered, including "He now belongs to the ages," "He is a man for the ages," and "Now he belongs to the angels." Gopnik, Adam, "Angels and Ages: Lincoln's language and its legacy," [https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2007/05/28/angels-and-ages ''The New Yorker'', May 21, 2007.]}} Lincoln's body was placed in a flag-wrapped coffin, which was loaded into a hearse and escorted to the White House by Union soldiers.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hoch|first=Bradley R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8VKaCgAAQBAJ&q=lincoln+body+escorted+%22white+house%22&pg=PA123|title=The Lincoln Trail in Pennsylvania: A History and Guide|date=September 4, 2001|publisher=Penn State Press|isbn=978-0-271-07222-7|pages=121–123|language=en}}</ref> President Johnson was sworn in later that same day.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Trefousse|first1=Hans L.|title=Andrew Johnson: A Biography|date=1989|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|page=194}}</ref> Two weeks later, Booth, refusing to surrender, was tracked to a farm in Virginia, and was mortally shot by Sergeant [[Boston Corbett]] and died on April 26. Secretary of War Stanton had issued orders that Booth be taken alive, so Corbett was initially arrested to be court martialed. After a brief interview, Stanton declared him a patriot and dismissed the charge.{{sfnm|Steers Jr.|2010|1p=153|Donald|1996|2p=599}} === Funeral and burial === [[File:LincolnTrain.jpeg|thumb|upright=1|This funeral train, called the ''Lincoln Special'', carried Lincoln's body on the three week trip from [[Washington, D.C.]] to [[Springfield, Illinois]]. Along the way, it was met by hundreds of thousands of American mourners.]] {{Main|Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln}} The late President lay in state, first in the East Room of the White House, and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21. The caskets containing Lincoln's body and the body of his son Willie traveled for three weeks on the ''Lincoln Special'' [[Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln#Funeral train|funeral train]].{{sfn|Trostel|2002|pp=31–58}} The train followed a circuitous route from Washington D.C. to Springfield, Illinois, stopping at many cities for memorials attended by hundreds of thousands. Many others gathered along the tracks as the train passed with bands, bonfires, and hymn singing{{sfnm|Trostel|2002|1pp=31–58|Goodrich|2005|2pp=231–238}} or in silent grief. Poet [[Walt Whitman]] composed "[[When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd]]" to eulogize him, one of [[Walt Whitman and Abraham Lincoln|four poems he wrote about Lincoln]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Peck |first=Garrett |title=Walt Whitman in Washington, D.C.: The Civil War and America's Great Poet |year=2015 |publisher=The History Press |location=Charleston, SC |isbn=978-1-62619-973-6 |pages=118–23}}</ref> African Americans were especially moved; they had lost 'their [[Moses]]'.{{sfn|Hodes|2015|p=164}} In a larger sense, the reaction was in response to the deaths of so many men in the war.{{sfn|Hodes|2015|pp=197–199}} Historians emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow, but noted that some Lincoln haters celebrated his death.{{sfn|Hodes|2015|pp=84, 86, 96–97}} Lincoln's body was buried at [[Oak Ridge Cemetery]] in Springfield and now lies within the [[Lincoln Tomb]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings – Lincoln Tomb, Illinois |url=http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/Presidents/site19.htm |publisher=[[National Park Service]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090830182658/http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/Presidents/site19.htm |archive-date=August 30, 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Religious and philosophical beliefs== {{Further|Religious views of Abraham Lincoln}} [[File:AbrahamLincolnOilPainting1869Restored.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Lincoln sitting with his hand on his chin and his elbow on his leg.|''[[Abraham Lincoln (Healy)|Abraham Lincoln]]'', painting by [[George Peter Alexander Healy]] in 1869]] As a young man, Lincoln was a [[religious skepticism|religious skeptic]].{{sfnm|Carwardine|2003|1p=4|Wilson|1999|2p=84}} He was deeply familiar with the [[Bible]], quoting and praising it.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=48–49, 514–515}} He was private about his position on organized religion and respected the beliefs of others.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lincoln|first=Abraham|url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln1/1:403?rgn=div1;view=fulltext|title=Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 1.|orig-date=1953|page=383|chapter=Handbill Replying to Charges of Infidelity|year=2001}}</ref> He never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs.{{sfn|Noll|1992}} Through his entire public career, Lincoln had a proneness for quoting Scripture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abrahamlincolnonline.org/lincoln/speeches/faithquotes.htm|title=Religious Quotations by Abraham Lincoln|website=www.abrahamlincolnonline.org|access-date=March 14, 2020}}</ref> His three most famous speeches—[[Lincoln's House Divided Speech|the House Divided Speech]], [[Gettysburg Address|the Gettysburg Address]], and [[Abraham Lincoln's second inaugural address|his second inaugural]]—each contain direct allusions to Providence and quotes from Scripture. In the 1840s, Lincoln subscribed to the [[The Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity Illustrated|Doctrine of Necessity]], a belief that the human mind was controlled by a higher power.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=48–49}} With the death of his son Edward in 1850 he more frequently expressed a dependence on God.{{sfn|Parrillo|2000|pp=227–253}} He never joined a church, although he frequently attended [[First Presbyterian Church (Springfield, Illinois)|First Presbyterian Church]] with his wife beginning in 1852.{{sfn|White|2009|p=180}}{{efn|On claims that Lincoln was baptized by an associate of [[Alexander Campbell (clergyman)|Alexander Campbell]], see {{cite journal|url=http://www.acu.edu/sponsored/restoration_quarterly/archives/1990s/vol_38_no_2_contents/martin.html |last=Martin |first=Jim |title=The secret baptism of Abraham Lincoln |journal=Restoration Quarterly |volume=38 |issue=2 |year=1996 |access-date=May 27, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019204330/http://www.acu.edu/sponsored/restoration_quarterly/archives/1990s/vol_38_no_2_contents/martin.html |archive-date=October 19, 2012 }}}} In the 1850s, Lincoln asserted his belief in "providence" in a general way, and rarely used the language or imagery of the evangelicals; he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence.<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=g9EynQEACAAJ}}|title="Our Country": Northern Evangelicals and the Union During the Civil War and Reconstruction|last=Brodrecht|first=Grant R.|date=2008|publisher=University of Notre Dame}}</ref> The death of son Willie in February 1862 may have caused him to look toward religion for solace.{{sfn|Wilson|1999|pp=251–254}} After Willie's death, he questioned the divine necessity of the war's severity. He wrote at this time that God "could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest. Yet the contest began. And having begun, He could give the final victory to either side any day. Yet the contest proceeds."{{sfn|Wilson|1999|p=254}} Lincoln did believe in an all-powerful God that shaped events and by 1865 was expressing those beliefs in major speeches.{{sfn|Noll|1992}} By the end of the war, he increasingly appealed to the Almighty for solace and to explain events, writing on April 4, 1864, to a newspaper editor in Kentucky: {{blockquote|I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me. Now, at the end of three years struggle the nation's condition is not what either party, or any man devised, or expected. God alone can claim it. Whither it is tending seems plain. If God now wills the removal of a great wrong, and wills also that we of the North as well as you of the South, shall pay fairly for our complicity in that wrong, impartial history will find therein new cause to attest and revere the justice and goodness of God.