User:Jtwsaddress42/Gallery

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Picture Galleries

[edit | edit source]
Gallery Sitemap
Aquaporins
Aquaporins
  • Aquaporin illustration
    Aquaporin illustration[b]
  • 2D structure of aquaporin 1 (AQP1)
    2D structure of aquaporin 1 (AQP1)[c]
  • Aquaporin Z
    Aquaporin Z
  • AQP-channel
    AQP-channel
Bakunin, Mikhail
Mikhail Bakunin
Mikhail Bakunin
  • Bakunin's League of Peace and Freedom Membership Card
    Bakunin's League of Peace and Freedom Membership Card
  • Bakunin Siberia
    Bakunin Siberia
  • Bakunin and Antonia
    Bakunin and Antonia
  • Basel 1869
    Basel 1869
Bassler, Bonnie L.
Quorum Sensing In Bacteria
  • Intra-Species Communication via N-acyl-homoserine lactones
    Intra-Species Communication via N-acyl-homoserine lactones
  • Inter-Species Communication via DHMF (4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione)
    Inter-Species Communication via DHMF (4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione)
  • 4,5-DHMF in equilibrium with its cyclic acetal forms
    DHMF in equilibrium with its cyclic acetal forms R-DHMF & S-SHMF
  • Autoinducer-2 for the LuxPQ quorum sensing elements
    Auto Inducer-2 for the LuxPQ is a furanosyl borate diester of 4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione (DHMF)

  • Bassler, Bonnie (2010a). Part 1: Bacterial Communication via Quorum Sensing. iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures. Princeton University/HHMI (published March 27, 2010). video (0:28:54)
  • Bassler, Bonnie (2010b). Part 2: Vibrio Cholerae Quorum Sensing and Novel Antibiotics. iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures. Princeton University/HHMI (published March 27, 2010). video (0:19:45)
  • Bassler, Bonnie (2017). Tiny Conspiracies. iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures. Princeton University/HHMI (published November 20, 2017). video (0:26:33)
Cavalier-Smith, Thomas
Thomas Cavalier-Smith
The Neomuran Revolution
  • The six-kingdom, two-empire classification of life
    The six-kingdom, two-empire classification of life.[1]
  • Rooting the tree of life by transition analyses
    Rooting the tree of life by transition analyses.[2]
  • The tree of life and major steps in cell evolution
    The tree of life and major steps in cell evolution.[3]
  • Cell structure divergence in phagotrophic non-amoeboid flagellates provided the basis for evolving animals, fungi, plants and chromists
    Cell structure divergence in phagotrophic non-amoeboid flagellates.[4]

Cavalier-Smith's Animal Origins
  • Phylogeny of the Choanozoa and other unikont eukaryotes
    Phylogeny of the Choanozoa and other unikont eukaryotes.[d][5]
  • Domain structure of selected annotated sequences.
    Domain structure of selected annotated sequences.[e][6]
  • Evolutionary relationships among animals and fungi and their closest unicellular relatives (Choanozoa, Protozoa).
    Evolutionary relationships among animals and fungi and their closest unicellular relatives (Choanozoa, Protozoa). [f][7]
  • Cell structure divergence in phagotrophic non-amoeboid flagellates
    Cell structure divergence in phagotrophic non-amoeboid flagellates[g][8]
  • Evolution of an archetypal animal
    Evolution of an archetypal animal.[9]
  • Origins of sponges, Cnidaria and bilateria
    Origins of sponges, Cnidaria and bilateria with homologous body axis polarity.[10]
Rooting The Tree Of Life
  • Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
    Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
  • Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
    Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
  • Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
    Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
  • Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
    Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
  • Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
    Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
  • Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
    Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
  • Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
    Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
  • Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
    Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
  • Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
    Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
  • Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
    Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
  • Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
    Rooting-the-tree-of-life-by-transition-analyses
Changeux, Jean-Pierre
Jean-Pierre Changeux
Monod-Wyman-Changeux Model
  • Allostery
    Allostery
  • MWC_Structure
    MWC Structure
  • Hill Plot for MWC Model
    Hill Plot for MWC Model
Chomsky, Noam
Noam Chomsky
Chomskian Linguistics
  • Chomsky's Syntactic Structures Grammar Model
    Chomsky's Syntactic Structures Grammar Model
  • Tree Diagram for Chomsky's Sentence
    Tree Diagram for Chomsky's Sentence
  • Aspects Grammar Model
    Aspects Grammar Model
  • Chomsky-hierarchy
    Chomsky-hierarchy
Darwin, Charles
Charles Darwin
The Darwinian Revolution
  • Transmutation diagram
    Transmutation Diagram.[h][11]
  • Darwins scheme showing evolution of the species.
    Evolution Of The Species.[i][12]
  • Charles_Darwin,_Journal_of_Researches...
    Galapagos Finches.[j]
  • The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals
    The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals[13]
Descartes, René
René Descartes
René Descartes
  • L'homme
    L'homme
  • Discours de la méthode
    Discours de la méthode
  • Meditationes de prima philosophia
    Meditationes de prima philosophia
Dorsal-Ventral Inversion
Protostomes Vs. Deuterostomes: Dorsal-Ventral Axial Inversion
  • Dorsal-Ventral Axial Inversion
    Dorsal-Ventral Axial Inversion[k]
  • Cleavage Patterns
    Cleavage Patterns[l]
Doudna, Jennifer A.
Jennifer Doudna
CRISPR-Cas9 & Gene Editing
  • CRISPR-Cas9 overview
    CRISPR-Cas9 overview
  • CRISPR-Cas9 Complex showing Target & PAM as well as dsDNA and the gRNA
    CRISPR-Cas9 Complex showing Target & PAM as well as dsDNA and the gRNA
  • DNA Repair
    DNA Repair
  • Dead-Cas9 potential applications
    Dead-Cas9 potential applications
Edelman, Gerald M.
Gerald M. Edelman
The Ubiquity of Degeneracy in Biological Systems

