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'{{otheruses}} {{Infobox President |name = Abraham Lincoln |nationality = American |image = Abraham Lincoln head on shoulders photo portrait.jpg |order = [[List of Presidents of the United States|16th]] [[President of the United States]] |term_start = March 4, 1861 |term_end = April 15, 1865 |predecessor = [[James Buchanan]] |successor = [[Andrew Johnson]] |state2 = [[Illinois]] |district2 = [[Illinois's 7th congressional district|7th]] |term_start2 = March 4, 1847 |term_end2 = March 3, 1849 |predecessor2 = [[John Henry (representative)|John Henry]] |successor2 = [[Thomas L. Harris]] |birth_date = {{birth date|mf=yes|1809|2|12|mf=y}} |birth_place =[[Hardin County, Kentucky]] |death_date = {{death date and age|mf=yes|1865|4|15|1809|2|12}} |death_place =[[Washington, D.C.]] |restingplace=[[Oak Ridge Cemetery]]<br/>[[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]], [[Illinois]] |spouse = [[Mary Todd Lincoln]] |children = [[Robert Todd Lincoln]], [[Edward Baker Lincoln|Edward Lincoln]], [[William Wallace Lincoln|Willie Lincoln]], [[Tad Lincoln]] |occupation=[[Lawyer]] |religion = See: [[Abraham Lincoln and religion]] |party = [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] (1832-1854), [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] (1854-1864), [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union]] (1864-1865) |vicepresident = [[Hannibal Hamlin]] <small>(1861 – 1865)</small><br />[[Andrew Johnson]] <small>(1865)</small> |signature = Abraham Lincoln Signature.svg |branch=Illinois Militia |serviceyears=1832 |battles=[[Black Hawk War]] }} '''Abraham Lincoln''' (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865), the [[List of Presidents of the United States|16th]] [[President of the United States]], successfully led his country through its greatest internal crisis, the [[American Civil War]], preserving the Union and ending slavery. Before his election in 1860 as the first [[History of the United States Republican Party|Republican]] president, Lincoln had been a [[country lawyer]], an [[Illinois]] [[Illinois House of Representatives|state legislator]], a member of the [[United States House of Representatives]], and twice an unsuccessful candidate for election to the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]]. As an outspoken opponent of the expansion of [[slavery in the United States]], <ref> {{harvnb|Goodwin|2005|p= 91}} </ref> <ref>{{harvnb|Holzer|2004|p=232}} </ref> Lincoln won the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] nomination in 1860 and was [[United States presidential election, 1860|elected president]] later that year. His tenure in office was occupied primarily with the defeat of the [[Secession in the United States|secessionist]] [[Confederate States of America]] in the American Civil War. He introduced measures that resulted in the abolition of [[slavery]], issuing his [[Emancipation Proclamation]] in 1863 and promoting the passage of the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] to the Constitution. As the civil war was drawing to a close, Lincoln became the first American president to be [[Abraham Lincoln assassination|assassinated]]. Lincoln closely supervised the victorious war effort, especially the selection of top [[Military rank|generals]], including [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. Historians have concluded that he handled the factions of the Republican Party well, bringing leaders of each faction into his cabinet and forcing them to cooperate. Lincoln successfully defused the [[Trent Affair|''Trent'' affair]], a war scare with [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]], in 1861. Under his leadership, the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] took control of the [[Border states (American Civil War)|border slave states]] at the start of the war. Additionally, he managed his own reelection in the [[United States presidential election, 1864|1864 presidential election]]. [[Copperheads (politics)|Copperheads]] and other opponents of the war criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on the slavery issue. Conversely, the [[Radical Republicans]], an abolitionist faction of the Republican Party, criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery. Even with these road blocks, Lincoln successfully rallied public opinion through his rhetoric and speeches; his [[Gettysburg Address]] is but one example of this. At the close of the war, Lincoln held a moderate view of [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]], seeking to speedily reunite the nation through a policy of generous reconciliation. His successor in the White House, Andrew Johnson, also wanted reconciliation among white Americans, but failed to protect the rights of newly freed slaves. Abraham Lincoln has consistently been ranked by scholars as one of the [[Historical rankings of United States Presidents|greatest U.S. Presidents]].<ref name=Scholar_surveys>Note especially Lincoln's ranking in the [[Historical_rankings_of_United_States_Presidents#Scholar_survey_results|Scholar survey results]] section.</ref> ==Personal life== ===Childhood and education=== [[Image:HinghamSign.jpeg|thumb|Samuel Lincoln, first American ancestor of Abraham, worshipped at Old Ship Church, Hingham, Massachusetts]] Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, to [[Thomas Lincoln]] and [[Nancy Lincoln|Nancy Hanks]], two uneducated farmers, in a one-room [[log cabin]] on the {{convert|348|acre|km2|1|sing=on}} Sinking Spring Farm, in southeast [[Hardin County, Kentucky]] (now part of [[LaRue County, Kentucky|LaRue County]]), making him the first president born west of the [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachians]]. <!-- except for Fillmore, who was born in Summerhill, NY - on the west side of the Appalachian-Alleghany-Adirondack ridge--> Lincoln was not given a middle name. Lincoln's ancestor [[Samuel Lincoln]]<ref>In 1848 attorney and historian Solomon Lincoln of [[Hingham, Massachusetts]], began a correspondence with Abraham Lincoln to determine whether the future President's ancestors originated in Massachusetts. Fortunately, Solomon Lincoln saved his correspondence with distant relation Abraham, which the Hingham lawyer published in 1865 in his book ''Notes on the Lincoln Families of Massachusetts with Some Account of the Family of Abraham Lincoln, Late President of the United States''. [http://books.google.com/books?id=McEOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=%22thomas+lincoln+the+cooper%22&source=web&ots=6udARSqIzB&sig=dXwRNGjsUHRP3cNHDGV03kMja_w&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result#PPA8,M1] </ref> had arrived in [[Hingham, Massachusetts]] from [[Hingham, Norfolk|England]] in the 17th century, but his descendants had gradually moved west, from Pennsylvania to Virginia and then westward to the frontier.<ref> {{cite book |title=History of the Town of Hingham, Massachusetts |author=Tracy Bouvé, Thomas |year=1893 |publisher=[[Harvard University]]}} </ref> [[Image:Abe-Lincoln-Birthplace-2.jpg|thumb|Symbolic log cabin at the [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historical Park]]]] For some time, Thomas Lincoln, Abraham's father, had been a respected citizen of the Kentucky backcountry. He had purchased the Sinking Spring Farm in December 1808 for $200 cash (${{formatprice|{{inflation|US|200|1808}}}} today){{inflation-fn|US}} and assumption of a debt. The family belonged to a [[Primitive Baptist|Hardshell Baptist]] church, although Abraham himself never joined their church, or any other church for that matter. In 1816 the Lincoln family became impoverished, losing their land through court action, and was forced to make a new start in [[Perry County, Indiana|Perry County]], Indiana.<ref> It is now in [[Spencer County, Indiana|Spencer County]]), Indiana. </ref> Lincoln later noted that this move was "partly on account of slavery," and partly because of difficulties with land deeds in Kentucky.<ref> Unlike land in the [[Northwest Territory]], Kentucky never had a proper U.S. survey, and farmers often had difficulties proving title to their property in lawsuits such as the one Thomas Lincoln lost. </ref> When Lincoln was nine, his mother, then 34 years old, died of [[milk sickness]]. Soon afterwards, his father remarried to [[Sarah Bush Lincoln|Sarah Bush Johnston]]. Lincoln and his stepmother were close; he called her "Mother" for the rest of his life, but he was increasingly distant from his father.<ref> {{harvnb|Donald|1995|pp= 28, 152}} </ref> In 1830, after more economic and land-title difficulties in Indiana, the family settled on public land<ref> {{cite web |accessdate=2008-05-21 |url=http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/sites/decaturock.htm |title=Lincoln Trail Homestead State Park |publisher=Abraham Lincoln Online}} </ref> in [[Macon County, Illinois]]. The following winter was desolate and especially brutal, and the family considered moving back to Indiana. The following year, when his father relocated the family to a [[Lincoln Log Cabin State Historic Site|new homestead]] in [[Coles County, Illinois]], 22-year-old Lincoln struck out on his own, canoeing down the [[Sangamon River]] to the village of [[New Salem, Menard County, Illinois|New Salem]] in [[Sangamon County, Illinois|Sangamon County]].<ref> {{cite book |last=Fehrenbacher |first=Don |title=Speeches and Writings 1859-1865 |publisher=Library of America |year=1989 |page=163 |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UWJStTs8-A4C&dq=lincoln+canoe+sangamon+river&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0}} </ref> Later that year, hired by New Salem businessman [[Denton Offutt]] and accompanied by friends, he took goods from New Salem to [[New Orleans]] via flatboat on the Sangamon, [[Illinois River|Illinois]] and [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] rivers. Lincoln's formal education consisted of about 18 months of schooling, but he was largely self-educated and an avid reader. He was also a talented local wrestler and skilled with an axe.<ref> {{cite web |accessdate=2008-05-21 |url=http://www.lincolnportrait.com/physical_man.asp |title=Abraham Lincoln, The Physical Man |publisher=Lincoln Portrait}} </ref> Lincoln avoided hunting and fishing because he did not like killing animals, even for food.<ref> {{harvnb|Sandburg|1974|p=10}} </ref> At 6&nbsp;foot 4&nbsp;inches (1.93&nbsp;m), he was unusually tall, as well as strong. Lincoln's father, Thomas Lincoln, was uneducated and illiterate; however, he was extremely talented in the art of storytelling and entertaining friends. Thomas would regularly host friendly gatherings at his house, which would usually consist of Thomas telling stories all night causing a hilarious uproar from his audience. Stealthily, young Abraham would stay up and listen to his father telling stories, trying to memorize them himself. Occasionally, when Abraham could not understand a certain story or part of one, he would repeat it over and over again in his mind until he finally understood. He then would spend countless hours coming up with a way to put the stories into terms his friends could easily understand. The next day, Abraham would repeat these stories to his friends, mimicking his father. This early practice helped prepare Abraham for the many important speeches he would have to give later in his life.<ref name="teamofrivals"> {{cite book |last=Goodwin |first=Doris Kearns |title=Team of Rivals |location=New York, NY |publisher=Simon & Schuster, Inc. |year=2005}} </ref> ===Marriage and family=== {{further |[[Sexuality of Abraham Lincoln]]}} [[File:Mary_Todd_Lincoln.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mary Todd Lincoln]], wife of Abraham Lincoln]] On November 4, 1842 Lincoln married [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]], daughter of a prominent slave-owning family from Kentucky. The couple had four sons. [[Robert Todd Lincoln]] was born in [[Springfield, Illinois]] on August 1, 1843. Their only child to survive into adulthood, young Robert attended [[Phillips Exeter Academy]] and [[Harvard College]]. The other Lincoln children were born in Springfield, Illinois, and died either during childhood or their teenage years. [[Edward Baker Lincoln]] was born on March 10, 1846, and died on February 1, 1850, also in Springfield. [[William Wallace Lincoln|William "Willie" Wallace Lincoln]] was born on December 21, 1850, and died on February 20, 1862 in [[Washington, D.C.]], during President Lincoln's first term. [[Tad Lincoln|Thomas "Tad" Lincoln]] was born on April 4, 1853, and died on July 16, 1871 in Chicago. Lincoln's last undisputed lineal descendant, [[Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith]], died December 24, 1985. Lincoln was not lucky when it came to women. Having lost his first love, [[Ann Rutledge]], to what could possibly have been typhoid fever, he courted Mary Owens, the sister of his friend Elizabeth Abell, with the promise of marriage. Lincoln finally proposed to Owens in May 1837, but the proposal was less than appealing to her. Eighteen months after that rejection, however, Lincoln became engaged to Mary Todd. Finally in November 1842, after an eighteen month break in their engagement, they were married in the parlor of the Edwards' mansion. Eventually after their marriage, they settled into a quaint house on Eighth and Jackson in Springfield, which was conveniently located within walking distance of his law office. Mary had a hard time adjusting to her new life because she was used to having slaves perform most of the chores all of her life. Also, because Mary was used to having money her entire life, she struggled with the adjustment to relative poverty. Even though Abraham and Mary struggled with the first couple of years of their marriage, the births of two sons within the first forty months of their marriage helped relieve some of that tension. The Lincolns did not believe in rules and boundaries when it came to their children. They were free and able to do anything they pleased.<ref name="teamofrivals" /> ==Early political career and military service== [[Image:Abe Lincoln young.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Sketch of a younger Abraham Lincoln]] {{Main|Abraham Lincoln's early life and career|Abraham Lincoln in the Black Hawk War}} Lincoln began his political career in 1832 at age 23 with an unsuccessful campaign for the [[Illinois General Assembly]] as a member of the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]], in which he lost to Democrat [[Edmund "Dick" Taylor]]. The centerpiece of his platform was the undertaking of navigational improvements on the [[Beardstown and Sangamon Canal|Sangamon River]]. Later that year he served as a captain in a company of the Illinois militia during the Black Hawk War, although he never saw combat. In 1834, he won an election to the state legislature and, after coming across the ''[[Commentaries on the Laws of England]]'', began to teach himself law. [[Admission to the bar in the United States|Admitted to the bar]] in 1837, he moved to Springfield, Illinois that same year and began to practice law with [[John T. Stuart]]. With a reputation as a formidable adversary during cross-examinations and in his closing arguments, Lincoln became an able and successful lawyer.