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abrahamlincolnonline.org/lincoln/speeches/hodges.htm|title=Letter by Abraham Lincoln to Albert Hodges|website=www.abrahamlincolnonline.org|access-date=2020-03-14}}</ref>}}This spirituality can best be seen in his second inaugural address, considered by some scholars<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/09/lincolns-greatest-speech/306551/|title=Lincoln's Greatest Speech|last=Wills|first=Garry|date=September 1, 1999|website=The Atlantic|access-date=March 14, 2020}}; White Jr., Ronald C., ''Lincoln's Greatest Speech: The Second Inaugural'', New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002.</ref> as the greatest such address in American history, and by Lincoln himself as his own greatest speech, or one of them at the very least.{{efn|Lincoln wrote to Thurlow Weed on March 4, 1865, "on the recent Inaugeral [''sic''] Address. I expect the latter to wear as well as—perhaps better than—any thing I have produced...."}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lincoln|first=Abraham|url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln8/1:764?rgn=div1;view=fulltext|title=Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 8.|year=2001|orig-date=1953|page=}}</ref> Lincoln explains therein that the cause, purpose, and result of the war was God's will.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/lincoln2.asp|title=Inaugural Addresses of the Presidents of the United States: from George Washington 1789 to George Bush 1989|website=avalon.law.yale.edu|access-date=March 14, 2020}}</ref> Lincoln's frequent use of religious imagery and language toward the end of his life may have reflected his own personal beliefs or might have been a device to reach his audiences, who were mostly [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] [[Protestantism|Protestants]].{{sfn|Carwardine|2003|pp=27–55}} On the day Lincoln was assassinated, he reportedly told his wife he desired to visit the [[Holy Land]].{{sfn|Guelzo|1999|p=434}} ==Health== {{Main|Health of Abraham Lincoln}} [[File:Abraham Lincoln O-116 by Gardner, 1865-crop.png|thumb|upright|alt=An older, tired-looking Abraham Lincoln with a beard.|Lincoln in February 1865, two months before his death]] Lincoln is believed to have had [[depression (mood)|depression]], [[smallpox]], and [[malaria]].<ref name="Newsweek - DNA">{{Cite news |url=https://www.newsweek.com/what-can-lincolns-dna-tell-us-82789 |title=What Can Lincoln's DNA Tell Us? |date=February 13, 2009 |access-date=February 20, 2020 }}</ref> He took [[blue mass]] pills, which contained [[mercury (element)|mercury]],<ref name=Hirschhorn >{{cite journal |last1=Hirschhorn |first1=Norbert |last2=Feldman |first2=Robert G. |last3=Greaves |first3=Ian |date=Summer 2001 |title=Abraham Lincoln's Blue Pills: Did Our 16th President Suffer from Mercury Poisoning? |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/26064 |journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=315–322 |doi=10.1353/pbm.2001.0048 |pmid=11482002 |s2cid=37918186 |access-date=September 10, 2021}}</ref> to treat [[constipation]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Physical Lincoln Sourcebook |last=Sotos |first=John G. |publisher= Mt. Vernon Book Systems |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-9818193-3-4|ref=Sotos2}} Full-text index [http://www.physical-lincoln.com/sbindex]{{Dead link|date=April 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} paragraphs 612–626.</ref> It is unknown to what extent that might have resulted in [[mercury poisoning]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/07/0717_lincoln.html |title=Did Mercury in 'Little Blue Pills' Make Abraham Lincoln Erratic? |last=Mayell |first=Hillary |publisher=National Geographic News |date=July 17, 2001 |access-date=October 12, 2009}}</ref> Several claims have been made that Lincoln's health was declining before the assassination. These are often based on [[list of photographs of Abraham Lincoln|photographs of Lincoln]] appearing to show weight loss and muscle wasting.<ref name="theatlantic.com" /> It is also suspected that he might have had a rare genetic disease such as [[Marfan syndrome]] or [[multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B]].<ref name="theatlantic.com">{{cite web|first=Abraham|last=Verghese|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2009/05/was-lincoln-dying-before-he-was-shot/17955/ |title=Was Lincoln Dying Before He Was Shot? |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |location=Palo Alto, California|date=May 20, 2009|access-date=October 8, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413145051/http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2009/05/was-lincoln-dying-before-he-was-shot/17955/ |archive-date=April 13, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> == Legacy == {{See also|Cultural depictions of Abraham Lincoln}} === Republican values === Lincoln's redefinition of ''[[Republicanism in the United States|republican values]]'' has been stressed by historians such as [[John Patrick Diggins]], [[Harry V. Jaffa]], [[Vernon Burton]], Eric Foner, and Herman J. Belz.{{sfn|Thomas|2008|p=61}} Lincoln called the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]]—which emphasized freedom and equality for all—the "[[sheet anchor]]" of republicanism beginning in the 1850s. He did this at a time when the [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]], which "tolerated slavery", was the focus of most political discourse.{{sfnm|Jaffa|2000|1p=399|Thomas|2008|2p=61}} Diggins notes, "Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself" in the 1860 Cooper Union speech.{{sfnm|Diggins|1986|1p=307|Thomas|2008|2p=61}} Instead of focusing on the legality of an argument, he focused on the moral basis of republicanism.{{sfnm|Foner|2010|1p=215|Thomas|2008|2p=61}} His position on war was founded on a legal argument regarding the Constitution as essentially a contract among the states, and all parties must agree to pull out of the contract. Furthermore, it was a national duty to ensure the republic stands in every state.{{sfnm|Jaffa|2000|1p=263|Thomas|2008|2p=61}} Many soldiers and religious leaders from the north, though, felt the fight for liberty and freedom of slaves was ordained by their moral and religious beliefs.<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=_zaSs2HzEEwC|page=243}}|title=The Age of Lincoln: A History|last=Burton|first=Orville Vernon|date=2008|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=978-1-4299-3955-3}}</ref> As a Whig activist, Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests, favoring high tariffs, banks, infrastructure improvements, and railroads, in opposition to [[Jacksonian democrats]].{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|pp=196–198, 229–231, 301}} Lincoln shared the sympathies that the Jacksonians professed for the common man, but he disagreed with the Jacksonian view that [[Laissez-faire|the government should be divorced from economic enterprise]].{{sfn|Current|1999}} Nevertheless, Lincoln admired [[Andrew Jackson]]'s steeliness as well as his patriotism.{{sfn|Wilentz|2012}} According to historian [[Sean Wilentz]]:{{sfn|Wilentz|2012}} {{blockquote|Just as the Republican Party of the 1850s absorbed certain elements of Jacksonianism, so Lincoln, whose Whiggery had always been more egalitarian than that of other Whigs, found himself absorbing some of them as well. And some of the Jacksonian spirit resided inside the Lincoln White House.}} [[William C. Harris (historian)|William C. Harris]] found that Lincoln's "reverence for the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the laws under it, and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions strengthened his conservatism."{{sfn|Harris|2007|p=2}} James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and moderation "in his preference for orderly progress, his distrust of dangerous agitation, and his reluctance toward ill digested schemes of reform." Randall concludes that "he was conservative in his complete avoidance of that type of so-called 'radicalism' which involved abuse of the South, hatred for the slaveholder, thirst for vengeance, partisan plotting, and ungenerous demands that Southern institutions be transformed overnight by outsiders."{{sfn|Randall|1962|p=175}} ===Reunification of the states=== {{CSS image crop|Image=LINCOLN, Abraham-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg |bSize= 226|cWidth= 165|cHeight= 195|oTop= 33|oLeft= 31|Location= right|Description= [[Bureau of Engraving and Printing]] portrait of Lincoln as president}} In Lincoln's first inaugural address, he explored the nature of democracy. He denounced secession as anarchy, and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints. He said "A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people."