"Degeneracy, the ability of elements that are structurally different to perform the same function or yield the same output, is a well known characteristic of the genetic code and immune systems. Here, we point out that degeneracy is a ubiquitous biological property and argue that it is a feature of complexity at genetic, cellular, system, and population levels. Furthermore, it is both necessary for, and an inevitable outcome of, natural selection."[14]

Gerald M. Edelman & Joseph A, Gally (2001)

The Ubiquity of Degeneracy in Biological Systems
  • Relationships between degeneracy, complexity, robustness, and evolvability.[m]
    Relationships between degeneracy, complexity, robustness, and evolvability.[m]
  • The degeneracy of the genetic code buffers biological systems from the effects of random mutation.[n]
    The degeneracy of the genetic code buffers biological systems from the effects of random mutation.[n]
  • A large number of degenerate sidechain residue combinations form the tertiary structures that make the protein globular.[o]
    A large number of degenerate sidechain residue combinations form the tertiary structures that make the protein globular.[o]
  • Antibody chains with variable regions constitute a pre-existing pool of diversity within a degenerate population.
    Antibody chains with variable regions constitute a pre-existing pool of diversity within a degenerate population.
The Neurosciences Institute (NSI) Campus
  • Neurosciences Institute (NSI)
    Neurosciences Institute (NSI)
  • NSI Campus in San Diego, California
    NSI Campus
  • NSI Campus in San Diego, California
    NSI Campus
  • NSI Campus in San Diego, California
    NSI Campus
  • NSI Campus in San Diego, California
    NSI Campus
  • NSI Campus in San Diego, California
    NSI Campus
  • NSI Campus in San Diego, California
    NSI Campus
  • NSI Campus in San Diego, California
    NSI Campus
  • NSI Campus in San Diego, California
    NSI Campus
  • Library of The Neurosciences Institute
    Library of The Neurosciences Institute
  • Cafeteria of The Neurosciences Institute
    Cafeteria of The Neurosciences Institute
  • Neurosciences Institute at Sunset
    Neurosciences Institute at Sunset
  • Private Parking For Dr Edelman in Neurosciences Institute
    Neurosciences Institute at night
  • Neurosciences Institute at night
    Private Parking For Dr Edelman in Neurosciences Institute
The Cortical Appendages: The Organs Of Succession
  • Cerebellum & Neoortex
    Cerebellum & Neoortex[p]
  • Basal Ganglia
    Basal Ganglia
  • Hippocampus
    Hippocampus[q]
The Thalamocortical System
  • The Thalamocortical System
    The Thalamocortical System
  • Thalamic Nuclei
    Thalamic Nuclei [r]
Éliade, Mircéa
Mircéa Éliade
Mircéa Éliade - The Forge & The Crucible
  • Mircea Eliade signature
    Mircéa Éliade
  • Stamp of Romania - 1995
    Stamp of Romania - 1995
  • Stamp of Moldova - 2007
    Elie Stamp of Moldova - 2007
  • Plaque Mircéa Éliade
    Plaque Mircéa Éliade
Epithelial–Mesenchyme Transitions
Epithelial–Mesenchyme Transitions
  • Epithelial–Mesenchyme Transition
    Epithelial–Mesenchyme Transition
  • EMT & MET transitions
    EMT & MET transitions[16][s]
Faraday, Michael
Michael Faraday
Michael Faraday
  • Michael Faraday - AUTHOR OF CHEMICAL MANIPULATION
    Chemical Manipulation
  • Faraday Christmas Lecture
    Faraday Christmas Lecture
  • Faraday disk generator
    Faraday disk generator
  • English chemists Michael Faraday and John Frederic Daniell
    English chemists Michael Faraday and John Frederic Daniell
Fuller, Buckminster
Buckminster Fuller
The Inventions of Buckminster Fuller
  • Fuller at work
    Fuller at work
  • Fuller's home in Carbondale
    Fuller's home in Carbondale
  • Expo67 USA Pavilion
    Expo67 USA Pavilion
  • Expo67 USA Pavilion (minirail)
    Expo67 USA Pavilion (minirail)
The Biosphère Montréal
  • Biosphère Montréal
    Biosphère Montréal
  • Biosphere
    Biosphere[t]
  • Montreal Biosphere
    Montreal Biosphere
  • Biosphere - Panorama
    Biosphere - Panorama
The Dymaxion Car
  • Dymaxion car (illustration)