<ref> {{cite book |last=Frank |first=John |title=Lincoln as a Lawyer |publisher=Americana House |year=1991 |isbn=0962529028}} </ref> In 1841 Lincoln entered the law practice with [[William Herndon (lawyer)|William Herndon]], a fellow Whig. He served four successive terms in the [[Illinois House of Representatives]] as a representative from Sangamon County, and became a leader of the Illinois Whig party. In 1837 he made [[Abraham Lincoln on slavery|his first protest against slavery]] in the Illinois House, stating that the institution was "founded on both injustice and bad policy."<ref> {{cite web |accessdate=2008-05-21 |url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=lincoln;cc=lincoln;type=simple;rgn=div1;q1=founded%20on%20both%20injustice%20and%20bad%20policy;view=text;subview=detail;sort=occur;idno=lincoln1;node=lincoln1%3A101 |title=Protest in Illinois Legislature on Slavery |publisher=[[University of Michigan Library]] |date=1937-03-03}} </ref> ===Illinois politics=== [[Image:Abelincoln1846.jpeg|thumb|upright|Lincoln in 1846 or 1847]] In 1846 Lincoln was elected to one term in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]. A staunch Whig, Lincoln often referred to party leader [[Henry Clay]] as his political idol. As a freshman House member, Lincoln was not a particularly powerful or influential figure in Congress. He used his office as an opportunity to speak out against the [[Mexican–American War|war]] with [[Mexico]], which he attributed to [[James K. Polk|President Polk]]'s desire for "military glory — that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood." Lincoln's most famous stand against Polk was in his [[Spot Resolutions]]: The war had begun with a violent confrontation on disputed territory (claimed by both Mexico and [[Texas]]), but Polk had insisted that Mexican soldiers had "invaded ''our territory'' shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our ''own soil''".<ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.sewanee.edu/faculty/Willis/Civil_War/documents/LincolnSpot.html |author=Abraham Lincoln |title="Spot Resolutions"}} </ref> Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed, and proof that that spot was on American soil. Congress never enacted the resolution or even debated it, and its introduction resulted in a loss of political support for Lincoln in his district; one Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln." <ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/lincoln-resolutions/ |title=National Archives: Lincoln's Spot Resolutions}} </ref> Lincoln was a key early supporter of [[Zachary Taylor]]'s candidacy for the [[United States presidential election, 1848|1848 presidential election]]. When Lincoln's term ended, the incoming Taylor administration offered him the governorship of remote [[Oregon Territory]]. Acceptance would end his career in the fast-growing state of Illinois, so he declined. Returning instead to Springfield, Illinois, he turned most of his energies to making a living at the [[bar (law)|bar]], which involved extensive travel on horseback from county to county. It was during this stage of his life, however, that Lincoln gave one of the most pivotal speeches<ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.lincolnatpeoria.com/ |title =”Lincoln at Peoria, The Turning Point” |author= Lewis E. Lehrman}} </ref> of his life - speaking not as a politician, but as a private citizen. Opposed to the 1854 [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]], Lincoln spoke to a crowd in Peoria, Illinois, on October 16, 1854, outlining the moral, political, and economic arguments against slavery<ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.mrlincolnandfreedom.org/inside.asp?ID=11&subjectID=2 |author=The Lincoln Institute |title=Speech at Peoria}} </ref> that he would continue to uphold throughout his career. This speech marked his re-entry into public life. ===Prairie lawyer=== By the mid-1850s, Lincoln faced competing transportation interests — both the river [[barge]]s and the [[rail transport|railroad]]s. Originally, Lincoln had favored riverboat interests. In 1849, he had received a [[patent]] for a "device to buoy vessels over shoals." Lincoln's goal had been to lessen the draft of a river craft by pushing horizontal floats into the water alongside the hull. The floats would have served as temporary [[ballast tank]]s.<ref name="NMAH"> {{cite web |url=http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object.cfm?key=35&objkey=19 |title=Abraham Lincoln's Patent Model: Improvement for Buoying Vessels Over Shoals |publisher=National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution |accessdate=2008-06-17}} </ref> <ref> {{Cite journal |last = Emerson |first = Jason |title = A Man of Considerable Mechanical Genius |journal = Invention and Technology |volume = 23 |issue = 4 |pages = 10–13 |date = Winter 2009}} </ref> The concept was never commercialized. Lincoln was the only President of the United States to hold a patent. As the 1850s began, Lincoln moved closer towards the railroad industry. In 1851, he represented the [[Alton Railroad|Alton & Sangamon Railroad]] in a dispute with one of its shareholders, James A. Barret. Barret had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to that corporation on the grounds that it had changed its originally planned route. Lincoln argued that as a matter of law a corporation is not bound by its original charter when that charter can be amended in the public interest, that the newer proposed Alton & Sangamon route was superior and less expensive, and that accordingly the corporation had a right to sue Mr. Barret for his delinquent payment. He won this case, and the decision by the [[Supreme Court of Illinois|Illinois Supreme Court]] was eventually cited by several other courts throughout the United States. Lincoln's most notable criminal trial came in 1858 when he defended [[William "Duff" Armstrong]], who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker. The case is famous for Lincoln's use of [[judicial notice]], a rare tactic at that time, to show an eyewitness had lied on the stand. After the witness testified to having seen the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a [[Farmers' Almanac]] to show that the moon on that date was at such a low angle it could not have produced enough illumination to see anything clearly. Based upon this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted. ==Republican politics 1854–1860== Lincoln returned to politics in response to the [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]] (1854), which expressly repealed the limits on slavery's extent as established by the [[Missouri Compromise]] (1820). Illinois Democrat [[Stephen A. Douglas]], the most powerful man in the Senate, proposed [[popular sovereignty]] as the solution to the slavery impasse, and incorporated it into the Kansas–Nebraska Act. Douglas argued that in a democracy the people should have the right to decide whether or not to allow slavery in their territory, rather than have such a decision imposed on them by the national Congress.<ref> {{harvnb|Donald|1995|loc=§7}} </ref> In the October 16, 1854, "[[Abraham Lincoln Peoria speech|Peoria Speech]]",<ref> {{cite web |accessdate=2008-05-21 |url=http://www.mrlincolnandfreedom.org/inside.asp?ID=11&subjectID=2 |title=Speech at Peoria, October 16, |publisher=Abraham Lincoln and Freedom}} </ref> Lincoln first stood out among the other [[Free Soil Party|free soil]] orators of the day:<ref> {{cite web |accessdate=2008-05-21 |url=http://www.lincolnatpeoria.com/ |title=Lincoln at Peoria |publisher=Abraham Lincoln at Peoria}} </ref> {{quote|[The Act has a] ''declared'' indifference, but as I must think, covert ''real'' zeal for the spread of slavery, I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world — enables the enemies of free institutions, with plausibility, to taunt us as hypocrites — causes the real friends of freedom to doubt our sincerity, and especially because it forces so many really good men amongst ourselves into an open war with the very fundamental principles of civil liberty — criticizing the Declaration of Independence, and insisting that there is no right principle of action but ''self-interest''.<ref> {{harvnb|Basler|1955|p=255}} </ref> }} Drawing on remnants of the old Whig party, and on disenchanted Free Soil, Liberty, and Democratic party members, he was instrumental in forging the shape of the new Republican Party. In a stirring campaign, the Republicans carried Illinois in 1854 and elected a senator. Lincoln was the obvious choice, but to keep the new party balanced, he allowed the election to go to an ex-Democrat [[Lyman Trumbull]]. At the Republican convention in 1856, Lincoln placed second in the contest to become the party's candidate for Vice-President. In 1857-58, Douglas broke with President [[James Buchanan|Buchanan]], leading to a fight for control of the Democratic Party. Some eastern Republicans even favored the reelection of Douglas in 1858, since he had led the opposition to the [[Lecompton Constitution]], which would have admitted Kansas as a [[slave state]]. Accepting the Republican nomination for Senate in 1858, Lincoln delivered [[Lincoln's House Divided Speech|his famous speech]]: "'A house divided against itself cannot stand.'([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 3:25) I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved — I do not expect the house to fall — but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other."<ref> {{cite web |accessdate=2008-05-21 |url=http://www.nationalcenter.org/HouseDivided.html |title=A House Divided Against Itself Cannot Stand |publisher=[[National Center for Public Policy Research]] |month=June |year=1858 |author=Lincoln, Abraham}} </ref> The speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion caused by the slavery debate, and rallied Republicans across the north. ===Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858=== {{main|Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858}} The 1858 campaign featured the Lincoln-Douglas debates, a famous contest on slavery. Lincoln warned that "[[The Slave Power]]" was threatening the values of [[republicanism]], while [[Stephen A. Douglas]] emphasized the supremacy of [[democracy]], as set forth in his [[Freeport Doctrine]], which said that local settlers should be free to choose whether to allow slavery or not and could overrule judicial rulings. Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature reelected Douglas to the Senate. Nevertheless, Lincoln's speeches on the issue transformed him into a national political star. New York party leaders invited him to give a [[Cooper Union speech|speech at Cooper Union]] in February 1860 to an elite audience that was startled by the poorly dressed, ugly man from the West. He stunned the audience with the most brilliant political speech they had ever heard. Lincoln was emerging as the intellectual leader of the Republican party, and its best speaker.<ref> Journalist [[Noah Brooks]] reported, "No man ever before made such an impression" on a New York audience; Richard Carwardine, ''Lincoln'' (2003), p. 98; Harold Holzer, ''Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President'' (2006) </ref> ==1860 Presidential election== [[Image:The Rail Candidate.jpg|thumb|"The Rail Candidate" - Lincoln's 1860 candidacy is held up by the slavery issue (slave on left) and party organization (''[[New York Tribune]]'' editor [[Horace Greeley]]) on right.]] {{main|United States presidential election, 1860}} Lincoln was chosen as the Republican candidate for the 1860 election for several reasons. His expressed views on slavery were seen as more moderate than those of rivals [[William H. Seward]] and [[Salmon P. Chase]]. His "Western" origins also appealed to the newer states: other contenders, especially those with more governmental experience, had acquired enemies within the party and were weak in the critical western states, while Lincoln was perceived as a moderate who could win the West. Most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party as the Slave Power tightened its grasp on the national government. Throughout the 1850s he denied that there would ever be a civil war, and his supporters repeatedly rejected claims that his election would incite secession.<ref>{{cite book |title=Why the Civil War Came |author=Boritt, Gabor S. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|date=1997-05-29 |isbn=0195113764 |pages=3–30}}</ref> {{Request quotation|date=June 2008}} On May 9-10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in [[Decatur, Illinois|Decatur]]. At this convention, Lincoln received his first endorsement to run for the presidency. [[File:ElectoralCollege1860.svg|300px|thumb|1860 presidential election results]] Lincoln did not campaign on the road. Despite this, he had gained the majority of the popular vote due to the work of the local Republican Party offices throughout the north. They produced tons of campaign posters and leaflets, and thousands of newspaper editorials. There were thousands of Republican speakers who focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln's life story, making an emphasis on his childhood poverty. The goal was to emphasize the superior power of "free labor," whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts. In the South, Lincoln did not appear on a majority of the ballots come the time of the election. On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected as the 16th President of the United States, beating Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, [[John C. Breckinridge]] of the Southern Democrats, and [[John Bell (Tennessee politician)|John Bell]] of the new [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]]. He was the first Republican president, winning entirely on the strength of his support in the North: he was not even on the ballot in nine states in the South, and won only 2 of 996 counties in all of the Southern states. There were [[Electoral fusion|fusion tickets]] in some states, but even if his opponents had combined in every state, Lincoln had a majority vote in all but two of the states in which he won the electoral votes and would still have won the electoral college and the election. Lincoln was the first U. S. President elected from Illinois. ==Presidency and the Civil War== {{main|Origins of the American Civil War|Abraham Lincoln and the Civil War}} With the emergence of the Republicans as the nation's first major sectional party by the mid-1850s, politics became the stage on which sectional tensions were played out. Although much of the West{{ndash}} the focal point of sectional tensions{{ndash}} was unfit for cotton cultivation, Southern secessionists read the political fallout as a sign that their power in national politics was rapidly weakening. Before, the slave system had been buttressed to an extent by the Democratic Party, which was increasingly seen as representing a more pro-Southern position that unfairly permitted Southerners to prevail in the nation's territories and to dominate national policy before the Civil War. Yet they suffered a significant reverse in the electoral realignment of the mid-1850s. 1860 was a critical election that marked a stark change in existing patterns of party loyalties among groups of voters; Abraham Lincoln's election was a watershed in the balance of power of competing national and parochial interests and affiliations. ===Secession winter 1860–1861=== {{main|Baltimore Plot|Cornerstone Speech}} As Lincoln's election became more likely, secessionists made it clear that their states would leave the Union. On December 20, 1860, [[South Carolina]] took the lead. By February 1, 1861, South Carolina was followed by six other cotton-growing states in the deep South. The seven states soon declared themselves to be a new nation, the [[Confederate States of America]]. The upper South ([[Delaware]], [[Maryland]], [[Virginia]], [[North Carolina]], [[Tennessee]], [[Kentucky]], [[Missouri]], and [[Arkansas]]) listened to, but initially rejected, the secessionist appeal. President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy. Attempts at compromise, such as the [[Crittenden Compromise]] which would have extended the [[Missouri Compromise|Missouri line of 1820]], were discussed. Despite support for the Crittenden Compromise among some Republicans, Lincoln denounced it in private letters, saying "either the Missouri line extended, or... Pop. Sov. would lose us everything we gained in the election; that filibustering for all South of us, and making slave states of it, would follow in spite of us, under either plan",<ref> {{cite book |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=UWJStTs8-A4C&pg=PA192&lpg=PA192&dq=%22filibustering+for+all+South+of+us%22&source=web&ots=FmbtJEx71W&sig=4mjHc3bUtD0MltNN1Jt4ffCjvlk&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&ct=result |title=Speeches and Writings by Abraham Lincoln, 1859-1865 |first=Don E. |last=Fehrenbacher |publisher=Library of America |isbn=0940450631 |year=1989 |quote=either the Missouri line extended, or Douglas' and Eli Thayer's Pop. Sov. would lose us everything we gained in the election; that filibustering for all South of us, and making slave states of it, would follow in spite of us, under either plan.