{{sfn|Belz|1998|p=86}} The successful reunification of the states had consequences for how people viewed the country. The term "the United States" has historically been used sometimes in the plural ("these United States") and other times in the singular. The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Burt |first=Andrew |date=May 13, 2013 |title='These United States': How Obama's Vocal Tic Reveals a Polarized America |magazine=The Atlantic |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2013/05/these-united-states-how-obamas-vocal-tic-reveals-a-polarized-america/275739/ |access-date=February 14, 2020}}</ref> === Historical reputation === {{Blockquote|text=In his company, I was never reminded of my humble origin, or of my unpopular color.{{sfn|Douglass|2008|pp=259–260}}|sign=[[Frederick Douglass]]}} In [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|surveys of U.S. scholars ranking presidents]]<!-- Lincoln is first in 9 of 17 on that page. --> conducted since 1948, the top three presidents are Lincoln, Washington, and [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], although the order varies.<ref name="Ranking Our Presidents">{{cite web |last=Lindgren |first=James |author-link=James Lindgren |date=November 16, 2000 |title=Rating the Presidents of the United States, 1789–2000 |website=The Federalist Society |access-date=February 14, 2020 |url=https://fedsoc.org/commentary/publications/rating-the-presidents-of-the-united-states-1789-2000-a-survey-of-scholars-in-history-political-science-and-law}}</ref>{{efn|While the book ''Rating The Presidents: A Ranking of U.S. Leaders, From the Great and Honorable to the Dishonest and Incompetent'' acknowledges that polls have rated Lincoln among the top presidents since 1948, the authors find him to be among the two best presidents, along with Franklin Delano Roosevelt.<ref>{{cite book|editor-first=John V.|editor-last=Densen|title=Reassessing The Presidency, The Rise of the Executive State and the Decline of Freedom|publisher=[[Ludwig von Mises Institute]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hJGpAT7IWhwC&pg=PAix|location=Auburn, Alabama|date=2001|isbn=978-0-945466-29-1|pages=ix, 1–32}}</ref>}} Between 1999 and 2011, Lincoln, [[John F. Kennedy]], and [[Ronald Reagan]] have been the top-ranked presidents in eight [[public opinion]] surveys, according to Gallup.<ref name="gallup">{{cite web |last=Newport |first=Frank |date=February 28, 2011|title=Americans Say Reagan Is the Greatest U.S. President|website=Gallup.com|access-date=February 13, 2019|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/146183/Americans-Say-Reagan-Greatest-President.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314210856/http://www.gallup.com/poll/146183/Americans-Say-Reagan-Greatest-President.aspx |archive-date=March 14, 2012}}</ref> A 2004 study found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln number one, while legal scholars placed him second after George Washington.{{sfn|Taranto|Leo|2004|p=264}} [[File:Aerial view of Lincoln Memorial - west side.jpg|upright=1.25|thumb|left|alt=An aerial photo a large white building with big pillars.|[[Lincoln Memorial]] in Washington, D.C.]] Lincoln's assassination left him a national martyr. He was viewed by abolitionists as a champion of human liberty. Republicans linked Lincoln's name to their party. Many, though not all, in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability.{{sfn|Chesebrough|1994|pp=76, 79, 106, 110}} Historians have said he was "a [[classical liberal]]" in the 19th-century sense. [[Allen C. Guelzo]] states that Lincoln was a "classical liberal democrat—an enemy of artificial hierarchy, a friend to trade and business as ennobling and enabling, and an American counterpart to [[John Stuart Mill|Mill]], [[Richard Cobden|Cobden]], and [[John Bright|Bright]]", whose portrait Lincoln hung in his White House office.<ref name="Fornieri">{{cite book|first1=Joseph R.|last1=Fornieri|first2=Sara Vaughn|last2=Gabbard|title=Lincoln's America: 1809–1865|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Xarqzbuf43sC|page=19}}|year=2008|publisher=[[SIU Press]]|location=Carbondale, Illinois|isbn=978-0-8093-8713-7|page=19}}</ref>{{sfn|Randall|1962|pp=65–87}} Sociologist [[Barry Schwartz (sociologist)|Barry Schwartz]] argues that Lincoln's American reputation grew slowly from the late 19th century until the [[Progressive Era]] (1900–1920s), when he emerged as one of America's most venerated heroes, even among white Southerners. The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on the [[National Mall]] in Washington, D.C.{{sfn|Schwartz|2000|p=109}} Union nationalism, as envisioned by Lincoln, "helped lead America to the nationalism of [[Theodore Roosevelt]], [[Woodrow Wilson]], and Franklin Delano Roosevelt."{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|p=222}} In the [[New Deal]] era, liberals honored Lincoln not so much as the [[self-made man]] or the great war president, but as the advocate of the common man who they claimed would have supported the [[welfare state]].{{sfn|Schwartz|2008|pp=23, 91–98}} [[File:United States penny, obverse, 2002.png|thumb|The [[Lincoln cent]], an American coin portraying Lincoln]] Schwartz argues that in the 1930s and 1940s the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacred and provided the nation with "a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life." During the [[Great Depression]], he argues, Lincoln served "as a means for seeing the world's disappointments, for making its sufferings not so much explicable as meaningful." Franklin D. Roosevelt, preparing America for war, used the words of the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed by Germany and Japan. Americans asked, "What would Lincoln do?"{{sfn|Schwartz|2008|pp=xi, 9, 24}} However, Schwartz also finds that since World War II Lincoln's symbolic power has lost relevance, and this "fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness." He suggested that [[postmodernism]] and [[multiculturalism]] have diluted greatness as a concept.{{sfn|Schwartz|2008|pp=xi, 9}} In the [[Cold War]] years, Lincoln's image shifted to a symbol of freedom who brought hope to those oppressed by [[Communist regime]]s.{{sfn|Schwartz|2008|pp=23, 91–98}} By the late 1960s, some African American intellectuals, led by [[Lerone Bennett Jr.]], rejected Lincoln's role as the Great Emancipator.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Arthur|last=Zilversmit|title=Lincoln and the Problem of Race: A Decade of Interpretations|url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/j/jala/2629860.0002.104/--lincoln-and-the-problem-of-race-a-decade-of-interpretations?rgn=main;view=fulltext|journal=Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association|publisher=Abraham Lincoln Association|location=Springfield, Illinois|volume=2|issue=1|date=1980|pages=22–24|access-date=December 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025185706/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/j/jala/2629860.0002.104/--lincoln-and-the-problem-of-race-a-decade-of-interpretations?rgn=main;view=fulltext|archive-date=October 25, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=John M.|last=Barr|title=Holding Up a Flawed Mirror to the American Soul: Abraham Lincoln in the Writings of Lerone Bennett Jr.|url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/j/jala/2629860.0035.105/--holding-up-a-flawed-mirror-to-the-american-soul-abraham?keywords=rgn...;rgn=main;view=fulltext|journal=Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association|publisher=Abraham Lincoln Association|location=Springfield, Illinois|volume=35|issue=1|date=Winter 2014|pages=43–65}}</ref> Bennett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a [[white supremacist]] in 1968.{{sfn|Bennett Jr.|1968|pp=35–42}} He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs and told jokes that ridiculed blacks. Bennett argued that Lincoln opposed social equality and proposed that freed slaves voluntarily move to another country. The emphasis shifted away from Lincoln the emancipator to an argument that blacks had freed themselves from slavery, or at least were responsible for pressuring the government to emancipate them.