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"Gira" redirects here. For other uses, see Gira (disambiguation).

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Kvass is a fermented cereal-based non-alcoholic or low alcoholic (0.5–2% proof[1][2]) beverage with a slightly cloudy appearance, light-brown colour and sweet-sour taste. It may be flavoured with berries, fruits, herbs and honey.

Kvass stems from the northeastern part of Europe, where the grain production is thought to have been insufficient for beer to become a daily drink. The first written mention of kvass is found in the Rus' Primary Chronicle, describing the celebration of Vladimir the Great's baptism in 996. In the traditional method, kvass is made from a mash obtained from rye bread or rye flour and malt soaked in hot water, fermented for about 12 hours with the help of sugar and bread yeast or baker's yeast at a room temperature. In industrial methods, kvass is produced from wort concentrate combined with various grain mixtures. It is a popular drink in Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Baltic countries and Finland.

Terminology[edit]

The word kvass is ultimately from Proto-Indo-European base *kwat- ('sour').[3][4][5] In English it was first mentioned in a text around 1553 as quass.[6][7] Nowadays, the name of the drink is almost the same in most languages: in Belarusian: квас, kvas; Russian: квас, kvas; Ukrainian: квас/хлібний квас/сирівець, kvas/khlibny kvas/syrivets; in Polish: kwas chlebowy (Template:Literal translation, to differentiate it from kwas, 'acid', originally from kwaśny, 'sour'); Latvian: kvass; Romanian: cvas; Hungarian: kvasz; Serbian: квас/kvas; Chinese: 格瓦斯/克瓦斯, géwǎsī/kèwǎsī; Eastern Finnish: vaasa. Non-cognates include Estonian kali, Finnish kalja, Latvian dzersis (Template:Literal translation), Lithuanian gira (Template:Literal translation, similar to Latvian dzira), and Swedish bröddricka (Template:Literal translation).

Production[edit]

Home fermentation of kvass in glass jars

In the traditional method, either dried rye bread or a combination of rye flour and rye malt is used. The dried rye bread is extracted with hot water and incubated for 12 hours at room temperature, after which bread yeast and sugar is added to the extract and fermented for 12 hours at 20°C. Alternatively, rye flour is boiled, mixed with rye malt, bread yeast, sugar and baker’s yeast and fermented for 12 hours at 20°C.[8]

In the simplest industrial method, kvass is produced from a wort concentrate. The concentrate is warmed up and mixed with a water and sugar solution to create wort with a sugar concentration of 5–7% and pasteurized to stabilize it. After that, the wort is pumped into a fermentation tank, where baker's yeast and lactic acid bacteria culture is added and the solution is fermented for 12–24 hours at 12–30 °C. Only around 1% of the extract is fermented out into ethanol, carbon dioxide and lactic acid. Afterwards, the kvass is cooled to 6 °C, clarified through either filtration or centrifugation and adjusted for sugar content, if necessary.[9] Initially, it was filled in large containers, from which the kvass was sold on streets, but nowadays the vast majority of industrially produced kvass is filled and sold in 1–3 litre plastic bottles, and has a shelf life of 4–6 weeks.[10]

History[edit]

A kvass vendor (kvasnik) in Russian Empire in the 18th century

The exact origins of kvass are unclear and whether it was invented by Slavic people or any other Eastern European ethnicity is unknown. Kvass has existed in the northeastern part of Europe, where the grain production is thought to have been insufficient for beer to become a daily drink.[11] The first written mention of kvass is found in the Primary Chronicle, describing the celebration of Vladimir the Great's baptism in 996 when kvass along with mead and food was given out to the citizens of Kiev. Kvass making remained a daily household activity well into the 19th century.[9]

In the second half of the 19th century, with military engagement, increasing industrialization and large-scale projects, such as the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, that created a growing need to supply large numbers of people with foodstuff for extended periods of time, commercial kvass producers began appearing in the Russian Empire. Many of them specialized in the use of different raw ingredients and more than 150 kvass varieties, such as apple, pear, mint, lemon, chicory, raspberry and cherry kvass, are recorded. As commercial kvass producers began selling it in barrels on the streets, domestic kvass making started to decline.[9] In the year ended 30 June 1912, there were 17 factories in the Governorate of Livonia producing a total of 437,255 gallons of kvass.[12]

In the 1890s, the first scientific studies into the production of kvass were conducted in Kyiv, and in the 1960s, the commercial mass production technology of kvass was developed by chemists in Moscow.[9]

Russia[edit]