    Dymaxion car (illustration)
  • The Dymaxion car, c.1933
    The Dymaxion car, c.1933[u]
  • 1933 Dymaxion prototype
    1933 Dymaxion prototype
  • 1933 Dymaxion (rear)
    1933 Dymaxion (rear)
  • 1933 Dynamixion (side view)
    1933 Dymaxion (side view)
  • Dymaxion-auto Bilbao Spain
    Dymaxion-auto Bilbao Spain
  • 1934 Dymaxion
    1934 Dymaxion
  • 1934 Dymaxion
    1934 Dymaxion
The Dymaxion House
  • Dymaxion House
    A Dymaxion House
  • A Dymaxion house at The Henry Ford
    Dymaxion house at The Henry Ford
  • Dymaxion House Interior
    Dymaxion House (interior)
  • U.S. Patent 2,220,482
    U.S. Patent 2,220,482[v]
Golgi, Camillo
Camillo Golgi
Camillo Golgi - 1885 Plates[19]
  • Golgi 1885 Plate XIII
    Golgi 1885 Plate XIII
  • Golgi 1885 Plate XIV
    Golgi 1885 Plate XIV
  • Golgi 1885 Plate XV
    Golgi 1885 Plate XV
  • Golgi 1885 Plate XVI
    Golgi 1885 Plate XVI
  • Golgi 1885 Plate XVII
    Golgi 1885 Plate XVII
  • Golgi 1885 Plate XVIII
    Golgi 1885 Plate XVIII
  • Golgi 1885 Plate XIX
    Golgi 1885 Plate XIX
  • Golgi 1885 Plate XX
    Golgi 1885 Plate XX
  • Golgi 1885 Plate XXI
    Golgi 1885 Plate XXI
  • Golgi 1885 Plate XXII
    Golgi 1885 Plate XXII
  • Golgi 1885 Plate XXIII
    Golgi 1885 Plate XXIII
Camillo Golgi - A Dog’s Olfactory Bulb[19]
  • Camillo Golgi's image of a dog’s olfactory bulb
    Camillo Golgi's image of a dog’s olfactory bulb. (full)
  • Camillo Golgi's image of a dog’s olfactory bulb (detail 1)
    Camillo Golgi's image of a dog’s olfactory bulb. (detail 1)
  • Camillo Golgi's image of a dog’s olfactory bulb (detail 2)
    Camillo Golgi's image of a dog’s olfactory bulb. (detail 2)
HOX Clusters
HOX-Clusters and Anterior-Posterior Homeotic Segmentation
  • Homeotic Transcription Factor - HoxB1-Pbx1 heterodimer bound to DNA.
    Homeotic Transcription Factor - HoxB1-Pbx1 heterodimer bound to DNA.[20]
  • Linear cluster of Hox-genes patterning the anterior-posterior (AP) axis in Drosophila.
    Linear cluster of Hox-genes patterning the anterior-posterior (AP) axis in Drosophila.
  • Ommatoiulus moreleti homeotic male
    Ommatoiulus moreleti homeotic mutant male exhibiting normal and ectopic gonopods.[21]
  • Arthropod segment Hox gene expression
    Arthropod segment evolution via shifting HOX-gene expression patterns.
  • HOX-Clusters in Bilaterians.
    HOX-clusters patterning the Bilaterian AP-axis.[22]
  • Chordate Hox cluster Evolution
    Chordate Genome Duplications and Hox-cluster Evolution.[23]
Kandel, Eric
Eric Kandel
Huntingtin Is Critical Both Pre- and Postsynaptically
  • Figure 1.
    Figure 1.
  • Figure 2.
    Figure 2.
  • Figure 3.
    Figure 3.
  • Figure 4.
    Figure 4.
  • Figure 5.
    Figure 5.
  • Figure 6.
    Figure 6.
Krishnamurti, Jiddu
Jiddu Krishnamurti
The Life of Jiddu Krishnamurti
  • Krishnamurti Portrait by Tomás Povedano
    Krishnamurti Portrait by Tomás Povedano
  • Jiddu Krishnamurti 1987 Stamp of India
    1987 Stamp of India
  • Krishnamurti Bronze by Antoine Bourdelle
    Krishnamurti Bronze by Antoine Bourdelle
  • Annie Besant, Charles Webster Leadbeater, Jiddu Krishnamurti, Juddu Nityananda, George Arundale and Curuppumullage Jinarajadasa a at Casa Cuseni, Taormina, circa 1912
    Annie Besant, Charles Webster Leadbeater, Jiddu Krishnamurti, Juddu Nityananda, George Arundale and Curuppumullage Jinarajadasa a at Casa Cuseni, Taormina, circa 1912;
Metchnikoff, Élie
Elie Metchnikoff
Élie Metchnikoff - Animal Origins: Phagocytella & Intracellular Digestion
  • Élie and Olga Metchnikoff, 1908
    Élie and Olga Metchnikoff, 1908
  • Élie Metchnikoff
    Élie Metchnikoff
  • Choanoflagellates Colonie (Méchnikov)
    Choanoflagellates Colonie (Méchnikov)
  • Choanoflagellates (Méchnikov)
    Choanoflagellates (Méchnikov)
Microtubule Organizing Center
Germ & Soma: Dual Role Of The Microtubule Organizing Center
  • Tubulin Structure and Microtubule Metrics
    Tubulin Structure and Microtubule Metrics[w]
  • Cytoskeletal organization of an epithelial cell.