{{sfnm|1a1=Cashin|1y=2002|1p=61|2a1=Kelley|2a2=Lewis|2y=2005|2p=228}} Defenders of Lincoln, such as authors Dirck and Cashin, retorted that he was not as bad as most politicians of his day{{sfn|Dirck|2008|p=31}} and that he was a "moral visionary" who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause, as fast as politically possible.{{sfn|Striner|2006|pp=2–4}} Dirck stated that few Civil War scholars take Bennett seriously, pointing to his "narrow political agenda and faulty research".{{sfn|Dirck|2009|p=382}} By the 1970s, Lincoln had become a hero to [[Conservatism in the United States|political conservatives]]<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=p6yMTe4j_YEC|page=96}}|title=Lincoln and the Politics of Christian Love|last=Havers|first=Grant N.|page=96|date=November 13, 2009|publisher=University of Missouri Press|isbn=978-0-8262-1857-5}}</ref>—apart from [[neo-Confederates]] such as [[Mel Bradford]], who denounced his treatment of the white South—for his intense nationalism, his support for business, his insistence on stopping the spread of slavery, his acting on [[Lockean]] and [[Burkean]] principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition, and his devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers.{{sfnm|Belz|2014|1pp=514–518|Graebner|1959|2pp=67–94|Smith|2010|3pp=43–45}} Lincoln became a favorite of liberal intellectuals across the world.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-first=Richard|editor1-last=Carwardine|editor2-first=Jay|editor2-last=Sexton|title=The Global Lincoln|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Gs_1lpJvF34C|page=54}}|year=2011|publisher=Oxford UP|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-537911-2|pages=7, 9–10, 54}}</ref> Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that Lincoln's image suffered "erosion, fading prestige, benign ridicule" in the late 20th century.{{sfn|Schwartz|2008|p=146}} On the other hand, Donald opined in his 1996 biography that Lincoln was distinctly endowed with the personality trait of [[negative capability]], defined by the poet [[John Keats]] and attributed to extraordinary leaders who were "content in the midst of uncertainties and doubts, and not compelled toward fact or reason".{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=15}} In the 21st century, President [[Barack Obama]] named Lincoln his favorite president and insisted on using the [[Lincoln Bible]] for his inaugural ceremonies.<ref>{{cite news|last=Hirschkorn|first=Phil|title=The Obama-Lincoln Parallel: A Closer Look|website=[[CBS News]]|publisher=[[CBS Corporation]]|location=New York City|date=January 17, 2009|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-obama-lincoln-parallel-a-closer-look/|access-date=January 26, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822114242/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-obama-lincoln-parallel-a-closer-look/|archive-date=August 22, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=David|last=Jackson|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/theovall/2013/01/10/obama-inaugural-bible-kennedy-king/1821363/ |title=Obama to be sworn in with Lincoln, King Bibles |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |location=Mclean, Virginia|date=January 10, 2013 |access-date=March 2, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324044349/http://www.usatoday.com/story/theovall/2013/01/10/obama-inaugural-bible-kennedy-king/1821363/ |archive-date=March 24, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Ed|last=Hornick|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/01/17/lincoln.obsession/index.html/|title=For Obama, Lincoln was model president|website=[[CNN]]|publisher=[[Turner Broadcasting Systems]]|location=Atlanta, Georgia|date=January 18, 2009|access-date=August 5, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718224232/http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/01/17/lincoln.obsession/index.html|archive-date=July 18, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering light.<ref>{{cite magazine|first1=Steven|last1=Spielberg|author-link1=Steven Spielberg|first2=Tony|last2=Kushner|author-link2=Tony Kushner|first3=Doris|last3=Kearns Goodwin|author-link3=Doris Kearns Goodwin|title=Mr. Lincoln Goes to Hollywood|magazine=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|location=Washington, D.C.|date=2012|volume=43|issue=7|pages=46–53}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/14664658.2011.594651|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Movies|year=2011|last1=Stokes|first1=Melvyn|s2cid=146375501|journal=American Nineteenth Century History|volume=12|issue=2|pages=203–231}}</ref> ===Memory and memorials=== {{Main|Memorials to Abraham Lincoln}} Lincoln's portrait appears on two denominations of [[United States currency]], the [[Penny (United States coin)|penny]] and the [[United States five-dollar bill|$5 bill]]. His likeness also appears on many [[Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps#Abraham Lincoln|postage stamps]].<ref>{{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=lhB5tAEACAAJ}}|title=Scott Specialized Catalogue of United States Stamps & Covers 2019 |last1=Houseman |first1=Donna|last2=Kloetzel|first2=James E.|last3=Snee|first3=Chad|date=October 2018|publisher=Amos Media Company|isbn=978-0-89487-559-5}}</ref> While he is usually portrayed bearded, he did not grow a beard until 1860 at the suggestion of 11-year-old [[Grace Bedell]]. He was the first of five presidents to do so.{{sfn|Collea|2018|pp=13–14}} He has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names,{{sfn|Dennis|2018|p=194}} including the [[Lincoln, Nebraska|capital]] of Nebraska.{{sfn|Dennis|2018|p=197}} The [[United States Navy]] {{sclass|Nimitz|aircraft carrier|1}} {{USS|Abraham Lincoln|CVN-72}} is named after Lincoln, the second Navy ship to bear his name.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.public.navy.mil/airfor/cvn72/Pages/CVN72History.aspx |title=History of USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN 72) |website=United States Department of the Navy |access-date=February 13, 2020 |archive-date=June 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190627065558/https://www.public.navy.mil/airfor/cvn72/Pages/CVN72History.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Lincoln Memorial]] is one of the most visited monuments in the nation's capital<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pearson |first=Michael |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/lincoln-memorial-refurbishment/index.html |title=$18.5&nbsp;million gift to help refurbish Lincoln Memorial |date=February 16, 2016 |publisher=CNN |access-date=February 13, 2020 }}</ref> and is one of the top five visited [[National Park Service]] sites in the country.<ref name="Atlantic - Nyce">{{Cite magazine |last=Nyce |first=Caroline Mimbs |date=May 21, 2015 |title=15 Most Visited National Landmarks in Washington, D.C. |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/05/15-most-visited-national-landmarks-in-washington-dc/451941/ |magazine=The Atlantic |access-date=February 13, 2020}}</ref> Ford's Theatre, among the top sites in Washington, D.C.,<ref name="Atlantic - Nyce" /> is across the street from [[Petersen House]], where Lincoln died.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/foth/the-petersen-house.htm |title=The Petersen House – Ford's Theatre |website=U.S. National Park Service |access-date=February 13, 2020}}</ref> Memorials in Springfield, Illinois, include the [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]], [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site|Lincoln's home]], and [[Lincoln Tomb|his tomb]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lincolnlibraryandmuseum.com/lincoln-tour.htm |title=Abraham Lincoln Historical Tours in Springfield, Illinois |website=lincolnlibraryandmuseum.com |access-date=February 13, 2020}}</ref> A portrait carving of Lincoln appears with those of three other presidents on [[Mount Rushmore]], which receives about 3&nbsp;million visitors a year.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mount Rushmore National Memorial |url=http://www.nps.gov/moru/historyculture/index.htm |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001021548/http://www.nps.gov/moru/historyculture/index.htm |archive-date=October 1, 2011 |url-status=live |access-date=November 13, 2010}}</ref> An [[Abraham Lincoln: The Man|influential statue of Lincoln]] stands in [[Lincoln Park]] Chicago, with recastings given as diplomatic gifts standing in [[Parliament Square]], London, and [[Parque Lincoln]], Mexico City.