}} - from private letter to Thurlow Weed, 1860-12-17 </ref> while other Republicans publicly stated it "would amount to a perpetual covenant of war against every people, tribe, and state owning a foot of land between here and [[Tierra del Fuego]]."<ref> {{cite book |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=-uuEA7xIUHUC&pg=PA115&lpg=PA115&dq=%22tierra+del+fuego%22+%22foot+of+land%22&source=web&ots=MPWa-3Cr68&sig=0A-j0liWI_TzRhzxPQ9uksLVMRg&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result |title=Battle cry of freedom: the Civil War era |author=James M. McPherson |year=1988 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=US |page=115 |isbn=019516895X}}<!--finally, a source. but WHO said it? Almost certainly NOT Lincoln - need Congressional Record of 36th Congress, 2nd session, p.651--> </ref> President-elect Lincoln [[Baltimore Plot|evaded possible assassins in Baltimore]], and on February 23, 1861, arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C. [[Image:Abraham lincoln inauguration 1861.jpg|thumb|left|A photograph of the March 4, 1861 inauguration of Abraham Lincoln in front of [[United States Capitol]]]] At his inauguration on March 4, 1861, the [[German American]] [[Turners]] formed Lincoln's bodyguard; and a sizable garrison of federal troops was also present, ready to protect the capital from Confederate invasion and local insurrection. In his [[Lincoln's first inaugural address|first inaugural address]], Lincoln declared, "I hold that in contemplation of universal law and of the Constitution the Union of these States is perpetual. Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in the fundamental law of all national governments," arguing further that the purpose of the [[United States Constitution]] was "to form a more perfect union" than the [[Articles of Confederation]] which were ''explicitly'' perpetual, thus the Constitution too was perpetual. He asked rhetorically that even were the Constitution a simple contract, would it not require the agreement of all parties to rescind it? Also in his inaugural address, in a final attempt to reunite the states and prevent the looming war, Lincoln supported the pending [[Corwin Amendment]] to the Constitution, which had already passed Congress. This amendment, which explicitly protected slavery in those states in which it already existed, had more appeal to the critical border states than to the states that had already declared their separation. By the time Lincoln took office, the Confederacy was an established fact, and no leaders of the insurrection proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. No compromise was found because a compromise was deemed virtually impossible. Buchanan might have allowed the southern states to secede, and some Republicans recommended that. However, conservative Democratic nationalists, such as [[Jeremiah S. Black]], [[Joseph Holt]], and [[Edwin M. Stanton]] had taken control of Buchanan's cabinet around January 1, 1861, and refused to accept secession. Lincoln and nearly every Republican leader adopted this position by March 1861: the Union could not be dismantled. Believing that a peaceful solution was still possible, Lincoln decided to not take any action against the South unless the Unionists themselves were attacked first. This finally happened in April 1861. Historian [[Allan Nevins]] argues that Lincoln made three miscalculations in believing that he could preserve the Union, hold government property, and still avoid war. He "temporarily underrated the gravity of the crisis", overestimated the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South and border states, and misunderstood the conditional support of Unionists in the border states.<ref> {{cite book |title=The War for the Union Volume I.....The Improvised War 1861-1862 |author=Nevins, Allan |publisher=Konecky & Konecky |date=1971-09-01 |isbn=1568522967 |page=29 |url=http://www.archive.org/stream/warfortheunionvo010749mbp/warfortheunionvo010749mbp_djvu.txt |format=txt}} </ref> In connection with Nevins' conclusions, it is interesting to note an incident from this period reported in the memoirs of [[William Tecumseh Sherman]]. Then a civilian, Sherman visited Lincoln in the White House during inauguration week, with his brother, Ohio Republican John Sherman. This meeting left the future General Sherman "sadly disappointed" at Lincoln's seeming failure to realize that "the country was sleeping on a volcano" and the South was "preparing for war."<ref> WTS Memoirs 185-86 (Lib. of America ed., 1990). </ref> ===Fighting begins: 1861–1862=== {{main |American Civil War}} In April 1861, after Union troops at [[Battle of Fort Sumter|Fort Sumter]] were fired upon and forced to surrender, Lincoln called on the governors of every state to send detachments totaling 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect the capital, and "preserve the Union," which in his view still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. [[Virginia]], which had repeatedly warned Lincoln that it would not allow an invasion of its territory or join an attack on another state, responded by seceding, along with [[North Carolina]], [[Tennessee]], and [[Arkansas]]. The slave states of [[Missouri]], [[Kentucky]], [[Maryland]], and [[Delaware]] did not secede. Lincoln urgently negotiated with state leaders there, promising not to interfere with slavery. After the fighting started, he had rebel leaders arrested in all the border areas and held in military prisons without trial. Over 18,000 were arrested, though none were executed. One, [[Clement Vallandigham]], was exiled; but all of the remainder were released, usually after two or three months (''see'': [[Ex parte Merryman]]). Lincoln had to protect the nation's capital city. In May, angry secessionist mobs in [[Baltimore]], a city to the north of Washington, [[Baltimore riot of 1861|fought with Union troops traveling south]]. [[George William Brown]], the [[List of mayors of Baltimore, Maryland|Mayor of Baltimore]], and other suspect Maryland politicians were arrested and imprisoned at [[Fort McHenry]]. ===Emancipation Proclamation=== {{main|Abraham Lincoln on slavery|Emancipation Proclamation}} {{Emancipation Proclamation draft}} Lincoln maintained that the powers of his administration to end slavery were limited by the Constitution. He expected to bring about the eventual extinction of slavery by stopping its further expansion into any U.S. territory, and by convincing states to accept [[compensated emancipation]] if the state would outlaw slavery (an offer that took effect only in Washington, D.C.). Guelzo says Lincoln believed that shrinking slavery in this way would make it uneconomical, and place it back on the road to eventual extinction that the Founders had envisioned.<ref> {{cite web | author=Mackubin Thomas Owens |url=http://www.nationalreview.com/books/owens200403251139.asp |title=The Liberator |publisher=''National Review'' |date=(March 8, 2004) |quote=reviewing Allen C. Guelzo, ''Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America,'' (2004) online}} </ref> In July 1862, Congress passed the Second Confiscation Act, which freed the slaves of anyone convicted of aiding the rebellion.<ref> It said that anyone aiding the rebellion would lose his slaves if convicted. "That if any person shall hereafter incite, set on foot, assist, or engage in any rebellion or insurrection against the authority of the United States, or the laws thereof, or shall give aid or comfort thereto, or shall engage in, or give aid and comfort to, any such existing rebellion or insurrection, and be convicted thereof, such person shall be punished by imprisonment for a period not exceeding ten years, or by a fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars, and by the liberation of all his slaves...." {{cite web |url=http://www.history.umd.edu/Freedmen/conact2.htm |title=text of the Second Confiscation Act |accessdate=2008-12-08}} </ref> The goal was to weaken the rebellion, which was led and controlled by slave owners. While it did not abolish the legal institution of slavery (the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] did that), the Act showed that Lincoln had the support of Congress in liberating slaves owned by rebels. In that same month, Lincoln discussed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet. In a shrewdly penned August reply to an editorial by Horace Greeley in the influential ''New York Tribune'', with a draft of the Proclamation already on Lincoln's desk, the president subordinated the goal of ending slavery to the cause of preserving the Union, while, at the same time, preparing the public for emancipation being incomplete at first. Lincoln had decided at this point that he could not win the war without freeing the slaves, and so it was a necessity "to do more to help the cause":<ref> For analysis of the letter see Carwardine, ''Lincoln'' p 209 </ref> {{quote|I would save the Union. I would save it the shortest way under the Constitution. The sooner the national authority can be restored; the nearer the Union will be "the Union as it was."&nbsp;... My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that. What I do about slavery, and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union. I shall do less whenever I shall believe what I am doing hurts the cause, and I shall do more whenever I shall believe doing more will help the cause. I shall try to correct errors when shown to be errors; and I shall adopt new views so fast as they shall appear to be true views. I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty; and I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free.<ref> {{cite web |accessdate=2008-05-21 |url=http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/greeley.htm |title=Letter to Horace Greeley |publisher=Abraham Lincoln Online}} </ref> }} The [[Emancipation Proclamation]], announced on September 22, 1862 and put into effect on January 1, 1863, freed slaves in territories not already under Union control. As Union armies advanced south, more slaves were liberated until all of them in Confederate territory (over three million) were freed. Lincoln later said: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper." The proclamation made the abolition of slavery in the rebel states an official war goal. Lincoln then threw his energies into passage of the Thirteenth Amendment to permanently abolish slavery throughout the nation.<ref> {{cite web |accessdate=2008-05-21 |url=http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/hodges.htm |title=Letter to Albert G. Hodges |publisher=Abraham Lincoln Online |date=1864-04-04}} </ref> He personally lobbied individual Congressmen for the Amendment, which was passed by the Congress in early 1865, shortly before his death.<ref>Donald 555</ref> In September 1862, thirteen northern governors met in [[Altoona, Pennsylvania]], at the Loyal [[War Governors' Conference]] to discuss the Proclamation and Union war effort. In the end, the state executives fully supported the president's Proclamation and also suggested the removal of General [[George B. McClellan]] as commander of the Union's [[Army of the Potomac]].<ref> {{cite book |title=Altoona |author=Pulling, Anne Frances |publisher=[[Arcadia Publishing]] |date=2001-06-11 |isbn=0738505161 |page=10}} </ref> For some time, Lincoln continued earlier plans to set up [[Abraham Lincoln on slavery#Colonization|colonies]] for the newly freed slaves. He commented favorably on colonization in the Emancipation Proclamation, but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed. As [[Frederick Douglass]] observed, Lincoln was, "The first great man that I talked with in the United States freely who in no single instance reminded me of the difference between himself and myself, of the difference of color."<ref> {{cite book |title=The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass |author=Douglass, Frederick |publisher=Digital Scanning |month=April |year=2001 |isbn=1582183678}} </ref> ===Gettysburg Address=== {{main|Gettysburg Address}} Although the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] was a Union victory, it was also the bloodiest battle of the war and dealt a blow to Lincoln's war effort. As the Union Army decreased in numbers due to casualties, more soldiers were needed to replace the ranks. Lincoln's 1863 military drafts were considered "odious" among many in the north, particularly immigrants. The [[New York Draft Riots]] of July 1863 were the most notable manifestation of this discontent. Writing to Lincoln in September 1863, the [[List of Governors of Pennsylvania|Governor of Pennsylvania]], [[Andrew Gregg Curtin]], warned that political sentiments were turning against Lincoln and the war effort: <blockquote>''If the election were to occur now, the result would be extremely doubtful, and although most of our discreet friends are sanguine of the result, my impression is, the chances would be against us. The draft is very odious in the State... the Democratic leaders have succeeded in exciting prejudice and passion, and have infused their poison into the minds of the people to a very large extent, and the changes are against us.''