    Cytoskeleton of a transporting epithelial cell showing the cell-cell and cell-substrate junctions connecting the actin, tubulin, and intermediate filament networks.[24]
  • Eukaryotic mitotic spindle with microtubules, microtubule organizing complex, and kinetochores.
    Eukaryotic mitotic spindle with microtubules, microtubule organizing complex, and kinetochores.
  • Multicellular lifecycle diagrams[x] Plants (A), Animals (B) and Fungi (C)
    Multicellular lifecycle diagrams[x] Plants (A), Animals (B) and Fungi (C)
Onsager, Lars
Lars Onsager
Lars Onsager
  • Onsager Medal
    Onsager Medal
  • Onsager Medal - back
    Onsager Medal - back
  • Egyszerűsített Onsager relációs táblázat
    Egyszerűsített Onsager relációs táblázat
  • Onsager reziprozitaet
    Onsager reziprozitaet
Please support the courageous people of Ukraine.
Please support the courageous people of Ukraine.
Ramachandran, Vilayanur S.
Vilayanur S Ramachandran
Mirror images & Synaesthesia
  • Dr. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran & Matthew Marradi holding the original Mirror Box
    Dr. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran & Matthew Marradi holding the original Mirror Box
  • Ramachandran Mirrorbox
    Ramachandran Mirrorbox
  • Test for Synaesthesia
    Test for Synaesthesia
  • Synaesthesia
    Synaesthesia
Ramón y Cajal, Santiago
Santiago Ramón y Cajal
Drawings of Santiago Ramón y Cajal
  • Neural circuitry of the rodent hippocampus
    Neural circuitry of the rodent hippocampus.[y]
  • Cajal-Retzius cells, 1891
    Cajal-Retzius cells, 1891
  • Comparative study of the sensory areas of the human cortex, 1899
    Comparative study of the sensory areas of the human cortex, 1899
  • Santiago Ramon y Cajal cells
    Santiago Ramon y Cajal cells
  • A cut nerve outside the spinal cord
    A cut nerve outside the spinal cord, 1913.[z]
  • Glial cells of the mouse spinal cord, 1899
    Glial cells of the mouse spinal cord, 1899.[aa]
  • Celula gigante de la porcion inferior del asta de ammon
    Celula gigante de la porcion inferior del asta de ammon.[ab]
  • Celula del lobulo cerebral electrico del torpedo
    Celula del lobulo cerebral electrico del torpedo.[ac]
  • Neuroglia de la region central gris
    Neuroglia de la region central gris.[ad]
  • Vestibular neural connections
    Vestibular neural connections.
  • Terminaciones nerviosas en la piel y pelos del raton
    Terminaciones nerviosas en la piel y pelos del raton.[ae]
  • Cerebral cortex in a child
    Cerebral cortex in a child.[af]
  • Brain structures
    Brain structures.[ag]
Santiago Ramón y Cajal - Medulla oblongata, 1896
  • Medulla oblongata, 1896
    Medulla oblongata, 1896.
  • Medulla oblongata, 1896
    Medulla oblongata, 1896.
  • Medulla oblongata, 1896
    Medulla oblongata, 1896.
  • Medulla oblongata, 1896
    Medulla oblongata, 1896.
  • Medulla oblongata, 1896
    Medulla oblongata, 1896.
  • Medulla oblongata, 1896
    Medulla oblongata, 1896.
Santiago Ramón y Cajal - The Cerebellum & Purkinje Cells
  • Chick Cerebellum
    Chick Cerebellum[ah]
  • Purkinje cells (A) and granule cells (B) from pigeon cerebellum
    Purkinje cells (A) and granule cells (B) from pigeon cerebellum.[ai]
  • Purkinje Cell
    Purkinje cell of the human cerebellum. Golgi method.[aj]
  • Axon of Purkinje neurons in the cerebellum of a drowned man
    Axon of Purkinje neurons in the cerebellum of a drowned man.[ak]
  • Injured Purkinje neurons of the cerebellum, 1914
    Injured Purkinje neurons of the cerebellum, 1914.[al]
Santiago Ramón y Cajal - The Visual System
  • Schema of the Visual Map Theory (1898)
    Schema of the Visual Map Theory (1898)[am]
  • Bifurcating axons in the optic chiasm of a rabbit
    Bifurcating axons in the optic chiasm of a rabbit.[an]
  • Red & green rods of frog
    Red & green rods of frog.
  • Mammalian retina structure.
    Mammalian retina structure.[ao]
  • Optic tectum (Sparrow)
    Optic tectum (Sparrow)[ap]
  • Structure of the Mammalian Retina
    Structure of the Mammalian Retina[aq]
  • Axial organization of the retina
    Axial organization of the retina[ar]
Romer, Alfred Sherwood