<ref name=NPS2>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/saga/learn/news/lincoln.htm|title=Abraham Lincoln in Cornish|work=nps.gov|date= April 18, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/why-mexico-loved-lincoln-180962258/ |title=Why Abraham Lincoln Was Revered in Mexico |last=Katz |first=Jamie |website=Smithsonian |language=en |access-date=2018-12-24}}</ref><ref name=Tolles>{{cite journal |first=Thayer |last=Tolles |title=Abraham Lincoln: The Man (Standing Lincoln): a bronze statuette by Augustus Saint-Gaudens |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/675325|journal=Metropolitan Museum Journal |volume=48 |year=2013 |pages=223–37 |doi=10.1086/675325 |s2cid=192203987 }}</ref> In 2019, [[Congress]] officially dedicated room H-226 in the [[United States Capitol|US Capitol]] to Abraham Lincoln.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-06-12 |title=Congress Dedicates Lincoln Room {{!}} U.S. Capitol Historical Society |url=https://uschs.org/news-releases/congress-dedicates-lincoln-room/ |access-date=2022-06-12 |website=United States Capitol Historical Society}}</ref> The room is located off of [[National Statuary Hall]] and previously served as the [[post office]] of the House while then-Representative Abraham Lincoln served in Congress from 1847-1849.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-12-21 |title=Legislation to Name Room in US Capitol "Lincoln Room" Passes House |url=https://lahood.house.gov/2018/12/legislation-name-room-us-capitol-lincoln-room-passes-house |access-date=2022-06-12 |website=Congressman Darin LaHood |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=LINCOLN, Abraham {{!}} US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives |url=https://history.house.gov/People/Listing/L/LINCOLN,-Abraham-(L000313)/ |access-date=2022-06-12 |website=history.house.gov |language=en}}</ref> <gallery widths="140px" heights="200px" class="center"> File:Head of Abraham Lincoln at Mount Rushmore.jpg|alt=See caption|Lincoln's image carved into the stone of [[Mount Rushmore]] File:Lincoln Heritage Scenic Highway - Adolph Weinman's Abraham Lincoln Statue - NARA - 7720071 (cropped).jpg|alt=See caption|[[Statue of Abraham Lincoln (Hodgenville, Kentucky)|''Abraham Lincoln'']], a 1909 bronze statue by [[Adolph Alexander Weinman|Adolph Weinman]], sits before a historic church in Hodgenville, Kentucky. File:Lincoln 1866 Issue-15c.jpg|The Lincoln memorial postage stamp of 1866 was issued by the U.S. Post Office exactly one year after Lincoln's death. </gallery> ==See also== {{Portal|Biography|American Civil War|Politics|Law|Kentucky|Illinois|United States}} * [[Outline of Abraham Lincoln]] * [[Grace Bedell]] * [[The Towers (Ohio State)|Lincoln Tower]] * [[List of civil rights leaders]] * [[List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln]] * [[Lincoln (film)|''Lincoln'' (film)]]: 2012 [[film]] by [[Steven Spielberg]]. * [[Linconia]], a proposed colony in Central America named for Lincoln ==Notes== {{Notelist}} ==References== {{Reflist|colwidth=20em}} ===Bibliography=== {{See also|Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln}} {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book|last=Ambrose|first=Stephen E.|author-link=Stephen E. Ambrose|year=1996|title=Halleck: Lincoln's Chief of Staff|publisher=LSU Press|location=Baton Rouge, Louisiana|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=mNYeG7Qrw7UC}}|isbn=978-0-8071-5539-4}} * {{cite book|last=Baker|first=Jean H.|author-link=Jean H. Baker|year=1989|title=Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|location=New York, New York|isbn=978-0-393-30586-9}} * {{cite book|last=Bartelt|first=William E.|author-link=William Bartelt|year=2008|title=There I Grew Up: Remembering Abraham Lincoln's Indiana Youth|publisher=Indiana Historical Society Press|location=Indianapolis, Indiana|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Ed-NAAAAMAAJ}}|isbn=978-0-87195-263-9}} * {{cite book|last=Belz|first=Herman|year=1998|title=Abraham Lincoln, constitutionalism, and equal rights in the Civil War era|publisher=Fordham University Press|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=GbztAAAAMAAJ}}|isbn=978-0-8232-1768-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Belz|first=Herman|editor1-last=Frohnen|editor1-first=Bruce|editor-link1=Bruce Frohnen|editor2-last=Beer|editor2-first=Jeremy|editor3-last=Nelson|editor3-first=Jeffrey O|year=2014|encyclopedia=American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia|title=Lincoln, Abraham|publisher=Open Road Media|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=T1yOAwAAQBAJ}}|isbn=978-1-932236-43-9}} * {{cite magazine|last=Bennett Jr.|first=Lerone|author-link=Lerone Bennett Jr.|year=1968|title=Was Abe Lincoln a White Supremacist?|magazine=Ebony|volume=23|issue=4|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=H84DAAAAMBAJ|page=35}}|issn=0012-9011}} * {{cite book|last=Blue|first=Frederick J.|year=1987|title=Salmon P. Chase: A Life in Politics|publisher=Kent State University Press|location=Kent, Ohio|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Wyxj7Y3Fh7AC}}|isbn=978-0-87338-340-0}} * {{cite book|last1=Boritt|first1=Gabor S.|author-link1=Gabor Boritt|last2=Pinsker|first2=Matthew|editor-last=Graff|editor-first=Henry|editor-link=Henry Graff|year=2002|title=The Presidents: A reference History|chapter=Abraham Lincoln|edition=7th|isbn=978-0-684-80551-1}} * {{cite book|last1=Bulla|first1=David W.|last2=Borchard|first2=Gregory A.|year=2010|title=Journalism in the Civil War Era|publisher=Peter Lang|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=U67N0GsAUosC}}|isbn=978-1-4331-0722-1}} * {{cite book|last=Burlingame|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Burlingame (historian)|year=2008|title=Abraham Lincoln: A Life|volume=2|publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore, Maryland|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=fcBd_-O8QC}}|isbn=978-1-4214-1067-8}} * {{cite book|last=Carwardine|first=Richard J.|author-link=Richard Carwardine|year=2003|title=Lincoln|publisher=Pearson Longman|location=London, England|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=UrAOAQAAMAAJ}}|isbn=978-0-582-03279-8}} * {{cite book|last1=Cashin|first1=Joan E.|year=2002|title=The War was You and Me: Civilians in the American Civil War|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, New Jersey|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=XDGYzuPW3PoC}}|isbn=978-0-691-09174-7}} * {{cite book|last=Chesebrough|first=David B.|year=1994|title=No Sorrow Like Our Sorrow: Northern Protestant Ministers and the Assassination of Lincoln|publisher=Kent State University Press|location=Kent, Ohio|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=OHRNdDC54ooC}}|isbn=978-0-87338-491-9}} * {{Cite book |last=Collea |first=Joseph D. Collea Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6XFuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |title=New York and the Lincoln Specials: The President's Pre-Inaugural and Funeral Trains Cross the Empire State |date=September 20, 2018 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-3324-4 |pages=13–14 }} * {{cite book|last=Cox|first=Hank H.|year=2005|title=Lincoln and the Sioux Uprising of 1862|publisher=Cumberland House|location=Nashville, Tennessee|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=gAUUbzGzg-ECL}}|isbn=978-1-58182-457-5}} * {{Cite web |last=Current |first=Richard N. |author-link=Richard N. Current |date=July 28, 1999 |title=Abraham Lincoln - Early political career |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abraham-Lincoln/Early-political-career |access-date= |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en }} * {{cite book|last=Dennis|first=Matthew|year=2018|title=Red, White, and Blue Letter Days: An American Calendar|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=a6JhDwAAQBAJ}}|isbn=978-1-5017-2370-4}} * {{cite book|last=Diggins|first=John P.|author-link=John Patrick Diggins|year=1986|title=The Lost Soul of American Politics: Virtue, Self-Interest, and the Foundations of Liberalism|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago, Illinois|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=O3vYavMFE2MC}}|isbn=978-0-226-14877-9}} * {{cite journal |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/315139 |last=Dirck |first=Brian |title=''Father Abraham: Lincoln's Relentless Struggle to End Slavery'', and: ''Act of Justice: Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation and the Law of War'', and: ''Lincoln and Freedom: Slavery, Emancipation, and the Thirteenth Amendment'' (review) |journal=Civil War History |date=September 2009 |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=382–385 |doi=10.1353/cwh.0.0090 }} * {{cite book|last=Dirck|first=Brian R.