<ref>{{cite web |accessdate=2008-05-21 |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mal:@field(DOCID+@lit(d2604300))|title=Andrew G. Curtin to Abraham Lincoln, Friday, September 4, 1863 (Politics in Pennsylvania)|publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |date=1863-09-03 |author=Curtin, Andrew G.}}</ref></blockquote> The ''Gettysburg Address'' is one of the most quoted speeches in [[History of the United States|United States history]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/25.htm |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070813234249/http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/25.htm |archivedate=2007-08-13 |title=Introduction to Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address |publisher=United States Department of State |work=InfoUSA |accessdate=2007-11-30 |quote=Few documents in the growth of American democracy are as well known or as beloved as the prose poem Abraham Lincoln delivered at the dedication of the military cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/65/ge/GettysbuAd.html |title=Gettysburg Address |accessdate=2007-11-30 |work=Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Edition |month=May |year=2001 |publisher=Columbia University Press via [[Bartleby.com]] |quote=It is one of the most famous and most quoted of modern speeches.}}</ref><ref>Historian [[James M. McPherson|James McPherson]] has called it "The most eloquent expression of the new birth of freedom brought forth by reform liberalism.", in McPherson, James M. ''Drawn with the Sword: Reflections on the American Civil War'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. p. 185. Google Book Search. Retrieved on November 27, 2007.</ref> It was delivered at the dedication of the [[Gettysburg National Cemetery|Soldiers' National Cemetery]] in [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]], on the afternoon of Thursday, November 19, 1863, during the [[American Civil War]], four and a half months after the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] armies defeated those of the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] at the decisive [[Battle of Gettysburg]]. Abraham Lincoln's carefully crafted address, secondary to other presentations that day, came to be regarded as one of the greatest speeches in American history. In just over two minutes, Lincoln invoked the principles of human equality espoused by the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] and redefined the Civil War as a struggle not merely for the [[United States|Union]], but as "a new birth of [[political freedom|freedom]]" that would bring true equality to all of its citizens, and that would also create a unified nation in which [[states' rights]] were no longer dominant. Beginning with the now-iconic phrase, ''Four [[20 (number)|score]] and seven years ago...'', Lincoln referred to the events of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] and described the ceremony at Gettysburg as an opportunity not only to consecrate the grounds of a cemetery, but also to dedicate the living to the struggle to ensure that "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth". Despite the speech's prominent place in the history and popular culture of the United States, the exact wording of the speech is disputed. The five known manuscripts of the Gettysburg Address differ in a number of details and also differ from contemporary newspaper reprints of the speech.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/pete/planyourvisit/upload/D2%20Site%2021%20Gettysburg%20Address%20Poplar%20Grove.pdf Site 21: Gettysburg Address Poplar Grove]</ref> ===1864 election and second inauguration=== [[File:Republican presidential ticket 1864b.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Currier and Ives]] print of the [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union Party]] presidential candidates, 1864. Lithograph and watercolor.]] {{main|United States presidential election, 1864}} After Union victories at [[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]], [[Siege of Vicksburg|Vicksburg]], and [[Chattanooga Campaign|Chattanooga]] in 1863, overall victory seemed at hand, and Lincoln promoted [[Ulysses S. Grant]] General-in-Chief on March 12, 1864. When the spring campaigns turned into bloody stalemates, Lincoln supported Grant's strategy of wearing down [[Robert E. Lee|Lee's]] Confederate army at the cost of heavy Union casualties. With an election looming, he easily defeated efforts to deny his renomination. At the Convention, the Republican Party selected [[Andrew Johnson]], a [[War Democrats|War Democrat]] from the Southern state of Tennessee, as his running mate in order to form a broader coalition. They ran on the new [[National Union Party (United States)|Union Party]] ticket uniting Republicans and War Democrats. [[Image:Lincoln second.jpg|thumb|The only known photographs of Lincoln giving a speech were taken as he delivered his second inaugural address. Here, he stands in the center, with papers in his hand.]] Nevertheless, Republicans across the country feared that Lincoln would be defeated. Acknowledging this fear, Lincoln wrote and signed a pledge that, if he should lose the election, he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House:<ref> {{cite book |title=The Collapse of the Confederacy |author=Grimsley, Mark |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |date=2001-03-01 |isbn=0803221703 |page=80}} </ref> {{cquote |This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterwards. <ref> {{harvnb|Basler|1955|p=514}} </ref> }} Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope. While the Democratic platform followed the [[Copperheads (politics)|Peace wing]] of the party and called the war a "failure," their candidate, General [[George B. McClellan]], supported the war and repudiated the platform. [[File:ElectoralCollege1864.svg|300px|1864 Presidential election results|thumb]] Lincoln provided Grant with new replacements and mobilized his party to support Grant and win local support for the war effort. [[William Tecumseh Sherman|Sherman's]] capture of [[Atlanta]] in September ended defeatist jitters; the Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln; the Union party was united and energized, and Lincoln was easily reelected in a landslide. He won all but three states.<ref> There is a good discussion of Lincoln's 1864 election anxieties and the effect of Sherman's victory at Atlanta in James M. McPherson, ''Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in Chief'' (New York: Penguin Press, 2008), 231-50. </ref> On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]], his favorite of all his speeches. At this time, a victory over the rebels was at hand, slavery was dead, and Lincoln was looking to the future. {{quote|Fondly do we hope — fervently do we pray — that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by the bond-man's two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said "the judgments of the Lord, are true and righteous altogether." With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan — to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.<ref> {{harvnb|Basler|1955|p=333}} </ref> }} ===Conducting the war effort=== {{Refimprovesect|date=September 2008|lots of assertions (including several about Lincoln's state of mind) & there are only TWO references}} [[Image:RunningtheMachine-LincAdmin.jpg|thumb|right|"Running the 'Machine'": An 1864 political cartoon featuring Lincoln; [[William P. Fessenden|William Fessenden]], [[Edwin M. Stanton|Edwin Stanton]], [[William H. Seward|William Seward]], and [[Gideon Welles]] take a swing at the Lincoln administration]] The war was a source of constant frustration for the president, and occupied nearly all of his time. He had a contentious relationship with General [[George B. McClellan|McClellan]], who became general-in-chief of all the Union armies in the wake of the embarrassing Union defeat at the [[First Battle of Bull Run]] and after the retirement of [[Winfield Scott]] in late 1861. Despite his inexperience in military affairs, Lincoln wanted to take an active part in determining war strategy. His priorities were twofold: to ensure that [[Washington, D.C.]] was well defended; and to conduct an aggressive war effort in the hope of ending the war quickly and appeasing the Northern public and press. McClellan, a youthful [[United States Military Academy|West Point]] graduate and railroad executive called back to active military service, took a more cautious approach. He took several months to plan and execute his [[Peninsula Campaign]], with the objective of capturing [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] by moving the [[Army of the Potomac]] by boat to the [[Virginia Peninsula|peninsula]] between the [[James River|James]] and [[York River (Virginia)|York Rivers]]. McClellan's delay irritated Lincoln, as did his insistence that no troops were needed to defend Washington, D.C. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan's troops to defend the capital, a decision McClellan blamed for the ultimate failure of the Peninsula Campaign. McClellan, a lifelong [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] who was temperamentally conservative, was relieved as general-in-chief after releasing his ''Harrison's Landing Letter'', where he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort. McClellan's letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]], a Republican, as head of the new [[Army of Virginia]]. Pope complied with Lincoln's strategic desire to move toward Richmond from the north, thus protecting the capital from attack. However, Pope was soundly defeated at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] in the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac to defend Washington for a second time. In response to his failure, Pope was sent to Minnesota to fight the [[Sioux]].<ref> {{harvnb|Thomas|1952|p=335-8, 346}} </ref> [[Image:A&TLincoln.jpg|thumb|left|upright|An 1864 [[Mathew Brady]] photo depicts President Lincoln reading a book with his youngest son, [[Tad Lincoln|Tad]]]] Panicked by Lee's invasion of [[Maryland]], Lincoln restored McClellan to command of all forces around Washington in time for the [[Battle of Antietam]] (September 1862). The ensuing Union victory enabled Lincoln to release his Emancipation Proclamation, but he relieved McClellan of his command shortly after the 1862 midterm elections and appointed Republican [[Ambrose Burnside]] to head the Army of the Potomac. Burnside had promised to follow through on Lincoln's strategic vision for a strong offensive against Lee and Richmond. After Burnside was stunningly defeated at [[Battle of Fredericksburg|Fredericksburg]], [[Joseph Hooker]] was given the command, despite his idle talk about the necessity for a military dictator to win the war and a past history of criticizing his commanders.<ref> {{cite web |accessdate=2008-05-21 |url=http://www.civilwarhome.com/hookbio.htm |title=Joseph Hooker |publisher=Civil War Home}} </ref> Hooker was routed by Lee at the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] (May 1863), and relieved of command early in the subsequent [[Gettysburg Campaign]] replaced by [[George Meade]]. After the Union victory at Gettysburg, Meade's failure to pursue Lee and months of inactivity for the Army of the Potomac persuaded Lincoln to bring in a western general, [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. Grant already had a solid string of victories in the Western Theater, including the battles of Vicksburg and [[Third Battle of Chattanooga|Chattanooga]]. Responding to criticism of Grant, Lincoln replied, "I can't spare this man. He fights."<ref> {{harvnb|Thomas|1952|p=315}} </ref> Grant waged his bloody [[Overland Campaign]] in 1864 with a strategy of a [[attrition warfare|war of attrition]], characterized by high Union losses at battles such as the [[Battle of the Wilderness|Wilderness]] and [[Battle of Cold Harbor|Cold Harbor]], but by proportionately higher Confederate losses. The high casualty figures alarmed the nation and after Grant lost a third of his army Lincoln asked what Grant's plans were. "I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer," replied Grant. Lincoln and the Republican party mobilized support throughout the North, backed Grant to the hilt, and replaced his losses.<ref> {{harvnb|Thomas|1952|p=422-24}} </ref> The Confederacy was out of replacements so Lee's army shrank with every battle, forcing it back to trenches outside [[Siege of Petersburg|Petersburg]]. In April 1865 Lee's army finally crumbled under Grant's pounding, and Richmond fell. [[Image:PinkertonLincolnMcClernand.jpg|thumb|upright|Lincoln, in a [[top hat]], with [[Allan Pinkerton]] and Major General [[John Alexander McClernand]] at Antietam]] Lincoln authorized Grant to target the Confederate infrastructure — such as plantations, railroads, and bridges — hoping to destroy the South's morale and weaken its economic ability to continue fighting. This allowed Generals [[William Tecumseh Sherman|Sherman]] and [[Philip Sheridan|Sheridan]] to destroy plantations and towns in the [[Shenandoah Valley]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and South Carolina. The damage caused by [[Sherman's March to the Sea]] through Georgia totaled in excess of $100 million by Sherman's own estimate.<ref> {{cite book |title=The United States: A History of the Republic |author=Davidson, James West |publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |month=April |year=1990 |isbn=0139436979 |page=446}} </ref> Lincoln possessed a keen understanding of strategic points (such as the Mississippi River and the fortress city of Vicksburg) and understood the importance of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing cities. He had, however, limited success in motivating his commanders to adopt his strategies until late 1863, when he found a man who shared his vision of the war in Ulysses S. Grant. Only then could he insist on using [[African American]] troops and relentlessly pursue a series of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters. Throughout the war, Lincoln showed a keen curiosity with the military campaigns. He spent hours at the War Department telegraph office, reading dispatches from his generals. He visited battle sites frequently, and seemed fascinated by scenes of war. During [[Jubal Anderson Early]]'s [[Battle of Fort Stevens|raid on Washington, D.C.]] in 1864, Lincoln was watching the combat from an exposed position; a captain shouted at him, "Get down, you damn fool, before you get shot!"<ref> The Captain was [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]]; {{harvnb|Thomas|1952|p=434}} </ref> ===Reconstruction=== {{main|Reconstruction era of the United States}} Reconstruction began during the war as Lincoln and his associates pondered questions of how to reintegrate the Southern states and what to do with Confederate leaders and the freed slaves. Lincoln led the "moderates" regarding Reconstruction policy, and was usually opposed by the Radical Republicans, under [[Thaddeus Stevens]] in the House and [[Charles Sumner]] and [[Benjamin Wade]] in the Senate (though he cooperated with these men on most other issues). Determined to find a course that would reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held throughout the war in areas behind Union lines. His [[Ten percent plan|Amnesty Proclamation]] of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office, had not mistreated Union prisoners, and would sign an oath of allegiance.