A kvass street vendor in Belgorod, Russia, 2013

Although the massive flood of western soft drinks after the fall of the USSR such as Coca-Cola and Pepsi substantially shrank the market share of kvass in Russia, in recent years it has regained its original popularity, often marketed as a national soft drink or "patriotic" alternative to cola. For example, the Russian company Nikola has promoted its brand of kvass with an advertising campaign emphasizing "anti cola-nisation." Moscow-based Business Analytica reported in 2008 that bottled kvass sales had tripled since 2005 and estimated that per-capita consumption of kvass in Russia would reach three litres in 2008. Between 2005 and 2007, cola's share of the Moscow soft drink market fell from 37% to 32%. Meanwhile, kvass' share more than doubled over the same time period, reaching 16% in 2007. In response, Coca-Cola launched its own brand of kvass in May 2008. This is the first time a foreign company has made an appreciable entrance into the Russian kvass market. Pepsi has also signed an agreement with a Russian kvass manufacturer to act as a distribution agent. The development of new technologies for storage and distribution, and heavy advertising, have contributed to this surge in popularity; three new major brands have been introduced since 2004.[13]

Market shares (2014)

Company Brand name Share [%][14]
Template:Interlanguage link Никола 39
Template:Interlanguage link Очаковский 18.9
PepsiCo Русский дар 11.6
Carlsberg Group Хлебный край 5.5
Coca-Cola, Inc. Кружка и бочка 2.1
Other 22.9

Poland[edit]

Template:More citations needed section

Varieties of natural kwas chlebowy

Kvass may have appeared in Poland as early as the 10th century,[15]Template:Better source needed possibly due to trade between the Kingdom of Poland and Kievan Rus'.[citation needed] It was at first commonly drunk by peasants in the eastern parts of the country, but eventually the drink spread to the szlachta. One example of this is kwas chlebowy sapieżyński kodeński, an old type of Polish kvass that is still sold as a contemporary brand. Its origins can be traced back to the 1500s, when Template:Interlanguage link founded the town of Kodeń on land granted by the Polish king. He then bought the mills and 24 villages of the surrounding areas from their previous landowners. It was then that the taste of kvass became known among the Polish szlachta, who used it for its supposed healing qualities. Throughout the 19th century, kvass remained popular among Poles who lived in the Congress Poland of Imperial Russia and in Austrian Galicia, especially the inhabitants of rural areas.[16]

Production of the beverage in Poland on an industrial scale can be traced back to the more recent interwar period, when the Polish state regained independence as the Second Polish Republic. In interwar Poland, kvass was brewed and sold in mass numbers by magnates of the Polish drinks market like the Varsovian brewery Haberbusch i Schiele or the Karpiński company.[17] Kvass remained particularly popular in eastern Poland,[18]Template:Better source needed partly due to the plentiful numbers of Belarusian and Ukrainian minorities that lived there.[citation needed] However, with the collapse of many prewar businesses and much of the Polish industry during World War II, kvass lost popularity following the aftermath of the war. It also lost favour upon the introduction of Coca-Cola onto the Polish market.[citation needed]

Although nowadays not as popular in Poland as it is in neighbouring Ukraine, kvass can still be found in some supermarkets and grocery stores where it is known in Polish as kwas chlebowy (Template:IPA-pl). Commercial bottled versions of the drink are the most common variant, as there are companies that specialise in manufacturing a more modern version of the drink (some variants are manufactured in Poland whilst others are imported from its neighbouring countries, Lithuania and Ukraine being the most popular source).[19] However, recipes for a traditional version of kvass exist; some of them originate from eastern Poland.[20] Although commercial kvass is much easier to find in Polish shops, Polish manufacturers of more natural and healthier variants of kvass have become increasingly popular both within and outside of the country's borders.[21]

Latvia[edit]

A 19th century engraving by Dessin de d'Henriet depicting kvass vendors in Livonia
A kvass street vendor in Rīga (1977)

In Latvian, kvass was also called dzersis.[22] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the street vendors disappeared from the streets of Latvia due to new health laws that banned its sale on the street, and economic disruptions forced many kvass factories to close. The Coca-Cola Company moved in and began to quickly dominate the market for soft drinks. In 1998, the local soft drink industry adapted by starting to sell bottled kvass and launching aggressive marketing campaigns. This surge in sales was stimulated by the fact that kvass sold for about half the price of Coca-Cola. In just three years, kvass constituted as much as 30% of the soft drink market in Latvia, while the market share of Coca-Cola fell from 65% to 44%. The Coca-Cola Company had losses in Latvia of about $1 million in 1999 and 2000. Coca-Cola responded by purchasing kvass manufacturers as well as producing kvass at their own soft drink plants.[23][24]