|year=2008|title=Lincoln the Lawyer|publisher=University of Illinois Press|location=Champaign, Illinois|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=N1FEs-pDrT8C}}|isbn=978-0-252-07614-5}} * {{cite book|last=Donald|first=David Herbert|author-link=David Herbert Donald|year=1996|title=Lincoln|publisher=Simon and Schuster|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=fuTY3mxs9awC}}|isbn=978-0-684-82535-9}} * {{cite book|last=Douglass|first=Frederick|author-link=Frederick Douglass|year=2008|title=The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass|publisher=Cosimo Classics|location=New York, New York|isbn=978-1-60520-399-7}} * {{cite book|last=Edgar|first=Walter B.|author-link=Walter Edgar|year=1998|title=South Carolina: A History|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|location=Columbia, South Carolina|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=EFSbwGk2szgC}}|isbn=978-1-57003-255-4}} * {{cite journal|last=Ellenberg|first=Jordan|author-link=Jordan Ellenberg|date= May 23, 2021|title= What Honest Abe Learned from Geometry|journal=Wall Street Journal|volume=278|issue=119|pages=C3}} Ellenberg's essay is adapted from his 2021 book, ''Shape: The Hidden Geometry of Information, Biology, Strategy, Democracy, and Everything Else'', Penguin Press. ISBN 9781984879059 * {{cite journal|last=Fish|first=Carl Russell|author-link=Carl Russell Fish|year=1902|title=Lincoln and the Patronage|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=8|issue=1|pages=53–69|jstor=1832574|doi=10.2307/1832574}} * {{cite journal|last=Foner|first=Eric|author-link=Eric Foner|year=2010|title=The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery|journal=The SHAFR Guide Online|doi=10.1163/2468-1733_shafr_sim040100206}} * {{cite book|last=Goodrich|first=Th|year=2005|title=The Darkest Dawn: Lincoln, Booth, and the Great American Tragedy|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Indianapolis, Indiana|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=8Fv6ngEACAAJ}}|isbn=978-0-253-34567-7}} * {{cite book|last=Goodwin|first=Doris Kearns|author-link=Doris Kearns Goodwin|year=2005|title=Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln|publisher=Simon and Schuster|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=4MS3BQAAQBAJ}}|isbn=978-0-684-82490-1}} * {{cite book|last=Graebner|first=Norman|editor-last=Basler|editor-first=Roy Prentice|editor-link=Roy Basler|year=1959|title=The enduring Lincoln: Lincoln sesquicentennial lectures at the University of Illinois|publisher=University of Illinois Press|location=Champaign, Illinois|chapter=Abraham Lincoln: Conservative Statesman|chapter-url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=zlxKAAAAMAAJ}}|oclc=428674}} * {{cite book|last1=Grimsley|first1=Mark|author-link1=Mark Grimsley|last2=Simpson|first2=Brooks D.|author-link2=Brooks D. Simpson|year=2001|title=The Collapse of the Confederacy|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|location=Lincoln, Nebraska|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=joh3AAAAMAAJ}}|isbn=978-0-8032-2170-3}} * {{cite book|last=Guelzo|first=Allen C.|author-link=Allen C. Guelzo|year=1999|title=Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President|publisher=Wm.B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=FmB3AAAAMAAJ}}|isbn=978-0-8028-3872-8}} * {{cite book|last=Guelzo|first=Allen C.|year=2004|title=Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America|publisher=Simon and Schuster|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=DJmTUq9hYUoC}}|isbn=978-0-7432-2182-5}} * {{cite book|last=Harrison|first=J. Houston|title=Settlers by the Long Grey Trail|publisher=Joseph K. Ruebush Co.|year=1935}} * {{cite book|last=Harrison|first=Lowell|author-link=Lowell H. Harrison|year=2010|title=Lincoln of Kentucky|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|location=Lexington, Kentucky|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=TYNsQ7iky2MC}}|isbn=978-0-8131-2940-2}} * {{cite book|last=Harris|first=William C.|author-link=William C. Harris (historian)|year=2007|title=Lincoln's Rise to the Presidency|publisher=University Press of Kansas|location=Lawrence, Kansas|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Bbt2AAAAMAAJ}}|isbn=978-0-7006-1520-9}} * {{cite book|last=Harris|first=William C.|author-link=William C. Harris (historian)|year=2011|title=Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union|publisher=University Press of Kansas|location=Lawrence, Kansas}} * {{cite book|editor1-last=Heidler|editor1-first=David Stephen|editor2-last=Heidler|editor2-first=Jeanne T.|editor3-last=Coles|editor3-first=David J.|year=2002|title=Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=1IhZngEACAAJ}}|isbn=978-0-393-04758-5}} * {{cite book|last1=Heidler|first1=David Stephen|last2=Heidler|first2=Jeanne T.|year=2006|title=The Mexican War|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|location=Santa Barbara, California|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=I9hD60q4MsQC}}|isbn=978-0-313-32792-6}} * {{cite web|last=History.com|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/house-passes-the-13th-amendment|title=House passes the 13th Amendment|publisher=History.com|access-date=May 4, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110065228/http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/house-passes-the-13th-amendment|archive-date=November 10, 2012|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last=Hodes|first=Martha|author-link=Martha Hodes|year=2015|title=Mourning Lincoln|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven, Connecticut|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=59ZtBgAAQBAJ}}|isbn=978-0-300-21356-0}} * {{cite journal|last=Hofstadter|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Hofstadter|year=1938|title=The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=44|issue=1|pages=50–55|doi=10.2307/1840850|jstor=1840850}} * {{cite book|last=Holzer|first=Harold|author-link=Harold Holzer|year=2004|title=Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=lQmUab8SnhQC}}|isbn=978-0-7432-9964-0}} * {{cite book|last=Jaffa|first=Harry V.|author-link=Harry V. Jaffa|year=2000|title=A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|location=Lanham, Maryland|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=SzA4Zdd6mJoC}}|isbn=978-0-8476-9952-0}} * {{cite book|last1=Kelley|first1=Robin D. G.|author-link1=Robin Kelley|last2=Lewis|first2=Earl|author-link2=Earl Lewis|year=2005|title=To Make Our World Anew: Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=ua0dld3camgC}}|isbn=978-0-19-804006-4}} * {{cite book|editor1-last=Lamb|editor1-first=Brian P.|editor-link1=Brian Lamb|editor2-last=Swain|editor2-first=Susan|editor-link2=Susan Swain|year=2008|title=Abraham Lincoln: Great American Historians on Our Sixteenth President|publisher=PublicAffairs|location=New York, New York|url=https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincolngr0000unse|isbn=978-1-58648-676-1}} * {{cite journal|last=Lupton|first=John A.|year=2006|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Corwin Amendment|journal=Illinois Heritage|volume=9|issue=5|page=34|url=http://www.lib.niu.edu/2006/ih060934.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160824072958/http://www.lib.niu.edu/2006/ih060934.html|archive-date=August 24, 2016}} * {{cite journal|last=Luthin|first=Reinhard H.|author-link=Reinhard H. Luthin|year=1944|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Tariff|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=49|issue=4|pages=609–629|jstor=1850218|doi=10.2307/1850218}} * {{cite book|last=Madison|first=James H.|year=2014|title=Hoosiers: A New History of Indiana|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Indianapolis, Indiana|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=2DvwnQEACAAJ}}|isbn=978-0-253-01308-8}} * {{cite book|last=Mansch|first=Larry D.