<ref> {{cite web |accessdate=2008-05-21 |url=http://www.bartleby.com/43/37.html |title=Proclamation of Amnesty |publisher=[[Bartleby.com]] |year=1863}} </ref> Critical decisions had to be made as state after state was reconquered. Of special importance were [[Tennessee]], where Lincoln appointed [[Andrew Johnson]] as governor, and [[Louisiana]], where Lincoln attempted a plan that would restore statehood when 10% of the voters agreed to it. The Radicals thought this policy too lenient, and passed their own plan, the [[Wade-Davis Bill]], in 1864. When Lincoln [[Pocket veto|pocket-vetoed]] the bill, the Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee.<ref> {{harvnb|Donald|1995|loc=§20}} </ref> Near the end of the war, Lincoln made an extended visit to Grant's headquarters at City Point, Virginia. This allowed the president to confer in person with Grant and Sherman about ending hostilities (as Sherman managed a hasty visit to Grant from his forces in North Carolina at the same time);<ref> This meeting was memorialized in G.P.A. Healy's famous painting [http://www.whitehousehistory.org/whha_about/whitehouse_collection/whitehouse_collection-art-06.html "The Peacemakers."] </ref> Lincoln also was able to visit Richmond after it was taken by the Union forces and to make a public gesture of sitting at [[Jefferson Davis|Jefferson Davis']] own desk, symbolically saying to the nation that the President of the United States held authority over the entire land. He was greeted at the city as a conquering hero by freed slaves, whose sentiments were epitomized by one admirer's quote, "I know I am free for I have seen the face of Father Abraham and have felt him." When a general asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates should be treated, Lincoln replied, "Let 'em up easy."<ref> {{harvnb|Donald|1995|pp=576, 580}}; {{cite web |accessdate=2008-05-21 |url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/richmond.htm |title=President Lincoln Enters Richmond, 1865 |publisher=Eyewitness to History}} </ref> Lincoln arrived back in Washington on the evening of April 9, 1865, the day Lee surrendered at [[Appomattox Court House]] in Virginia. The war was effectively over. The other rebel armies surrendered soon after, and there was no subsequent guerrilla warfare.<ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.thelincolnlog.org/view/show_date?day=09&month=04&year=1865 |title=The Lincoln Log, April 9, 1865.}} </ref> ==Home front== [[Image:Lincoln-Warren-1865-03-06.jpeg|thumb|upright|left|The last known high-quality photograph of Lincoln, taken March 1865]] ===Redefining Republicanism=== Lincoln's [[rhetoric]] defined the issues of the war for the nation, the world, and posterity. The [[Gettysburg Address]] defied Lincoln's own prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here." His second inaugural address is also greatly admired and often quoted. In recent years, historians have stressed Lincoln's use of and redefinition of [[Republicanism in the United States|republican values]]. As early as the 1850s, a time when most political rhetoric focused on the sanctity of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]], Lincoln shifted emphasis to the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] as the foundation of American political values — what he called the "sheet anchor" of republicanism.<ref> {{harvnb|Jaffa|2000|p= 399}} </ref> The Declaration's emphasis on freedom and equality for all, rather than the Constitution's tolerance of slavers, shifted the debate. As Diggins concludes regarding the highly influential [[Cooper Union speech]], "Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself."<ref> {{cite book |title=The Lost Soul of American Politics: Virtue, Self-Interest, and the Foundations of Liberalism |author=Diggins, John P. |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |date=1986-08-15 |isbn=0226148777 |page=307}} </ref> His position gained strength because he highlighted the moral basis of republicanism, rather than its legalisms.<ref> {{harvnb|Foner|1970|p= 215}} </ref> <ref> {{harvnb|McPherson|1992|pp=61–64}} </ref> Nevertheless, in 1861 Lincoln justified the war in terms of legalisms (the Constitution was a contract, and for one party to get out of a contract all the other parties had to agree), and then in terms of the national duty to guarantee a "republican form of government" in every state.<ref> {{harvnb|Jaffa|2000|p= 263}} </ref> That duty was also the principle underlying federal intervention in [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]]. In his [[Gettysburg Address]] Lincoln redefined the American nation, arguing that it was born not in 1789 but in 1776, "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal." He declared that the sacrifices of battle had rededicated the nation to the propositions of democracy and equality, "that this nation shall have a new birth of freedom — and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." By emphasizing the centrality of the nation, he rebuffed the claims of [[sovereignty|state sovereignty]]. While some critics say Lincoln moved too far and too fast, they agree that he dedicated the nation to values that marked "a new founding of the nation." <ref> {{harvnb|Wills|1993|p= 39}} </ref> ===Civil liberties suspended=== During the Civil War, Lincoln appropriated powers no previous President had wielded: he used his war powers to proclaim a [[Union blockade|blockade]], suspended the writ of [[habeas corpus]], spent money before Congress appropriated it, and imprisoned 18,000 suspected Confederate sympathizers without trial. <ref> Neely (1992) </ref> ===Domestic measures=== Lincoln believed in the Whig theory of the presidency, which left Congress to write the laws while he signed them, [[veto]]ing only those bills that threatened his war powers. Thus, he signed the [[Homestead Act]] in 1862, making millions of acres of government-held land in the West available for purchase at very low cost. The [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]], also signed in 1862, provided government grants for [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[university|universities]] in each state. The [[Pacific Railway Acts]] of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' [[First Transcontinental Railroad]], which was completed in 1869. Other important legislation involved two measures to raise revenues for the Federal government: tariffs (a policy with long precedent), and a Federal income tax (which was new). In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and third [[Morrill Tariff]] (the first had become law under [[James Buchanan]]). In 1862, Lincoln signed legislation creating the first U.S. [[income tax]]. Marginal rates were 3% on incomes between $600 and $10,000 and 5% on income above $10,000. (Adjusted for inflation, $600 was the equivalent of $12,325 in 2007 US dollars). In 1864, income-tax rates were raised to 5% on incomes between $600 and $5,000, 7.5% on income between $5,000 and $10,000, and 10% tax on income above that. Lincoln also presided over the creation of the system of national banks by the [[National Banking Act]]s of 1863, 1864, and 1865, which allowed the creation of a strong national financial system. Congress created and Lincoln approved the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]] in 1862, although that institution would not become a Cabinet-level department until 1889. The Legal Tender Act of 1862 established the [[United States Note]], the first [[banknote|paper currency]] in United States history since the [[Continental (currency)|Continentals]] that were issued during the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolution]]. This was done to increase the money supply to pay for fighting the war. During the war, Lincoln's [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]] effectively controlled all [[cotton]] trade in the occupied South — the most dramatic incursion of federal controls on the economy. In 1862, Lincoln sent a senior general, [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]], to put down the "[[Dakota War of 1862|Sioux Uprising]]" in [[Minnesota]]. Presented with 303 [[death warrant]]s for convicted [[Sioux#Isanti (Santee or Dakota)|Santee Dakota]] who were accused of killing innocent farmers; Lincoln affirmed 39 of these for [[death penalty|execution]] (one was later [[reprieve]]d). Abraham Lincoln is largely responsible for the institution of the [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving holiday]] in the United States. Prior to Lincoln's presidency, Thanksgiving, while a regional holiday in New England since the 17th century, had only been proclaimed by the federal government sporadically, and on irregular dates. The last such proclamation was during [[James Madison|James Madison's]] presidency fifty years before. In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November to be a day of Thanksgiving, and the holiday has been celebrated annually at that time ever since. <ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/source/sb2/sb2w.htm |title=1863 Thanksgiving proclamation |author=National Park Service}} </ref> ==Assassination== {{main|Abraham Lincoln assassination}} {{further|[[Abraham Lincoln's burial and exhumation]]}} [[Image:The Assassination of President Lincoln - Currier and Ives 2.png|right|thumb|The assassination of Abraham Lincoln. From left to right: [[Henry Rathbone]], [[Clara Harris]], Mary Todd Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln and [[John Wilkes Booth]]]] Originally, [[John Wilkes Booth]], a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland, had formulated a plan to [[kidnapping|kidnap]] Lincoln in exchange for the release of Confederate prisoners. After attending an April 11 speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks, an incensed Booth changed his plans and determined to assassinate the president. <ref> {{cite book |author=Harrison, Lowell Hayes |title=Lincoln of Kentucky |publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]] |year=2000 |pages=3–4 |isbn=0813121566}} </ref> Learning that the President and [[First Lady of the United States|First Lady]] would be attending [[Ford's Theatre]], he laid his plans, assigning his co-conspirators to assassinate [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Andrew Johnson]] and [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[William H. Seward]]. Without his main bodyguard [[Ward Hill Lamon]], to whom he related his famous dream regarding his own assassination, Lincoln left to attend the play ''[[Our American Cousin]]'' on April 14, 1865. As a lone bodyguard wandered, and Lincoln sat in his state box (Box 7) in the balcony, Booth crept up behind the President and waited for what he thought would be the funniest line of the play ("You sock-dologizing old man-trap"), hoping the laughter would muffle the noise of the gunshot. When the laughter began, Booth jumped into the box and aimed a single-shot, round-slug 0.44 caliber Deringer at his head, firing at point-blank range. Major [[Henry Rathbone]] momentarily grappled with Booth but was cut by Booth's knife. Booth then leaped to the stage and shouted "''[[Sic semper tyrannis]]!''" ({{lang-la|Thus always to tyrants}}) and escaped, despite a broken leg suffered in the leap. <ref name=Townsend> {{cite book |author=Townsend, George Alfred |title=The Life, Crime and Capture of John Wilkes Booth |location=New York |publisher=[[Dick and Fitzgerald]] |year=1865}} </ref> A twelve-day manhunt ensued, in which Booth was chased by Federal agents (under the direction of [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] [[Edwin M. Stanton]]). He was eventually cornered in a Virginia barn house and shot, dying of his wounds soon after. [[Image:LincolnTrain.jpeg|thumb|left|Lincoln's [[funeral train]] carried his remains, as well as 300 mourners and the casket of his son, William, {{convert|1654|mi|km|abbr=off}} to Illinois]] An army surgeon, Doctor [[Charles Leale]], initially assessed Lincoln's wound as [[Mortal wound|mortal]]. The President was taken across the street from the theater to the [[Petersen House]], where he lay in a coma for nine hours before dying. Several physicians attended Lincoln, including [[Surgeon General of the United States Army|U.S. Army Surgeon General]] [[Joseph Barnes|Joseph K. Barnes]] of the [[National Museum of Health and Medicine|Army Medical Museum]]. Using a probe, Barnes located some fragments of Lincoln's skull and the ball lodged {{convert|6|in|cm|abbr=off}} inside his brain. Lincoln never regained consciousness and was pronounced dead at 7:22:10 a.m. April 15, 1865. He was the first president to be assassinated or to [[Lying in state|lie in state]]. Lincoln's body was carried by train in a grand funeral procession through several states on its way back to Illinois.