The Functional Welding of the CNS to the ENS - The Autonomic Nervous System

"To sum up the phylogenetic suggestions gained from a consideration of the structure of the nervous system in living vertebrates, high and low, and of their chordate and protochordate "ancestors," one tends strongly to gain the impression that the remote "visceral" ancestral form had a simple superficial nerve net and, at some early stage, acquired a visceral nerve net as well; that, with the development of the "somatic" animal, there developed the central nervous system, with segmental nerves including a ventral root of somatic motor type and a distinct dorsal root at first composed merely of somatic sensory neurons; but that there was a strong tendency for the somatic animal to attempt neural control over the visceral animal, first perhaps, by a direct connection with the important visceral muscles of the pharynx, later by an attempt to dominate the gut by autonomic fibers, originally by way of dorsal nerve roots, running to the postganglionic neurons, which represent elements of the original gut nerve net. The development of visceral centers in brain and cord was associated with this attempt at domination of the visceral by the somatic animal. But, as we are ourselves aware, the integration of the visceral animal into the dominant nervous system of our somatic being is still far from perfect."[25]

Alfred Sherwood Romer (1972)

The Functional Welding of the CNS to the ENS.
  • The points of fusion
    The points of fusion between larval and adult bodyplans - Unmyelinated parasympathetic system.
  • Tunicate adult
    Tunicate adult bodyplan - Pharyngeal arch system with visceral enteric nervous system (ENS).
  • Tunicate larva
    Tunicate larval bodyplan - Somatic CNS, head senses, notochord, segmented musculature, and post anal tail.
  • Gaining control
    Gaining control - Myelinated sympathetic system exerting control by the somatic CNS over the visceral ENS.

The Functional Welding of the CNS to the ENS - Gaining Control

"It is not unreasonable to speculate on the possibility that: The ancestor of the vertebrates may have had, like many invertebrate types, an essentially independent visceral nerve net; that the development of the autonomic system represents an attempt by the central nervous system at gaining control over visceral activity; and that possibly in the peculiar two-neuron system seen here, the post-ganglionic neurons may be representatives of the original visceral nerve net system, the pre-ganglionics representatives of attempts at domination by the central nervous system."[25]

Alfred Sherwood Romer (1972)

Senescence & The Purpose Of The Soma
Senescence & The Purpose Of The Soma
  • Weismann's Germ Plasm Theory
    Weismann's Germ Plasm Theory
  • Causes & Effects of Cellular Senescence
    Causes & Effects of Cellular Senescence[as][26]
The Immune System
The Vertebrate Immune System
  • Cells in the Bloodstream[at]
    Cells in the Bloodstream[at]
  • Immunoglobin Antibody[au]
    Immunoglobin Antibody[au]
  • Vertebrate Immunity[av]
    Vertebrate Immunity[av]
  • Clonal Selection Theory[aw]
    Clonal Selection Theory[aw]
The Neural Crest
The Neural Crest - The Fourth Germ Layer
  • Neural Crest Formation
    Neural Crest Formation[ax]
  • Neural Crest Migration
    Neural Crest Migration
Tunicates
Our Tunicate Relatives - Chordate Ancestor Bodyplans
  • Juvenile Tunicate Larva
    Juvenile Tunicate Larva
  • Adult Tunicate
    Adult Tunicate