On 30 September 2010, the Saeima adopted quality and classification requirements for kvass, defining it as "a beverage obtained by fermenting a mixture of kvass wort with a yeast of microorganism cultures to which sugar and other food sources and food additives are added or not added after the fermentation" with a maximum ABV of 1.2 percent, and differentiating it from an unfermented non-alcoholic mixture of grain product extract, water, flavourings, preservatives, and other ingredients, which is designated as a "kvass (malt) beverage".[25]

In 2014 Latvian kvass producers won seven medals at the Russian Beverage exposition in Moscow with Ilgezeem's Porter Tanheiser kvass winning two gold medals.[26] In 2019, Iļģuciema kvass ranked second in the Most Loved Latvian Beverage Brand Top,[27] and first in the subsequent 2020 top.[28]

Lithuania[edit]

In Lithuania, kvass is known as gira and is widely available in bottles and draft. First written records of kvass and kvass recipes in Lithuania appear in the 16th century.[citation needed] Many restaurants in Vilnius make their own kvass', which they sell on the premises. Strictly speaking, gira can be made from anything fermentable—such as caraway tea, beetroot juice, or berries—but it is made mainly from black bread, or from barley or rye malt.

Belarus[edit]

Kvass trailer in Grodno (2019)

Belarus has several breweries producing kvass: Alivaria Brewery, Template:Interlanguage link, and Template:Interlanguage link. It also has a variety of kvass tasting and entertainment festivals.[29] The largest show takes place in the city of Lida.[30]

Estonia[edit]

A street kvass barrel used during the Estonian SSR

In Estonia, kvass is known as kali. Initially, it was made from either brewer's spent grain or wort left to ferment in a closed container, but later special kvass bread (kaljaleib) or industrially produced malt concentrate was started to be used. Nowadays, kali generally is industrially produced with the use of pasteurization, the addition of preservatives and artificial carbonation.[31]

Finland[edit]

In Finland, a fermented drink made from a mixture of rye flour and rye malt, which in parts of Eastern Finland was heated in the oven, was very common. It was called kalja or vaasa (in Eastern Finnish), while nowadays the drink is often known as kotikalja (Template:Literal translation) and is available in many work canteens, gas stations, and lower-end restaurants.[11]

Traditionally, kalja was usually made in households once a week from a mixture of malted and unmalted rye grains. Other grains, such as oats or barley, were also sometimes used and, occasionally, leftover potatoes or pieces of bread were added as well. Everything was mixed with water in a metal cauldron or a clay pot and kept warm in the oven or by the stove for at least six hours for the mixture to darken and sweeten. Sometimes, the grain solids were filtered out through lautering. In Eastern Finland, the mixture was formed into large loaves and briefly baked for the crust to turn brown. The porridge or pieces of the malt bread were mixed into a wooden cask with water and fermented for one or two days with a previous batch, a sourdough starter, spontaneously or in more recent times with commercial baker's yeast. In the early 20th century, with sugar becoming more readily available, it started replacing the malting process and modern kalja is made from dark rye malt, sugar and baker's yeast.[32]

Sweden[edit]

Kvass was also made in Sweden, where it was known as bröddricka (Template:Literal translation), although it was very likely limited only to areas where rye bread was the standard bread as opposed to crispbread, which was more common in Western Sweden and did not stale. Bröddricka was still being made in Öland farms up until 1935.[11]

China[edit]

Kavas served in a restaurant in Ürümqi, Xinjiang.

In mid 19th century, kvass was introduced in Xinjiang, where it became known as kavas and eventually became one of the region's signature drinks.[33] It is usually consumed cold together with barbecue.[34] In 1900, Russian merchant Ivan Churin founded Harbin Churin Food in Heilongjiang, offering kvass and other specialties and by 2009 the company was already producing 5,000 tons of kvass a year making up 90% of the local market. In 2011, it moved its kvass factory to Tianjin increasing its sales to 20,000 tons in the first year.[35]

Elsewhere[edit]

In the United Kingdom, kvass is practically unknown, as there are no cultural ties to it within the nation's history and there are no renowned kvass breweries in the country. However, with the influx of immigrants following the 2004 enlargement of the European Union, a number of stores selling cuisine and beverages from Eastern Europe cropped up throughout the UK, many of them stocking kvass on their shelves. In 2019, Brod Kvas in Somerset became the first domestic kvass producer in the United Kingdom.[36] In recent years, kvass has also become more popular in Serbia.[37]

Nutritional composition[edit]

Naturally fermented kvass contains 5.9%±0.02 carbohydrates, of which 5.7%±0.02 are sugars (mostly fructose, glucose and maltose), as well as 0.71±0.09, 1.28±0.12, and 18.14±0.48 mg/100 g of thiamine, riboflavin and niacin respectively. In addition to that, 19 different aroma volatile compounds have also been identified in naturally fermented kvass, most notably 4-penten-2-ol (10.05×107 PAU), which has a fruity odour, carvone (2.28×107 PAU) originating from caraway fruits used as an ingredient in rye bread, and ethyl octanoate (1.03×107 PAU), which has an odour of fruit and fat.[38]