<ref name=Townsend /> While much of the nation mourned him as the savior of the United States, [[copperheads (politics)|Copperheads]] celebrated the death of a man they considered a tyrant. The [[Lincoln Tomb]] in Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield, is {{convert|177|ft|m|abbr=off}} tall and, by 1874, was surmounted with several bronze statues of Lincoln. To prevent repeated attempts to steal Lincoln's body and hold it for ransom, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]] had it [[Burial#Exhumation|exhumed]] and reinterred in concrete several feet thick in 1901. {{clr}} ==Administration, Cabinet and Supreme Court appointments 1861-1865== {{Col-begin}} {{Col-1-of-2}} {| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid Black; float:left;" |- !bgcolor="#dcdcdc" colspan="3"|The Lincoln Cabinet |- |align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM''' |- !bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"| |- |[[President of the United States|President]] || '''Abraham Lincoln''' || 1861–1865 |- |[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] || '''[[Hannibal Hamlin]]''' || 1861–1865 |- | || '''[[Andrew Johnson]]''' || 1865 |- !bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"| |- |[[United States Secretary of State|State]] || '''[[William H. Seward]]''' || 1861–1865 |- |[[United States Secretary of War|War]] || '''[[Simon Cameron]]''' || 1861–1862 |- | || '''[[Edwin M. Stanton]]''' || 1862–1865 |- |[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]] || '''[[Salmon P. Chase]]''' || 1861–1864 |- | || '''[[William P. Fessenden]]''' || 1864–1865 |- | || '''[[Hugh McCulloch]]''' || 1865 |- |[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]] || '''[[Edward Bates]]''' || 1861–1864 |- | || '''[[James Speed]]''' || 1864–1865 |- |[[United States Postmaster General|Post]] || '''[[Montgomery Blair]]''' || 1861–1864 |- | || '''[[William Dennison]]''' || 1864–1865 |- |[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Navy]] || '''[[Gideon Welles]]''' || 1861–1865 |- |[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]] || '''[[Caleb B. Smith]]''' || 1861–1862 |- | || '''[[John P. Usher]]''' || 1863–1865 |} {{Col-2-of-2}} [[Image:Al16.jpg|thumb|center|Official White House portrait of Abraham Lincoln by [[George P.A. Healy|George Peter Alexander Healy]]]] Lincoln appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]: {| class="sortable wikitable" |- bgcolor="#ececec" |'''Judge'''||'''Seat'''||'''State'''||'''Began active<br/>service'''||'''Ended active<br/>service''' |- | [[Noah Haynes Swayne]] || Seat 7 || [[Virginia]] || <span style="display:none">18620127</span>January 27, 1862 || <span style="display:none">18810124</span>January 24, 1881 |- | [[Samuel Freeman Miller]] || Seat 8 || [[Maine]] || <span style="display:none">18620721</span>July 21, 1862 || <span style="display:none">18901013</span>October 13, 1890 |- | [[David Davis (Supreme Court justice)|David Davis]] || Seat 9 || [[Maryland]] || <span style="display:none">18621210</span>December 10, 1862 || <span style="display:none">18770304</span>March 4, 1877 |- | [[Stephen Johnson Field]] || Seat 10 || [[California]] || <span style="display:none">18630520</span>May 20, 1863 || <span style="display:none">18971201</span>December 1, 1897 |- | [[Salmon P. Chase]] || Seat 1 || [[New Hampshire]] || <span style="display:none">18641215</span>December 15, 1864 || <span style="display:none">18730507</span>May 7, 1873 |} {{Col-end}} ==Religious and philosophical beliefs== {{see|Abraham Lincoln and religion}} In March 1860 in a speech in [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]], [[Connecticut]], Lincoln said, with respect to slavery, “Whenever this question shall be settled, it must be settled on some philosophical basis. No policy that does not rest upon some philosophical public opinion can be permanently maintained." The philosophical basis for Lincoln’s beliefs regarding slavery and other issues of the day require that Lincoln be examined "seriously as a man of ideas." Lincoln was a strong supporter of the American [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] version of [[liberalism|liberal]] [[capitalism]] who, more than most politicians of the time, was able to express his ideas within the context of Nineteenth Century religious beliefs. <ref> {{harvnb|Guelzo|1999|pp=18–19}} </ref> There were few people who strongly or directly influenced Lincoln’s moral and intellectual development and perspectives. There was no teacher, mentor, church leader, community leader, or peer that Lincoln would credit in later years as a strong influence on his intellectual development. Lacking a formal education, Lincoln’s personal philosophy was shaped by "an amazingly retentive memory and a passion for reading and learning." It was Lincoln’s reading, rather than his relationships, that were most influential in shaping his personal beliefs. <ref name = "zsafth"> {{harvnb|Guelzo|1999|p=20}} </ref> <ref> {{harvnb|Miller|2002|pp=57–59}} </ref> Even as a child, Lincoln largely rejected [[religion|organized religion]], but the [[Calvinism|Calvinistic]] "doctrine of necessity" would remain a factor throughout his life. In 1846 Lincoln described the effect of this doctrine as "that the human mind is impelled to action, or held in rest by some power, over which the mind itself has no control." <ref> {{harvnb|Donald|1995|p=15}} </ref> In April 1864, in justifying his actions in regard to Emancipation, Lincoln wrote, "I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me. Now, at the end of three years struggle the nation's condition is not what either party, or any man devised, or expected. God alone can claim it." <ref> {{harvnb|Donald|1995|p=514}} </ref> As Lincoln matured, and especially during his term as president, the idea of a divine will somehow interacting with human affairs more and more influenced his public expressions. On a personal level, the death of his son Willie in February 1862 may have caused Lincoln to look towards religion for answers and solace. <ref> {{harvnb|Wilson|1999|pp=251–254}} </ref> After Willie’s death, in the summer or early fall of 1862, Lincoln attempted to put on paper his private musings on why, from a divine standpoint, the severity of the war was necessary: {{cquote|The [[will (philosophy)|will]] of God prevails. In great contests each party claims to act in accordance with the will of God. Both may be, and one must be, wrong. God cannot be for and against the same thing at the same time. In the present civil war it is quite possible that God's purpose is something different from the purpose of either party—and yet the human instrumentalities, working just as they do, are of the best adaptation to effect his purpose. I am almost ready to say this is probably true—that God wills this contest, and wills that it shall not end yet. By his mere quiet power, on the minds of the now contestants, He could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest. Yet the contest began. And having begun He could give the final victory to either side any day. Yet the contest proceeds. <ref> {{harvnb|Wilson|1999|p=254}} </ref> }} Lincoln’s religious [[skepticism]] was fueled by his exposure to the ideas of the [[John Locke|Lockean]] [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and classical liberalism, especially [[economic liberalism]].<ref name = "zsafth"/> Consistent with the common practice of the Whig party, Lincoln would often use the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] as the philosophical and moral expression of these two philosophies. <ref> {{harvnb|Guelzo|1999|p=194}} </ref> In a February 22, 1861 speech at Independence Hall in Philadelphia Lincoln said, {{cquote|I have never had a feeling politically that did not spring from the sentiments embodied in the Declaration of Independence.&nbsp;... It was not the mere matter of the separation of the Colonies from the motherland; but that sentiment in the Declaration of Independence which gave liberty, not alone to the people of this country, but, I hope, to the world, for all future time. It was that which gave promise that in due time the weight would be lifted from the shoulders of all men. This is a sentiment embodied in the Declaration of Independence. <ref> {{harvnb|Jaffa|2000|p=258}} </ref> }} He found in the Declaration justification for Whig economic policy and opposition to territorial expansion and the [[nativism (politics)|nativist]] platform of the [[Know Nothing]]s. In claiming that all men were created free, Lincoln and the Whigs argued that this freedom required economic advancement, expanded education, territory to grow, and the ability of the nation to absorb the growing immigrant population. <ref> {{harvnb|Guelzo|1999|pp=194–195}} </ref> It was the Declaration of Independence, rather than the [[Bible]], that Lincoln most relied on in order to oppose any further territorial expansion of slavery. He saw the Declaration as more than a political document. To him, as well as to many abolitionists and other antislavery leaders, it was, foremost, a moral document that had forever determined valuable criteria in shaping the future of the nation. <ref> {{harvnb|Miller|2002|p=297}} </ref> ==Medical history and "melancholy"== Lincoln suffered from many illnesses throughout his life, including [[frostbite|frostbitten]] feet, [[malaria]], [[physical trauma]] and [[smallpox]]. <ref> {{cite web |accessdate=2008-05-21 |url=http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g16.htm |title=Maladies and Conditions |publisher=Doctor Zebra}} </ref> Claims that Lincoln had [[syphilis]] about 1835 have been controversial, but a recent analysis finds them credible. <ref> {{cite journal |author=Vidal, Gore |title=Communications |journal=[[American Historical Review]] |month=February |year=1991 |pages=324–326}} See also: {{cite journal |author=Fehrenbacher, Don E. |title=Communications |journal=[[American Historical Review]] |month=February |year=1991 |pages=326–328}} and {{cite book |author=Sotos, JG |title=The Physical Lincoln Sourcebook |location=[[Mount Vernon]], [[Virginia|VA]] |publisher=Mt. Vernon Book Systems |year=2008 |pages=318–326 |url=http://www.physical-lincoln.com/contents-pls.html}} </ref> Despite having multiple illnesses in his life, his health up until middle age was not particularly poor for his day. <ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g16.htm |title= The Health and Medical History of President Abraham Lincoln |author=Dr Zebra}} </ref> As a child, Lincoln was tall for his age. He reached his adult height of {{convert|6|ft|4|in|m|2}} no later than age 21. Although well muscled as a young adult, he was always thin. Fragmentary evidence says he weighed over 200 pounds in his mid-20s, but his official weight upon his taking office as president was 180 pounds, and he is believed to have weighed even less further along in his presidency. <ref> {{cite book |author=White Jr. |title=A. Lincoln. |publisher=Random House |year=2009 |isbn=978-1400064991}} </ref> <ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2008/10/06/opinion/06opchart.html |title=The Measure of a President |publisher=New York Times |date=October 6, 2008 |author= OPEN N.Y. is a design studio}} </ref> Based on Lincoln's unusual physical appearance, Dr. Abraham Gordon proposed in 1962 that Lincoln had [[Marfan syndrome]]. <ref> {{cite journal |title=Gordon AM. Abraham Lincoln |journal=Kentucky Medical Association |month=March |year=1962 |issue=60 |pages=249–53 |pmid= 13900423}} </ref> Lincoln's unremarkable [[cardiovascular]] history and his normal visual acuity have been the chief objections to the theory, and today the diagnosis is considered unlikely. <ref> {{cite book |title=Was George Washington Really the Father of Our Country?: A Clinical Geneticist Looks at World History |author=Marion, Robert |publisher=Perseus Books |month=February |year=1994 |isbn=0201622556 |pages=88–124}} See also: {{cite journal |author=Ready, Tinker |title=Access to presidential DNA denied |journal=[[Nature Medicine]] |year=1999 |volume=5 |issue=859}} </ref> Testing Lincoln's [[DNA]] for Marfan syndrome was contemplated in the 1990s, but such a test was not performed. In 2007, Dr. John Sotos proposed that Lincoln had [[multiple endocrine neoplasia]], type 2B (MEN2B). <ref> {{cite book |author=Sotos, JG |title=The Physical Lincoln: Finding the Genetic Cause of Abraham Lincoln's Height, Homeliness, Pseudo-Depression, and Imminent Cancer Death |location=[[Mount Vernon]], [[Virginia|VA]] |publisher=Mt. Vernon Book Systems |year=2008 |url=http://www.physical-lincoln.com/}} </ref> This theory suggests Lincoln had all the major features of the disease: a marfan-like body shape, large, bumpy lips, [[constipation]], [[hypotonia]], a history compatible with [[cancer]] and a family history of the disorder - his sons [[Edward Baker Lincoln|Eddie]], [[William Wallace Lincoln|Willie]], and [[Tad Lincoln|Tad]], and probably his mother. The "mole" on Lincoln's right cheek, the asymmetry of his face, his large jaw, his drooping eyelid, and "pseudo-depression" are also suggested as manifestations of MEN2B. Lincoln's longevity is the principal challenge to the MEN2B theory, which could be proven by DNA testing. Sotos and medical historian [[Jacob Appel]] have recently campaigned to have such testing conducted on a pillowcase stained with Lincoln's blood that is owned by the Grand Army of the Republic Civil War Museum and Library in Philadelphia, an effort that has generated considerable debate among privacy advocates. <ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/opinion/orl-edpedp-appel-lincoln-dna-050409050409may04,0,5179467.story |title=Abe's DNA: Public or Private? |publisher=Orlando Sentinel |date=May 4, 2009}} {{cite web |url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/2009/04/20/scientist-wants-to-test-abraham-lincolns-bloodstained-pillow-for-cancer/ |title=Scientist Wants to Test Abraham Lincoln’s Bloodstained Pillow for Cancer |publisher=Discover Magazine |date=April 20, 2009}} {{cite journal |title=Lincoln'd Shroud of Turin |journal=Philadelphila Inquirer |date=April 13, 2009}} </ref> Another genetic condition ascribed to Lincoln by some researchers is [[ataxia]]. Descendants of his immediate family have been tested and some of them have various forms of it. <ref> {{cite journal |author= Ikeda Y, Dick KA, Weatherspoon MR ''et al.'' |title= Spectrin mutations cause spinocerebellar ataxia type 5 |journal= Nat Genet |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=184–90 |year=2006 |pmid=16429157 |doi=10.1038/ng1728 |laysummary=http://mmf.umn.edu/bulletin/spring2006/features/ataxia/ataxia1.cfm |laysource= University of Minnesota Medical Bulletin |laydate= Spring 2006}} </ref> Lincoln was regularly reported to suffer from "melancholy". Some biographers have controversially diagnosed him with [[clinical depression]] and [[bipolar disorder]], but these theories have generally been dismissed. <ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g16.htm#15 |title=The Health and Medical History of President Abraham Lincoln |author=Dr Zebra}} </ref> Mainly, his reported melancholy affected at times of great political stress or warfare and after losing a loved one, neither of which are unusual. He lost the two women (his mother and his sister) he loved very much when he was extremely young. This melancholy was also reinforced later in his life by the losses of his stepmother and his very first love, Ann Rutledge. Mary Lincoln felt her husband to be too trusting and his melancholy also struck at times he was betrayed or unsupported by those he put faith in. <ref> {{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ja16KVw5CqEC&pg=PA154&lpg=PA154&dq=Lincoln+too+trusting&source=bl&ots=NLODGE8vPr&sig=tLGTwsu0Gt2ZLgx-2u--ZO5nVpk&hl=en&ei=NwawSYyUEuH8tgf_-ZCBBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result |title= The Trials of Mrs. Lincoln |author= Samuel Agnew Schreiner |publisher= U of Nebraska Press |year=2005 |page=154}} </ref> Other people have suggested that he was simply a private person who took solace in solitude. They argue that this can be seen in some of his actions as both a young boy and adult. Some of these actions included withdrawing himself from a crowd to read when he was a little boy, and even retreating to his privacy to find a solution to a problem. As an adult, Lincoln would often slip into depression, and emerge a short time later full of humor and happiness. Some people suggest that Lincoln's humor was actually a healthy way to cope with his depression. <ref name="teamofrivals" /> Unlike the quiet, deep voice later used by impersonators and actors, Lincoln reportedly had a strikingly high-pitched speaking voice which aided him at times when he needed to be heard by crowds of thousands before the existence of microphones. Despite his legendary talent as orator, he was said to have been shy and awkward in intimate social situations, especially in his youth. ==Legacy and memorials== {{see|Cultural depictions of Abraham Lincoln}} [[Image:TheApotheosisLincolnAndWashington1860s.jpg|thumb|upright|''The Apotheosis'' of Abraham Lincoln, greeted by [[George Washington]] in heaven (an 1860s work)]] Lincoln's death made the President a [[martyr]] to