Notes & Commentary

[edit | edit source]
Notes & Commentary
  1. ↑ Subject to major change, revision ,and/or retraction at any moment.
  2. ↑ 173-Aquaporin 1fqy
  3. ↑ Depicting the six transmembrane alpha-helices and the five interhelical loop regions A-E
  4. ↑ Reconstructed by the maximum likelihood method for 78 protein-coding genes. Numbers beside the internal nodes are maximum likelihood bootstrap values obtained from RaxML and Bayesian MCMC posterior probabilities. Black circles indicate 100% bootstrap support and 1.00 posterior probability values.
  5. ↑ A: hedgehog and B: Notch homologues. The illustrated domains are some of those found by searches against the Conserved Domain Database. Numbers at the species names are accession numbers, protein IDs from the Joint Genome Institute (JGI) and references where annotation recently have been presented. Domain structure identified in Ministeria is compared with animals - Porifera (Amphimedon and Oscarella), Cnidaria (Nematostella) and Chordata (Homo) - and the choanoflagellate Monosiga. Abbreviations: Hh-signal domain, N-terminal hedgehog domain; Hint cleavage site, cleavage site of the C-terminal hedgehog domain; Hint domain, C-terminal hedgehog domain; Notch(DSL), Notch domain also called Delta Serrate Ligand; EGF, epidermal growth factor domain; NL, domain found in Notch and Lin-12; NOD, NOD region; NODP, NODP region; ANK, ankyrin reapeats; PTP, protein tyrosine phosphatase.
  6. ↑ The five choanozoan classes (bold) form at least four distinct clades, one probably related to fungi and the others to animals. Innovations in pseudopod character and their multiple losses with the origin of cell walls during nutritional shifts from engulfing prey (phagotrophy) to saprotrophy or parasitism are indicated by bars. In the common ancestor of animals and choanoflagellates a subset of the filozoan actin-supportd tentacles aggregated as a collar around the cilium (flagellum) for filter feeding. Epithelia and connective tissue made the first animals: the filter-feeding sponges.
  7. ↑ Cell structure divergence in phagotrophic non-amoeboid flagellates provided the basis for evolving animals, fungi, plants and chromists. Original description: "Cell structure divergence in phagotrophic non-amoeboid flagellates provided the basis for evolving animals, fungi, plants and chromists.
    Pseudopodia evolved secondarily, myosin II providing the basis for pseudopodia in animals, Amoebozoa (and Percolozoa) and muscles.
    Chloroplasts, originating when the plant ancestor enslaved and modified undigested cyanobacteria, were transferred laterally (red arrow) to make chromists (e.g. brown seaweeds, diatoms, dinoflagellates) whose ancestor modified an enslaved undigested red alga.
    The most basic eukaryote structural dichotomy contrasts Euglenozoa (parallel centrioles; cilia with paraxonemal rods; cytopharynx for feeding) and excavates (Percolozoa, Eolouka, Neolouka: orthogonal centrioles: no paraxonemal rods; feeding by phagocytosing prey drawn into a ventral groove by posterior ciliary currents).
    The pre-animal lineage lost excavate groove-feeding by evolving ventral ciliary gliding locomotion to generate Sulcozoa, protozoa with a dorsal proteinaceous pellicle (blue).
    Irrespective of whether the eukaryote tree is rooted within the protozoan subkingdom Eozoa as shown (most likely) or beside Eolouka-like Reclinomonas with the most primitive mitochondria, the immediate ancestors of animals (Choanozoa) arose by loss of the anterior cilium and sulcozoan dorsal pellicle to make opisthokonts (in red) with a radically simplified, more radially symmetric, microtubular cytoskeleton.
    Long actin-supported filodigits arose in the ancestor of Filosporidia and choanoflagellates and became a circlet of microvilli to make the choanoflagellate/sponge collar for catching bacteria. Filosporidia comprise Filasterea, Ichthyosporea, Corallochytrea.
    The four derived kingdoms (e.g. ANIMALIA, PLANTAE) are shown in upper case; all taxa in lower case belong to the basal eukaryotic kingdom Protozoa." - Of interest to us on our journey towards animals are: myosin, integrins, catenins, cadherins, epithelia, gametes (sperm and egg), and extracellular matrix (ECM).
  8. ↑ Taken from Charles Darwin's Notebook B - On the Transmutation of Species (1837).
    This is Darwin's first diagram showing his thoughts on evolutionary diversification. Gerald Edelman's Neural Darwinism would be published 150 years later - a fitting tribute to the enduring power of Darwin's ideas. Although many will claim that this is the first evolutionary tree diagram, it is more of a bush, if anything, and Darwin's initial instincts are prescient.
  9. ↑ Wellcome L0051068
  10. ↑ Four types of finch: 1: Geospiza magnirostris; 2. Geospiza fortis; 3. Geospiza parvula; 4. Gerthidea olivacea. (Charles Darwin, Journal of Researches... Wellcome_L0026712)
  11. ↑ The regional expression of genes associated with the establishment of the dorsal-ventral axis (DV-axis) of the bilaterian body plan during development is inverted in the embryos of chordates (deuterostomes) relative to that of the arthropods (protostomes). Chordates are characterized by a hollow dorsal nerve cord and a ventral heart, while arthropods are characterized by a ventral nerve chord and a dorsal heart.
  12. ↑ Protostomes generally, but not always, undergo spiral cleavage followed by formation of the mouth from the blastopore during gastrulation. The protostome coelom and mesoderm are induced at the blastopore end in protostomes to form between the endoderm and ectoderm. Deuterostomes generally undergo radial cleavage followed by formation of the anus from the blastopore during gastrulation. The coelum and mesoderm are derived from invaginations of the archentron on the opposite side from the blastopore.
  13. ↑ Description: 1) Degeneracy is the source of Robustness. 2) Degeneracy is positively correlated with Complexity. 3) Degeneracy increases Evolvability. 4) Evolvability is a prerequisite for Complexity. 5) Complexity increases to improve Robustness. 6) Evolvability emerges from Robustness.
  14. ↑ The ingenuous 1964 Nirenberg and Leder experiment would identify the mRNA codons, a triplet sequence of ribonucleotides, that coded for each amino acid; thus elucidating the universal genetic code within the DNA when the transcription process was taken into account. Changes in the third position of the codon, the wobble position, often result in the same amino acid, and oftentimes the choice comes down to purine or pyrimidine only when a choice must be made. Similar, but variant, codon sequences tend to yield similar classes of amino acid - polar to polar, non-polar to non-polar, acidic to acidic, and basic to basic residues.
  15. ↑ The twenty biological amino acids breakdown into four major classes of biological amino acids - polar (hydrophilic), nonpolar (hydrophobic), acidic, and basic side chain residues. The amino acid backbone is an amino group linked to an α-carbon, on which resides the side chain residue and a hydrogen atom, that is connected to a terminal carboxylate group.
  16. ↑ Neuron counts of cerebral cortex and cerebellum - The cerebellum is a key player in integrating the output of the thalamocortical system with the subcortical system. Notice the greater than four-fold abundance of neurons in the cerebellum relative to the neocortex.