|year=2005|title=Abraham Lincoln, President-elect: The Four Critical Months from Election to Inauguration|publisher=McFarland & Company|location=Jefferson, North Carolina|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=NMt-yrjVE50C}}|isbn=978-0-7864-2026-1}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Lincolns-Missing-Bodyguard.html |title=Lincoln's Missing Bodyguard |first=Paul |last=Martin |date=April 8, 2010 |work=Smithsonian Magazine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927221216/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Lincolns-Missing-Bodyguard.html |archive-date=September 27, 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date=October 15, 2010 }} * {{cite book|last=McGovern|first=George S.|author-link=George McGovern|year=2009|title=Abraham Lincoln: The American Presidents Series: The 16th President, 1861–1865|publisher=Henry Holt and Company|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=oytingEACAAJ}}|isbn=978-0-8050-8345-3}} * {{cite book|last=McPherson|first=James M.|author-link=James M. McPherson|year=1992|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=vFNppNaal6AC}}|isbn=978-0-19-507606-6}} * {{cite book|last=McPherson|first=James M.|author-link=James M. McPherson|year=2009|title=Abraham Lincoln|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=3BMSDAAAQBAJ}}|isbn=978-0-19-537452-0}} * {{cite book |last=Morse |first=John Torrey |author-link=John Torrey Morse |title=Abraham Lincoln |volume=I |publisher=Cambridge, Mass., Riverside Press |year=1893 |url=https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincolnv1mors }} * {{cite book |last=Morse |first=John Torrey |author-link=John Torrey Morse |title=Abraham Lincoln |volume=II |publisher=Cambridge, Mass. Riverside Press |year=1893 |url=https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincolnv2mors |ref=morse2 }} * {{cite book|last=Neely Jr.|first=Mark E.|author-link=Mark E. Neely Jr.|year=1992|title=The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|location=New York, New York|url=https://www.questia.com/library/79055660/the-fate-of-liberty-abraham-lincoln-and-civil-liberties|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029142532/https://www.questia.com/library/79055660/the-fate-of-liberty-abraham-lincoln-and-civil-liberties|archive-date=October 29, 2014|url-status=live}} * {{cite journal|last=Neely Jr.|first=Mark E.|author-link=Mark E. Neely Jr.|year=2004|title=Was the Civil War a Total War?|journal=Civil War History|volume=50 |issue=4|pages=434–458|doi=10.1353/cwh.2004.0073}} * {{cite book|last=Nevins|first=Allan|author-link=Allan Nevins|year=1959|title=The War for the Union|publisher=Scribner|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=88PUvgEACAAJallan}}|isbn=978-0-684-10416-4}} * {{cite book|last=Nevins|first=Allan|author-link=Allan Nevins|year=1947|title=The War for the Union and Ordeal of the Union, and the Emergence of Lincoln|publisher=Scribner|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=88PUvgEACAAJ}}}} * {{cite journal|last=Nichols|first=David A.|year=1974|title=The Other Civil War Lincoln and the Indians|journal=Minnesota History|url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/44/v44i01p002-015.pdf}} * {{cite book|last=Noll|first=Mark A. |author-link=Mark Noll |year=1992 |title=A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=VGF3wbzzy9QC|page=322}}|isbn=978-0-8028-0651-2}} * {{cite book|last1=Noll|first1=Mark A.|year=2002|title=America's God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=i4kRDAAAQBAJ}}|isbn=978-0-19-515111-4}} * {{cite book|last=Oates|first=Stephen B. |author-link=Stephen B. Oates |editor-last=Woodward|editor-first=Comer Vann|editor-link=C. Vann Woodward|year=1974|title=Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct |publisher=Dell Publishing|location=New York, New York|chapter=Abraham Lincoln 1861–1865 |chapter-url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=ecKHAAAAMAAJ}}|isbn=978-0-440-05923-3}} * {{cite book |last=Paludan|first=Phillip Shaw |author-link=Phillip S. Paludan| year=1994 |title=The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln|publisher=University Press of Kansas|location=Lawrence, Kansas|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Qi4aAQAAIAAJ}}|isbn=978-0-7006-0671-9}} * {{cite journal |last=Parrillo|first=Nicholas|year=2000|title=Lincoln's Calvinist Transformation: Emancipation and War|journal=Civil War History|volume=46| issue=3|pages=227–253|doi=10.1353/cwh.2000.0073|issn=1533-6271}} * {{cite book| last=Potter|first=David M.|author-link=David M. Potter|year=1977|title=The Impending Crisis: America Before the Civil War, 1848–1861 |publisher=HarperCollins|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=S7Qk9nIwk14C}}|isbn=978-0-06-131929-7}} * {{cite book| last=Randall|first=James Garfield|author-link=James G. Randall|year=1962|title=Lincoln: The Liberal Statesman|publisher=Dodd, Mead & Co.|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=DHUqAAAAYAAJ}}|asin=B0051VUQXO}} * {{cite book|last1=Randall|first1=James Garfield|last2=Current|first2=Richard Nelson|author-link2=Richard N. Current|year=1955|title=Lincoln the President: Last Full Measure|series=Lincoln the President|volume=IV|publisher=Dodd, Mead & Co.|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=KBrdeG8hMhwC}}|oclc=950556947}} * {{cite book |last=Richards|first=John T.|year=2015|title=Abraham Lincoln: The Lawyer-Statesman (Classic Reprint)|publisher=Fb&c Limited|location=London, England|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=3uEUswEACAAJ}}|isbn=978-1-331-28158-0}} * {{cite book |last=Sandburg|first=Carl|author-link=Carl Sandburg|year=1926|title=Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years|publisher=Harcourt|location=San Diego, California|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=deFCAAAAIAAJ}}|oclc=6579822}} * {{cite book |last=Sandburg|first=Carl|year=2002|title=Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years and the War Years|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|location=Boston, Massachusetts|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=EPmfzxRags0C}}|isbn=978-0-15-602752-6}} * {{cite book |last=Schwartz|first=Barry|author-link=Barry Schwartz (sociologist)|year=2000|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Forge of National Memory|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago, Illinois|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=XZwX9ANHHbUC}}|isbn=978-0-226-74197-0}} * {{cite book|last=Schwartz|first=Barry|year=2008|title=Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Memory in Late Twentieth-Century America|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago, Illinois|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=1p9T8drMHeYC}}|isbn=978-0-226-74188-8}} * {{cite book |last=Sherman|first=William T.|author-link=William Tecumseh Sherman|year=1990|title=Memoirs of General W.T. Sherman|publisher=BiblioBazaar|location=Charleston, South Carolina|isbn=978-1-174-63172-6}} * {{cite book| last=Simon|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Simon (politician)|year=1990|title=Lincoln's Preparation for Greatness: The Legislative Years|publisher=University of Illinois Press|location=Champaign, Illinois|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=WSm1wQEACAAJ}} |isbn=978-0-252-00203-8}} * {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Robert C.|author-link=Robert C. Smith (political scientist)|year=2010|title=Conservatism and Racism, and Why in America They Are the Same|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=ueQjmQEACAAJ}}|isbn=978-1-4384-3233-5}} * {{cite book|last=Steers Jr.|first=Edward|author-link=Edward Steers Jr.|year=2010|title=The Lincoln Assassination Encyclopedia|publisher=HarperCollins|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=5XbXsdrLwn8C}}|isbn=978-0-06-178775-1}} * {{cite book|last=Striner|first=Richard|year=2006|title=Father Abraham: Lincoln's Relentless Struggle to End Slavery|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=England, London|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=EuR2AAAAMAAJ}}|isbn=978-0-19-518306-1}} * {{cite book|editor1-last=Taranto|editor1-first=James|editor-link1=James Taranto|editor2-last=Leo|editor2-first=Leonard|editor-link2=Leonard Leo|year=2004|title=Presidential Leadership: Rating the Best and the Worst in the White House|publisher=Free Press|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=myl2AAAAMAAJ}}|isbn=978-0-7432-5433-5}} * {{cite journal|last=Tegeder|first=Vincent G.