many. Repeated polls of historians have ranked Lincoln as among the [[Historical rankings of United States Presidents|greatest presidents in U.S. history]], often appearing in the first position. Among contemporary admirers, Lincoln is usually seen as personifying classical values of honesty and integrity, as well as respect for individual and minority rights, and human freedom in general. Many American organizations of all purposes and agendas continue to cite his name and image, with interests ranging from the [[LGBT rights in the United States|gay rights]]-supporting [[Log Cabin Republicans]] to the [[insurance]] corporation [[Lincoln National Corporation]]. The [[Lincoln (automobile)|Lincoln automobile brand]] is also named after him. The [[ballistic missile]] [[submarine]] [[USS Abraham Lincoln (SSBN-602)|''Abraham Lincoln'' (SSBN-602)]] and the [[aircraft carrier]] [[USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72)|''Abraham Lincoln'' (CVN-72)]] were named in his honor. Also, the [[Liberty ship]] SS ''Nancy Hanks'' was named for his mother. During the [[Spanish Civil War]], the American faction of the [[International Brigades]] named themselves the [[Abraham Lincoln Brigade]]. Lincoln has been memorialized in many city names, notably the [[Lincoln, Nebraska|capital of Nebraska]]. [[Lincoln, Illinois]], is the only city to be named for Abraham Lincoln before he became President. Lincoln's name and image appear in numerous places. These include the [[Lincoln Memorial]] in Washington, D.C., the U.S. [[United States five-dollar bill|Lincoln $5 bill]] and the [[Lincoln cent]], Lincoln's sculpture on [[Mount Rushmore]], and the [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site]] in Springfield, Illinois. In addition, [[New Salem, Menard County, Illinois|New Salem, Illinois]] (a reconstruction of Lincoln's early adult hometown), [[Ford's Theatre]], and Petersen House (where he died) are all preserved as museums. The Lincoln Shrine in [[Redlands, California]], is located behind the A.K. Smiley Public Library. The [[List of U.S. state nicknames|state nickname]] for Illinois is ''Land of Lincoln''; the slogan has appeared continuously on nearly all [[Vehicle registration plates of Illinois|Illinois license plates]] issued since 1954. [[County (United States)|Counties]] in 18 [[U.S. state]]s ([[Lincoln County, Arkansas|Arkansas]], [[Lincoln County, Colorado|Colorado]], [[Lincoln County, Idaho|Idaho]], [[Lincoln County, Kansas|Kansas]], [[Lincoln County, Minnesota|Minnesota]], [[Lincoln County, Mississippi|Mississippi]], [[Lincoln County, Montana|Montana]], [[Lincoln County, Nebraska|Nebraska]], [[Lincoln County, Nevada|Nevada]], [[Lincoln County, New Mexico|New Mexico]], [[Lincoln County, Oklahoma|Oklahoma]], [[Lincoln County, Oregon|Oregon]], [[Lincoln County, West Virginia|West Virginia]], [[Lincoln County, Washington|Washington]], [[Lincoln County, Wisconsin|Wisconsin]], and [[Lincoln County, Wyoming|Wyoming]]) are named after Lincoln. Abraham Lincoln's birthday, February 12, was formerly a national holiday, now commemorated as [[Presidents Day (United States)|Presidents Day]]. However, it is still observed in Illinois and many other states as a separate legal holiday, [[Lincoln's Birthday]]. A dozen states have legal holidays celebrating the third Monday in February as Presidents Day as a combination Washington-Lincoln Day. To commemorate his upcoming 200th birthday in February 2009, Congress established the [[Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Commission]] (ALBC) in 2000. Dedicated to renewing American appreciation of Lincoln's legacy, the 15-member commission is made up of lawmakers and scholars and also features an advisory board of over 130 various Lincoln historians and enthusiasts. Located at [[Library of Congress]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], the ALBC is the organizing force behind numerous tributes, programs and cultural events highlighting a two-year celebration scheduled to begin in February 2008 at Lincoln's birthplace: [[Hodgenville, Kentucky|Hodgenville]], [[Kentucky]]. Lincoln's birthplace and family home are national historic memorials: the [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site]] in Hodgenville, and the Lincoln Home National Historic Site in Springfield, Illinois. The [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]] opened in Springfield in 2005; it is a major tourist attraction, with state-of-the-art exhibits. The [[Abraham Lincoln National Cemetery]] is located in [[Elwood, Illinois]]. The [http://www.lmunet.edu/museum/Index.html Abraham Lincoln Library and Museum] is located in [[Harrogate, Tennessee]]. On Wednesday 11 March 2009 the [[National Museum of American History]] found a message engraved inside Lincoln's watch by a watchmaker named Jonathan Dillon who was repairing it at the outbreak of the [[American Civil War]]. The engraving reads (in part): "[[Fort Sumpter]] was attacked by the rebels" and "thank God we have a government." <ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSTRE52A0FG20090311 |title=Museum finds 'secret' message in Lincoln's watch |publisher=Reuters |accessdate=2009-03-11}} </ref> ==Images== <center><gallery> Image:Portrait-Hon-Abraham-Lincoln.jpg|Portrait of Abraham Lincoln Image:Lincoln's closeup on 5 dollar bill.jpg|Lincoln's portrait on the [[United States five-dollar bill|American five dollar bill]] Image:Lincoln memorial dc 20041011 095847 1.3008x2000.jpg|The [[Lincoln Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Image:Lincoln Memorial (Lincoln tall thumb).jpg|[[Daniel Chester French]]'s sculpture inside the [[Lincoln Memorial]] Image:MtRushmore Abe close.jpg|Lincoln's likeness on [[Mount Rushmore]] Image:2002_Penny_Proof_Obv.png|[[Proof coinage]] Lincoln penny with [[cameo (carving)|cameo]] effect, [[obverse and reverse|obverse]] Image:Lincoln Stamp.jpg|Lincoln stamp, issued November 19, 1965 Image:Lincoln's Tomb.JPG|The [[Lincoln Tomb]] in Springfield Image:704473 5018c573-by-Evelyn-Simak.jpg|Bust of Abraham Lincoln, St. Andrew's Church, Hingham, England Image:2003_IL_Proof.png|Lincoln on the Illinois design of the [[50 State Quarters]], issued in 2003 File:Lincoln boyhood memoral6.jpg| Stone carving of Lincoln at the [[Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial]]. Image:AbeLincolnHingham.jpg|Statue of Abraham Lincoln, Hingham, Massachusetts </gallery></center> ==See also== {{portal|American Civil War|Acw bs 7a.png}} {{portalpar|Military of the United States|Naval Jack of the United States.svg|65}} *[[American School (economics)|American School]], Lincoln's economic views. *[[Abraham Lincoln's burial and exhumation]] *[[Electoral history of Abraham Lincoln]] *[[Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial]] *[[Lincoln Kennedy coincidences urban legend]] *[[Lincoln Memorial University]] *[[Lincoln family tree]] *[[Poetry of Abraham Lincoln]] ==References== {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} '''Books referenced''' {{refbegin}} *{{Cite journal|first=Roy P.|last=Basler|title=Abraham Lincoln: His Speeches and Writings|year=1946}} *{{Cite book|first=Roy P.|last=Basler|title=Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln (9 vols.)|location=[[New Brunswick, New Jersey|New Brunswick, NJ]]|publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]]|year=1953}} *{{Cite book|first=David Herbert|last=Donald|title=Lincoln|location=New York|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=1995}} *{{Cite journal|first=Eric|last=Foner|title=Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War|year=1970}} *{{Cite book|first=Harry V.|last=Jaffa|title=A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War|year=2000|isbn=0-8476-9952-8|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|location=Lanham, Md.}} *{{Cite book|first=Doris Kearns|last=Goodwin|authorlink=Doris Kearns Goodwin|title=Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln|isbn=0-684-82490-6|year=2005|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York}} *{{Cite book|first=Allen C.|last=Guelzo|title=Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President|isbn=0-8028-3872-3|year=1999|url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99466893|publisher=W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co|location=Grand Rapids, Mich.}} *{{Cite journal|first=Harold|last=Holzer|title=Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President|year=2004}} *{{Cite journal|first=James M.|last=McPherson|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution|year=1992}} *{{Cite book|first=William Lee|last=Miller|title=Lincoln's Virtues: An Ethical Biography|year=2002|isbn=0-375-40158-X|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York}} *Neely, Mark E. ''The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties'' (1992). Pulitzer Prize winner. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=79055694 online version] *{{Cite book|first=Carl|last=Sandburg|authorlink=Carl Sandburg|title=Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years and The War Years|publisher=Harvest Books|year=1974|isbn=0156026112}} *{{Cite web|first=Benjamin P.|last=Thomas|title=Abraham Lincoln: A Biography|year=1952|url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=25051697}} *{{Cite book|first=Garry|last=Wills|authorlink=Garry Wills|title=[[Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America]]|isbn=0-671-86742-3|year=1993|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York}} *{{Cite journal|first=Douglas L.|last=Wilson|title=Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln|year=1999}} {{refend}} ==Further reading== ;Biographies {{refbegin}} *[[Isaac N. Arnold]], ''The Life of Abraham Lincoln'' (1885), written by Lincoln's friend and political ally *[[William Herndon (lawyer)|William H Herndon]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=T5fN2iQw9eEC&pg=PP1&ots=ulD9TIlWf6&dq=Lincoln+Herndon&sig=cKCje307mmPa5lXK5YcWy0QU0es#PPR13,M1 Lincoln] *[[Albert J. Beveridge|Beveridge, Albert J]]. ''Abraham Lincoln: 1809-1858'' (1928). 2 vol. to 1858; notable for strong, unbiased political coverage [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3925146 online edition] *Richard Carwardine. ''Lincoln: A Life of Purpose and Power'' ISBN 1400044561 (2003), winner of the 2004 Lincoln Prize from Gettysburg College *[[David Herbert Donald]]. ''Lincoln'' (1995), major scholarly biography by winner of two Pulitzer prizes *William E. Gienapp. ''Abraham Lincoln and Civil War America: A Biography'' by ISBN 0-19-515099-6 (2002), short [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103538783 online edition] *[[John Hay]] & [[John George Nicolay]]. ''Abraham Lincoln: a History'' (1890); [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6812 Vol 1] and [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11708 Vol 2] 10 vols in all; detailed narrative of era by Lincoln's aides *[[Reinhard H Luthin]] ''The Real Abraham Lincoln'' (1960), emphasis on politics *Mark E. Neely. ''The Abraham Lincoln Encyclopedia'' (1984), detailed articles on many men and movements associated with AL *Mark E. Neely. ''The Last Best Hope of Earth: Abraham Lincoln and the Promise of America'' (1993), Pulitzer prize winning author *Stephen B. Oates. ''With Malice Toward None: The Life of Abraham Lincoln'' (1994) *James G. Randall. ''Lincoln the President'' (4 vol., 1945–55; reprint 2000.) by prize winning scholar. ''[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5993790 Mr. Lincoln]'' excerpts ed. by Richard N. Current (1957) *[[Ingri and Edgar Parin d'Aulaire]], ''[[Abraham Lincoln (book)|Abraham Lincoln]]'' (1939), for children * Carl Sandburg. ''Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years'' (two volumes) and ''The War Years'' (four volumes) (1926 and many editions), beautifully written tribue by famous poet * Benjamin P. Thomas. ''Abraham Lincoln: A Biography'' (1952); [http://www.questia.com/read/25051697?title=Abraham%20Lincoln%3a%20A%20Biography online edition] *John C. Waugh. ''One Man Great Enough: Abraham Lincoln’s Road to Civil War'' ISBN 978-0-15-101071-4 (2007), Harcourt *John C. Waugh. ''Reelecting Lincoln: The Battle for the 1864 Presidency'' ISBN 0-517-59766-7 (1997), Crown Publishers {{refend}} ; Specialty topics {{refbegin}} *Angle, Paul M., ''Here I Have Lived: A History of Lincoln's Springfield, 1821-1865,'' (1935) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=210869 online edition] *Baker, Jean H. ''Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography'' (1987) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102075782 online edition] *Belz, Herman. ''Abraham Lincoln, Constitutionalism, and Equal Rights in the Civil War Era'' (1998) *Boritt, Gabor S. ''Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream'' (1994). Lincoln's economic theory and policies *Boritt, Gabor S. ed. ''Lincoln the War President'' (1994) *Boritt, Gabor S., ed. ''The Historian's Lincoln'' U. of Illinois Press, 1988, historiography *Bruce, Robert V. ''Lincoln and the Tools of War'' (1956) on weapons development during the war [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=978110 online edition] *Bush, Bryan S. ''Lincoln and the Speeds: The Untold Story of a Devoted and Enduring Friendship'' (2008) ISBN 978-0-9798802-6-1 *[[Lucius E. Chittenden|Chittenden, Lucius E.]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC00587058&id=b-N27vdmIt4C&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22Recollections+of+President+Lincoln+and+His+Administration%22&pgis=1 ''Recollections of President Lincoln and His Administration''], (1891). – [[Google Book Search|Google Books]] *[[David Herbert Donald|Donald, David Herbert]]. ''Lincoln Reconsidered: Essays on the Civil War Era'' (1960) *[[David Herbert Donald|Donald, David Herbert]]. ''We Are Lincoln Men: Abraham Lincoln and His Friends'' Simon & Schuster, (2003). *Guelzo, Allen C., ''Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America'', Simon & Schuster (2004). ISBN 0743221826 *Guelzo, Allen C., ''Lincoln and Douglas: The Debates that Defined America'', Simon & Schuster (2008). ISBN 978-0743273206 *{{citebook|last=Hall|first=Roger Lee|title=Lincoln and Liberty: Music from Abraham Lincoln's Era|publisher=PineTree Press|year=2009|url=http://www.americanmusicpreservation.com/LincolnandLiberty.htm}} *Harris, William C. ''With Charity for All: Lincoln and the Restoration of the Union'' (1997). AL's plans for Reconstruction *Hendrick, Burton J. ''Lincoln's War Cabinet'' (1946) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=790159 online edition] *Hofstadter, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition: And the Men Who Made It'' (1948) ch 5: "Abraham Lincoln and the Self-Made Myth" *Howe, Daniel Walker, [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jala/16.1/howe.html Why Abraham Lincoln Was a Whig.] ''Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association'' 16.1 (1995) *{{citebook|last=Lea|first=James Henry|title=The Ancestry of Abraham Lincoln|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|year=1909|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5jlOsSwW85cC&pg=PA160&lpg=PA160&dq=%22swanton+morley%22+lincoln+norfolk&source=web&ots=4jwJ4mFq2m&sig=rF5pUF8AWiinJ_3Z4JZWELgEfTM&hl=en#PPR9,M1}} *Kunhardt Jr., Phillip B., Kunhardt III, Phillip, and Kunhardt, Peter W. ''Lincoln: An Illustrated Biography''. Gramercy Books, New York, 1992. ISBN 0-517-20715-X *Marshall, John A., " American Bastille" (1870) Fifth edition: A History of the Illegal Arrests and Imprisonment of American Citizens in the Northern and Border States on Account of Their political opinions during the late Civil War. Part 1 *McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era'' (1988). Pulitzer Prize winner surveys all aspects of the war *Morgenthau, Hans J., and David Hein. ''Essays on Lincoln's Faith and Politics''. White Burkett Miller Center of Public Affairs at the U of Virginia, 1983. *Neely, Mark E. ''The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties'' (1992). Pulitzer Prize winner. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=79055694 online version] *Oakes, James. ''The Radical and the Republican: Frederick Douglass, Abraham Lincoln, and the Triumph of Antislavery Politics.'' New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 2007. ISBN 0-39306194-9 *Ostendorf, Lloyd, and Hamilton, Charles, ''Lincoln in Photographs: An Album of Every Known Pose'', Morningside House Inc., 1963, ISBN 089029-087-3. *Paludan, Philip S. ''The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln'' (1994), thorough treatment of Lincoln's administration *Peterson, Merrill D. ''Lincoln in American Memory'' (1994). how Lincoln was remembered after 1865 *Polsky, Andrew J. "'Mr. Lincoln's Army' Revisited: Partisanship, Institutional Position, and Union Army Command, 1861–1865." ''Studies in American Political Development'' (2002), 16: 176-207 *Randall, James G. ''Lincoln the Liberal Statesman'' (1947) *Richardson, Heather Cox. ''The Greatest Nation of the Earth: Republican Economic Policies during the Civil War'' (1997) *Shenk, Joshua Wolf. ''Lincoln's Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness'' (2005) *Kenneth P. Williams. ''Lincoln Finds a General: A Military Study of the Civil War'' (1959) 5 volumes on Lincoln's control of the war *Williams, T. Harry. ''Lincoln and His Generals'' (1967). *Wilson, Douglas L. ''Lincoln's Sword: The Presidency and the Power of Words''(2006) ISBN 1-4000-4039-6. {{refend}} ;Lincoln in art and popular culture {{refbegin}} *{{cite book |title=[[The Real Lincoln]] |first=Thomas |last=DiLorenzo |authorlink=Thomas DiLorenzo |isbn=0-7615-2646-3 |year=2002 |publisher=Three Rivers Press |location=New York }} *{{cite book |first=Bullard. F. |last=Lauriston |title=Lincoln in Marble and Bronze |publisher=Rutgers University Press |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey |year=1952 }} *{{cite book |last=Mead |first=Franklin B. |title=Heroic Statues in Bronze of Abraham Lincoln: Introducing The Hoosier Youth by [[Paul Manship]] |publisher=The Lincoln National Life Foundation |year=1932 }} *{{cite book |last=Moffatt |first=Frederick C. |title=Errant Bronzes: [[George Grey Barnard]]'s Statues of Abraham Lincoln |publisher=University of Delaware Press |location=Newark, DE |year=1998 }} *{{cite book |last=Murry |first=Freeman Henry Morris |title=Emancipation and the Freed in American Sculpture |publisher=Books For Libraries Press |year=1972 |origyear=1916 }} *{{cite book |last=Petz |first=Weldon |title=Michigan's Monumental Tributes to Abraham Lincoln |publisher=Historical Society of Michigan |year=1987 }} *{{cite book |last=Redway |first=Maurine Whorton |coauthors=Bracken, Dorothy Kendall |title=Marks of Lincoln on Our Land |publisher=Hastings House, Publishers |location=New York |year=1957 }} *{{cite book |last=Savage |first=Kirk |title=Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves: Race War and Monument in Nineteenth Century America |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1997 }} *{{cite book |last=Tice |first=George |title=Lincoln |publisher=Rutgers University Press |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey |year=1984 }} {{refend}} ; Primary sources {{refbegin}} *{{cite book |last=Lincoln |first=Abraham |title=The Life and Writings of Abraham Lincoln |publisher=Modern Library Classics |editor=ed by Philip Van Doren Stern |year=2000 }} * Fehrenbacher, Don E., ed. ''Abraham Lincoln: Speeches and Writings 1832-1858'' ([[Library of America]], ed. 1989) ISBN 978-0-94045043-1 * Fehrenbacher, Don E., ed. ''Abraham Lincoln: Speeches and Writings 1859-1865'' ([[Library of America]], ed. 1989) ISBN 978-0-94045063-9 *{{cite book |last=Goodwin |first=Doris Kearns |title=Team of Rivals |publisher=Simon & Schuster, Inc. |location=New York, New York |year=2005 }} {{refend}} ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Abraham Lincoln}} *{{dmoz|Society/History/By_Region/North_America/United_States/Presidents/Lincoln,_Abraham}} *{{dmoz|Society/History/By_Region/North_America/United_States/Presidents/Lincoln,_Abraham/Speeches_and_Writings}} – Speeches and writings *[http://ejunto.com/lincoln.html The Life of Lincoln by Henry Ketcham] — Free full-length recording *[http://city-journal.org/2009/eon0211mkb.html Lincoln and the Moral Imagination, ''City Journal'' online, 2-11-09] *[http://www.knox.edu/lincolnstudies.xml Lincoln Studies Center at Knox College] *[http://www.physical-lincoln.com/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_photographs Photographs of Abraham Lincoln] *{{CongBio|L000313}} *[http://www.abrahamlincoln.org/ The Lincoln Institute] *[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/alhome.html Mr. Lincoln's Virtual Library] *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/prespoetry/al.html Poetry written by Abraham Lincoln] *[http://home.att.net/~rjnorton/Lincoln78.html Lincoln quotes collected by Roger Norton] *[http://www.alplm.org/home.html The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum] Springfield, Illinois *[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/ The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln] *[http://www.lincolncottage.org/visit/index.htm President Lincoln’s Cottage] *{{US patent|6469|US PATNo. 6,469}} — ''Manner of Buoying Vessels'' — A. Lincoln — 1849 *[http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/education/patent.htm Lincoln's Patent] *[http://www.nps.gov/abli/ National Park Service Abraham Lincoln birthplace] (includes good early history) *[http://edsitement.neh.gov/spotlight.asp?id=138 National Endowment for the Humanities Spotlight – Abraham Lincoln] *[http://research.washingtonhistory.org/collections/findingaids.aspx Research Center] provides finding aid to article subject from the Special Collections, Washington State Historical Society (WSHS) *[http://www.abrahamlincoln200.org/ The Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Commission] *[http://www.nps.gov/linc/ Lincoln Memorial] Washington, DC *[http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/ Lincoln/Net: Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project, Northern Illinois University Libraries] *[http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/127liho/ ''Lincoln Home National Historic Site:A Place of Growth and Memory,'' lesson plan] *[http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/126libo/ ''Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial: Forging Greatness during Lincoln's Youth,'' lesson plan] *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/lincoln/ Abraham Lincoln: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress] *[http://millercenter.org/index.php/academic/americanpresident/lincoln Essay on Abraham Lincoln and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs] '''Project Gutenberg eTexts''' * List of {{gutenberg author|id=Abraham+Lincoln | name=Abraham Lincoln}} *{{cite book |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12462 |title=A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents and more: Volume 6, part 1: Abraham Lincoln |author=Richardson, James D. (compiler) }} includes major (and minor) state papers, but not speeches or letters *{{cite book |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2517 |title=Lincoln's Yarns and Stories }} *{{cite book |title=Abraham Lincoln: a History |year=1890 |first=John |last=Hay |authorlink=John Hay |coauthors=[[John George Nicolay]]}} {{cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6812 |title=Volume 1}} to 1856; coverage of national politics. {{cite web |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11708 |title=Volume 2 }} (1832 to 1901) ; covers 1856 to early 1861; coverage of national politics; part of 10 volume "life and times" by Lincoln's aides *{{cite book |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1815 |title=The Boys' Life of Abraham Lincoln |year=1907 |last=Nicolay |first=Helen }} (1866 to 1954) *{{cite book |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6811 |title=The Life of Abraham Lincoln |year=1901 |first=Henry |last=Ketcham }} ; popular *{{cite book |title=Abraham Lincoln |year=1899 |first=John T. |last=Morse }} ; a solid scholarly biography {{cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12800 |title=Volume 1}}{{cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12801 |title=Volume 2}} *{{cite book |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14004 |title=The Every-day Life of Abraham Lincoln |year=1913 |author=Francis Fisher Browne }} ; popular *{{cite book |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11728 |title=Abraham Lincoln: The People's Leader in the Struggle for National Existence |year=1909 |author=George Haven Putnam, Litt. D. }} *{{cite book |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1713 |title=Lincoln's Personal Life |year=1922 |first=Nathaniel W. |last=Stephenson }} ; popular *{{cite book |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/18379 |title=Abraham Lincoln |year=1917 |first=Godfrey Rathbone |last=Benson (Lorn Charnwood) }} {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[John Henry (representative)|John Henry]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Member from [[Illinois's 7th congressional district|Illinois's<br />7th congressional district]]|years=March 4, 1847 – March 3, 1849}} {{s-aft|after=[[Thomas L. Harris]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[James Buchanan]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[President of the United States]]|years=March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865}} {{s-aft|after=[[Andrew Johnson]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[John C. Frémont]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party presidential candidate]]|years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860]], [[U.S. presidential election, 1864|1864]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Ulysses S. Grant]]}} {{s-hon}} {{s-bef|before=[[Henry Clay]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Persons who have [[lying in state|lain in state or honor]]<br />in the [[United States Capitol rotunda]]|years=April 19, 1865 – April 21, 1865}} {{s-aft|after=[[Thaddeus Stevens]]}} {{end}} {{AbrahamLincoln}} {{US Presidents}} {{USRepPresNominees}} {{Lincoln cabinet}} {{Black Hawk War (1832)}} {{Persondata |NAME = Lincoln, Abraham |ALTERNATIVE NAMES = |SHORT DESCRIPTION = 16th President of the United States of America |DATE OF BIRTH = February 12, 1809 |PLACE OF BIRTH = Hardin County, Kentucky |DATE OF DEATH = April 15, 1865 |PLACE OF DEATH = [[Washington, D.C.]] }} [[Category:Abraham Lincoln|Abraham Lincoln]] [[Category:Assassinated United States Presidents]] [[Category:Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.]] [[Category:English Americans]] [[Category:Illinois lawyers]] [[Category:Illinois Republicans]] [[Category:Lincoln family]] [[Category:Members of the Illinois House of Representatives]] [[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois]] [[Category:People from Coles County, Illinois]] [[Category:People from LaRue County, Kentucky]] [[Category:People from Macon County, Illinois]] [[Category:People from Spencer County, Indiana]] [[Category:People from Springfield, Illinois]] [[Category:People murdered in Washington, D.C.]] [[Category:People of Illinois in the American Civil War]] [[Category:People of the Black Hawk War]] [[Category:Postmasters]] [[Category:Presidents of the United States]] [[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees]] [[Category:Smallpox survivors]] [[Category:Union political leaders]] [[Category:United States presidential candidates, 1860]] [[Category:United States presidential candidates, 1864]] [[Category:United States Whig Party]] {{Lifetime|1809|1865|Lincoln, Abraham}} {{Link FA|de}} [[am:አብርሀም ሊንከን]] [[ang:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ar:أبراهام لينكون]] [[an:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ast:Abraham Lincoln]] [[az:Avraam Linkoln]] [[bn:আব্রাহাম লিংকন]] [[zh-min-nan:Abraham Lincoln]] [[be:Абрахам Лінкальн]] [[bcl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[bar:Abraham Lincoln]] [[bs:Abraham Lincoln]] [[bg:Ейбрахам Линкълн]] [[ca:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ceb:Abraham Lincoln]] [[cs:Abraham Lincoln]] [[co:Abraham Lincoln]] [[cy:Abraham Lincoln]] [[da:Abraham Lincoln]] [[de:Abraham Lincoln]] [[dv:އަބްރަހަމް ލިންކަން]] [[et:Abraham Lincoln]] [[el:Αβραάμ Λίνκολν]] [[es:Abraham Lincoln]] [[eo:Abraham Lincoln]] [[eu:Abraham Lincoln]] [[fa:آبراهام لینکلن]] [[fo:Abraham Lincoln]] [[fr:Abraham Lincoln]] [[fy:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ga:Abraham Lincoln]] [[gv:Abraham Lincoln]] [[gd:Abraham Lincoln]] [[gl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[gan:亞伯拉罕·林肯]] [[ko:에이브러햄 링컨]] [[hy:Աբրահամ Լինքոլն]] [[hi:अब्राहम लिंकन]] [[hr:Abraham Lincoln]] [[io:Abraham Lincoln]] [[id:Abraham Lincoln]] [[is:Abraham Lincoln]] [[it:Abraham Lincoln]] [[he:אברהם לינקולן]] [[jv:Abraham Lincoln]] [[kn:ಅಬ್ರಹಮ್ ಲಿಂಕನ್]] [[pam:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ka:აბრაამ ლინკოლნი]] [[sw:Abraham Lincoln]] [[la:Abrahamus Lincoln]] [[lv:Abrahams Linkolns]] [[lb:Abraham Lincoln]] [[lt:Abraham Lincoln]] [[hu:Abraham Lincoln]] [[mk:Абрахам Линколн]] [[ml:അബ്രഹാം ലിങ്കണ്‍]] [[mr:अब्राहम लिंकन]] [[ms:Abraham Lincoln]] [[nl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ja:エイブラハム・リンカーン]] [[nap:Abraham Lincoln]] [[no:Abraham Lincoln]] [[nn:Abraham Lincoln]] [[oc:Abraham Lincoln]] [[uz:Abraham Lincoln]] [[pap:Abraham Lincoln]] [[pms:Abraham Lincoln]] [[nds:Abraham Lincoln]] [[pl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[pt:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ro:Abraham Lincoln]] [[rm:Abraham Lincoln]] [[qu:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ru:Линкольн, Авраам]] [[sco:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sq:Abraham Lincoln]] [[scn:Abraham Lincoln]] [[simple:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sk:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sr:Абрахам Линколн]] [[sh:Abraham Lincoln]] [[fi:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sv:Abraham Lincoln]] [[tl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ta:ஆபிரகாம் லிங்க்கன்]] [[te:అబ్రహం లింకన్]] [[th:อับราฮัม ลิงเคิล์น]] [[tg:Авраҳам Линколн]] [[tr:Abraham Lincoln]] [[uk:Абрахам Лінкольн]] [[ur:ابراہام لنکن]] [[vi:Abraham Lincoln]] [[yi:עברעהעם לינקולן]] [[zh-yue:林肯]] [[zh:亚伯拉罕·林肯]]'