  17. ↑ Superior-pattern-processing-is-the-essence-of-the-evolved-human-brain-fnins-08-00265-g0002[15] - Structural features of the brains of mammals are conserved from rodents to humans. The upper drawings show the hippocampal formation of an adult human, a kitten and a young mouse. The lower two drawings show the cellular organization of the cerebral cortex of an adult human and an adult mouse, both of which exhibit six cell layers. All of the drawings are adapted from Santiago Ramon y Cajal (DeFelipe and Jones, 1988). CA, cornu ammonis; DG, dentate gyrus; SUB, subiculum.
  18. ↑ Lawrence 1960 22.4
  19. ↑ Epithelia to mesenchyme (EMT) and Mesenchyme to epithelia (MET) transisitions utilizing CAMs and SAMs to form epethelia; and, growth factors and inducers to mediate the transition to mesenchyme as the CAMs and SAMs are withdrawn or localized on the cell membrane. This figure is from Hill & Wang 2020, The importance of epithelial-mesenchymal transition and autophagy in cancer drug resistance. The connection between the cellular processes of cancer and the cellular processes of embryogenesis are not far fetched. These are the very processes that were undergoing selection at the origin of animals as they transitioned from unicellular organisms to multicellular organisms.[17][18] Cancer is an example of cells that have escaped the developmental constraints of the multicellular organism and reverted to their ancestral pattern of immortal reproduction in the absence of the inhibitory mechanisms on reproduction that proper bodyplan formation requires. One could say that cancer is a problem of morphology.
  20. ↑ September 2004
  21. ↑ Artist Diego Rivera shown entering the car, carrying coat
  22. ↑ Prefabricated bathroom, by Richard Buckminster Fuller, issued 1940
  23. ↑ The cytoskeleton is a dynamic structure and microtubules play an important role in determining the architectural state of differentiation for specialized cells. In many ways, the dynamic action of microtubules manifests one of the first, and most easily observable, indications in cells of what we would recognize as life - flagellar motility and/or the amoeboid exploration of the environment through process extension and retraction - all processes determined by the adaptive dynamics of microtubule formation and dissolution.
  24. ↑ Multicellular lifecycle diagrams in terms of soma and germ line populations in A.) Plants, B.) Animals, C.) Fungi - (1) Meiosis, leading to the production of germ, (2) Mitosis, leading to production of soma and amplifying germ line populations (3) Sexual Recombination of germ lines within the species population
  25. ↑ Histologie du Système Nerveux de l'Homme et des Vertébrés, Vols. 1 and 2. A. Maloine. Paris. 1911
  26. ↑ Cajal Institute (CSIC), Madrid
  27. ↑ Cajal Institute (CSIC), Madrid
  28. ↑ Wellcome L0040799
  29. ↑ Wellcome L0040800
  30. ↑ Wellcome L0040801
  31. ↑ Wellcome L0040802
  32. ↑ Wellcome L0002048
  33. ↑ Wellcome L0001365
  34. ↑ from Estructura de los centros nerviosos de las aves, Madrid, 1905
  35. ↑ Instituto Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain, 1899
  36. ↑ a, axon; b, recurrent collateral; c and d, spaces in the dendritic arborization for stellate cells; see Fig. 9 in Texture of the Nervous System of Man and the Vertebrates, Volume 1, Originally published by Springer-Verlag Wien New York in 1999
  37. ↑ Cajal Institute (CSIC), Madrid
  38. ↑ Cajal Institute (CSIC), Madrid
  39. ↑ O - Optic chiasm; C - Visual (and motor) cortex; M, S - Decussating pathways; R, G: Sensory nerves, motor ganglia.
  40. ↑ a,b,c: bifurcating optic fibres. c: fibre bifurcating in the two opposite optic tracts. d. Commisure of Gudden. e. Fibres that continue in a different depth. Cajal 1898, Fig6
  41. ↑ Artistic grouping of cells and direction of current flow.
  42. ↑ from Estructura de los centros nerviosos de las aves, Madrid, 1905
  43. ↑ Madrid, 1900
  44. ↑ Cajal, 1911
  45. ↑ The hallmarks, causes and effects of cellular senescence. (a) The key features of a senescent cell. (b) Senescence occurs in response to multiple contingencies of life (c) Senescence plays a dual role in development and tissue repair/regeneration.
  46. ↑ Description: Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image of leukocytes, red blood cells platelets circulating in the human bloodstream.
  47. ↑ Description: Illustration of disulfide bridges (red) linking the light (L, green) and heavy (H, purple) chains of Immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody. The variable (V) regions are located at the antigen-binding end; and, the constant (C) domains form the primary frame of the IgG molecule. Another disulfide bridge holds the two symmetrical units made up of a light chain (VL+CL) and a heavy chain (VH+CH1+CH2+CH3) together to form the completed antibody. Work by Rodney Porter with the enzyme papain resulted in cleavage of the antibody into Fab and Fc fragments, while work by Gerald Edelman lead to the reduction of the disulfide bridges so as to separate the molecule into light- and heavy-chain fragments. Together, this work allowed the antibody structure to be sequenced and reconstructed, resulting in the awarding of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1972.
  48. ↑ Description: The immune system has an ancient history within animals. All animals have an innate immune system, but only vertebrates have an "active" antibody-based immune system. The innate (left branch) immune system is ancient and anchored around the phagocytic white blood cells discovered by the pioneering biologist, embryologist, zoologist, immunologist, gerantologist Élie Metchnikoff (May 15, 1845–July 15, 1916).[18]. The antibody-based system (right branch) arose at the origin of vertebrates and is associated with the genome duplication events[27] that provided the duplicate copies of NCAM which eventually resulted in the emergence of genetically recombinant antibodies.[28][29] Paul Ehrlich (March 14, 1854–August 20, 1915)) was the discoverer of antibodies - and, along with Elie Metchnikoff, is considered to be one of the founders of Immunology. In 1908, they would share the first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. 64 years later, Edelman and Porter would share this very same prize.
  49. ↑ Description: Clonal selection theory (CST) - hematopoietic stem cells (1) differentiate and undergo genetic rearrangement to produce a population of cells possessing a wide range of pre-existing diversity with respect to antibody expression (2). Lymphocytes expressing antibodies that would lead to autoimmunity are filtered from the population (3), while the rest of the population represents a degenerate pool of diversity (4) where antigen-selected variants (5) can be differentially amplified in response (6). Once the antigen has been cleared, the responding population will decrease, but not by as much as it was amplified, leaving behind a boosted capacity to respond to future incursions by the antigen - a form of enhanced recognition and memory within the system.
  50. ↑ Induction of the Neural crest during neuralation. Once the neural tube has successfully formed and the neural crest cells delaminate from the neural tube and ectoderm by down regulating their CAMs.