|year=1948|title=Lincoln and the Territorial Patronage: The Ascendancy of the Radicals in the West|journal=The Mississippi Valley Historical Review|volume=35|issue=1|pages=77–90|jstor=1895140|doi=10.2307/1895140}} * {{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Benjamin P.|author-link=Benjamin P. Thomas|year=2008|title=Abraham Lincoln: A Biography|publisher=Southern Illinois University Press|location=Carbondale, Illinois|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=fkB_E9GM0XoC}}|isbn=978-0-8093-2887-1}} * {{cite book|last=Trostel|first=Scott D.|year=2002|title=The Lincoln Funeral Train: The Final Journey and National Funeral for Abraham Lincoln|publisher=Cam-Tech Publishing|location=Fletcher, Ohio|url=http://www.lincolnfuneraltrain.com/html/funeral_train.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712183544/http://lincolnfuneraltrain.com/html/funeral_train.html|archive-date=2013|isbn=978-0-925436-21-4}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Vile|first=John R.|year=2003|title=Lincoln, Abraham (1809–1865)|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Constitutional Amendments: Proposed Amendments, and Amending Issues 1789–2002|edition=2nd|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-428-8 }} * {{cite book|last=Vorenberg|first=Michael|year=2001|title=Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=f-UQWNPD5qgC}}|isbn=978-0-521-65267-4}} * {{cite book|last=Warren|first=Louis A.|year=2017|title=Lincoln's Youth: Indiana Years, Seven to Twenty-One, 1816–1830 (Classic Reprint)|publisher=Fb&c Limited|location=London, England|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=1zo7tAEACAAJ}}|isbn=978-0-282-90830-0}} * {{cite book|last=White|first=Ronald C.|author-link=Ronald C. White|year=2009|title=A. Lincoln: A Biography|publisher=Random House|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=6kf6Kzz4otYCA.}}|isbn=978-1-58836-775-4}} * {{Cite web |last=Wilentz |first=Sean |date=2012 |title=Abraham Lincoln and Jacksonian Democracy |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/node/242 |website=[[Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History]] |language=en }}{{Dead link|date=May 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite book|last=Wills|first=Garry|author-link=Garry Wills|year=2012|title=Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words that Remade America|publisher=Simon and Schuster|location=New York, New York|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=7-aynIQRkYcC}}|isbn=978-1-4391-2645-5}} *{{cite book|last1=Wilson|first1=Douglas Lawson|last2=Davis |first2=Rodney O.|last3=Wilson|first3=Terry |first4=William Henry|last4=Herndon|first5=Jesse William|last5=Weik|title=Herndon's Informants: Letters, Interviews, and Statements about Abraham Lincoln|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=s2gilcp4yYQC|page=35}}|year=1998|publisher=Univ of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-02328-6|pages=35–36}} *{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Douglas L. |title=Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln|year=1999|publisher=A. A. Knopf|location=New York|isbn=978-0-307-76581-9}} * {{cite book|last=Winkle|first=Kenneth J.|year=2001|title=The Young Eagle: The Rise of Abraham Lincoln|publisher=Taylor Trade Publishing|location=Lanham, Maryland|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=JcEVAAAAQBAJ}}|isbn=978-1-4617-3436-9}} * {{cite book|last=Zarefsky|first=David|author-link=David Zarefsky|year=1993|title=Lincoln, Douglas, and Slavery: In the Crucible of Public Debate|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago, Illinois|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=SlCU9PS9VGcC}}|isbn=978-0-226-97876-5}} {{Refend}} ==External links== <!--======================== {{No more links}} ============================ | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia | | is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. | | | | Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. | | See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. | | | | If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or | | replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link | | to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) | | and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. | ==={{No more links}}=========--> {{Sister project links|wikt=no|commons=Abraham Lincoln |b=no |n=no |q=Abraham Lincoln |s=Author:Abraham Lincoln|v=no|voy=no|species=no|display=Abraham Lincoln|d=Q91}} ===Official=== * [https://presidentlincoln.illinois.gov/ Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum] * [https://papersofabrahamlincoln.org/about The Lincoln Presidential Library's ongoing digitization of all documents written by or to Abraham Lincoln during his lifetime] * [https://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/ Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln – complete collected works as edited by Basler et al. (1958)] – an online edition available through University of Michigan Library Digital Collections * [https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/abraham-lincoln/ White House biography] ===Organizations=== * [http://www.abrahamlincolnassociation.org/ Abraham Lincoln Association] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428030450/http://abrahamlincolnassociation.org/ |date=April 28, 2020 }} * [http://www.lincolnbicentennial.org/ Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Foundation] ===Media coverage=== * {{New York Times topic|new_id=person/abraham-lincoln}} ===Other=== {{Biographical Directory of Congress|L000313|ref=no}} * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/lincoln/ Abraham Lincoln: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress] * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?125640-1/life-portrait-abraham-lincoln "Life Portrait of Abraham Lincoln"], from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''American presidents: Life Portraits'', June 28, 1999 * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?164439-1/writings-abraham-lincoln "Writings of Abraham Lincoln"] from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Writers: A Journey Through History]]'' * [http://www.shapell.org/Collection/The-Lincoln-Collection Abraham Lincoln: Original Letters and Manuscripts] – [[Shapell Manuscript Foundation]] * [http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/ Lincoln/Net: Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project] – Northern Illinois University Libraries * [http://edsitement.neh.gov/teaching-abraham-lincoln#node-19470 Teaching Abraham Lincoln] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210055506/http://edsitement.neh.gov/teaching-abraham-lincoln#node-19470 |date=December 10, 2017 }} – [[National Endowment for the Humanities]] * {{Gutenberg author|id=3}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Abraham Lincoln}} * {{Librivox author |id=2233}} * [http://memory.loc.gov/diglib/ihas/loc.natlib.ihas.200002063/default.html In Popular Song: Our Noble Chief Has Passed Away by Cooper/Thomas] * [http://www.mchistory.org/perch/resources/Finding%20Aid%20PDFs/lincoln-abraham-miscellaneous-publications-1.pdf Abraham Lincoln Recollections and Newspaper Articles Collection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113063456/http://www.mchistory.org/perch/resources/Finding%20Aid%20PDFs/lincoln-abraham-miscellaneous-publications-1.pdf |date=November 13, 2018 }}, McLean County Museum of History * Digitized items in [https://www.loc.gov/collections/alfred-whital-stern-lincolniana/about-this-collection/ the Alfred Whital Stern Collection of Lincolniana] in the [https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/ Rare Book and Special Collections Division] in the [[Library of Congress]] {{Abraham Lincoln|state=expanded}} {{Navboxes |title=Offices and distinctions |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[John Henry (representative)|John Henry]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[List of United States representatives from Illinois|U.S. House of Representatives]]<br />from [[Illinois's 7th congressional district]]|years=1847–1849}} {{s-aft|after=[[Thomas L. Harris|Thomas Harris]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[John C. Frémont|John Frémont]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|nominee]] for President of the United States |years=[[1860 United States presidential election|1860]], [[1864 United States presidential election|1864]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Ulysses S. 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