Citations

[edit | edit source]
List of Citations
  1. ↑ Cavalier-Smith 2010a.
  2. ↑ Cavalier-Smith 2006c.
  3. ↑ Cavalier-Smith 2010b.
  4. ↑ Cavalier-Smith 2017.
  5. ↑ Shalchian-Tabrizi et al. 2008, Fig.1.
  6. ↑ Shalchian-Tabrizi et al. 2008, Fig.2.
  7. ↑ Shalchian-Tabrizi et al. 2008, Fig.3.
  8. ↑ Cavalier-Smith 2017, Fig.1.
  9. ↑ Cavalier-Smith 2017, Fig. 2.
  10. ↑ Cavalier-Smith 2017, Fig. 3.
  11. ↑ Darwin 1837.
  12. ↑ Darwin 1859.
  13. ↑ Darwin 1872.
  14. ↑ Edelman & Gally 2001.
  15. ↑ Mattson 2014.
  16. ↑ Hill & Wang 2020.
  17. ↑ Buss 1987.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Tauber & Chernyak 1991.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Golgi 1885.
  20. ↑ Piper 1999.
  21. ↑ Akkari 2014.
  22. ↑ Hueber 2010.
  23. ↑ Lynch 2009.
  24. ↑ Chifflet 2012.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Romer 1972.
  26. ↑ Elder & Emmerson 2020, Fig. 1.
  27. ↑ Dehal & Boore 2005.
  28. ↑ Edelman 1987b.
  29. ↑ Edelman 1992, p. 206-207.

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