Traditional kvass made from rye wholemeal bread has been found to have on average two times higher dietary fibre content, 60% higher antioxidant activity (due to the addition of caramel and citric acid to the bread) and three times lower reducing sugar content than industrially produced kvass.[39]

Historically, the ABV of kvass varied depending on the ingredients, microbial flora, as well as temperature and length of fermentation,[9] but nowadays it is usually not higher than 1.5%. The wide availability and consumption of kvass, including by children of all ages, together with the lacking indication of ABV for kvass on the labels and in advertisements has been named a possible contributor to chronic alcoholism in the former Soviet Union.[40]

Use[edit]

Apart from drinking, kvass is also used by families (especially the poor ones) as the basis for many dishes.[41] Traditional cold summertime soups of Russian cuisine, such as okroshka,[42] botvinya and tyurya, are based on kvass.

Cultural references[edit]

Vassiliy Kalistov, Street vending of kvass (1862), Chuvash State Art Museum, Russia

The name of Kvasir, a wise being in Norse mythology, is possibly related to kvass.[43][44][45][46][47]

There is a Russian expression "Перебиваться с хлеба на квас" (literally "to clamber from bread to kvass"), which means "to live from hand to mouth" or to "scrape by"[48] referring to the frugal practice amongst the poor peasants of making kvass from stale leftovers of rye bread.[49] Another kvass-related term in Russian is "Template:Interlanguage link" (квасной патриотизм) dating back to a 1823 letter by the Russian poet Pyotr Vyazemsky where he defines it as "unqualified praise of everything that is your own".[50]

In the Polish language, there is an old folk rhyming song. It shows the history of kvass in the country as having been drunk by generations of Polish reapers as a thirst-quenching beverage used during periods of hard work during the harvest season, long before it became popular as a medicinal drink among the szlachta. The words of the song go as follows:[51]

Original Polish lyrics

Od dawien dawna słynie napój zdrowy:
kwas chlebowy,
pajda chleba za pazuchę,
bukłak kwasu
i chłop gotów w pole.
W gorącą posuchę.

English translation

A healthy drink has long been renowned:
bread kvass,
a chunk of bread below the armpit,
a goatskin of kvass
and the peasant is ready for the fields.
Into a hot drought.

In Tolstoy's War and Peace, French soldiers are aware of kvass on entering Moscow, enjoying it but referring to it as "pig's lemonade".[52] In Sholem Aleichem's Motl, Peysi the Cantor's Son, diluted kvass is the focus of one of Motl's older brother's get-rich-quick schemes.[53]

See also[edit]

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References[edit]

  1. ^ Hornsey, I.S. (2003). A History of Beer and Brewing. RSC paperbacks. Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-85404-630-0. Retrieved 2022-03-21. A similar, low alcohol (0.5–1.0%) drink, kvass… may be a 'fossil beer'
  2. ^ Pasqualone, Antonella; Summo, Carmine, eds. (2020). Qualitative and Nutritional Improvement of Cereal-Based Foods and Beverages. MDPI AG. p. 24. ISBN 978-3-036-50706-4.
  3. ^ Palaeolexicon - The Proto-Indo-European word *kwat-.
  4. ^ Max Vasmer. Russisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Winter, Heidelberg, 1953–1958 (in German). Russian translation by Oleg Trubachyov: Этимологический словарь русского языка. Progress, Moscow, 1964–1973. квас
  5. ^ Олег Николааевич Трубачёв и др. Этимологический словарь славянских языков. Академия наук СССР, Москва, т. 13 (1987), с. 153 (Oleg Trubachyov et al. Etymological dictionary of Slavic languages. USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow, vol. 13 (1987), p. 153; in Russian)
  6. ^ Kvass in Merriam Webster Dictionary
  7. ^ Kvass in Oxford English Dictionary. c 1553 Chancelour Bk. Emp. Russia in Hakluyt Voy. (1886) III. 51 Their drinke is like our peny Ale, and is called Quass.
  8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Fermented Food Products was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  9. ^ a b c d e Hornsey, Ian Spencer (2012). Alcohol and its Role in the Evolution of Human Society. Royal Society of Chemistry. pp. 296–300. ISBN 978-1-84973-161-4.
  10. ^ Gobbetti, Marco; Gänzle, Michael, eds. (2013). Handbook on Sourdough Biotechnology. Springer Publishing. pp. 272–274. ISBN 978-1-4614-5424-3.
  11. ^ a b c Garshol, Lars Marius (2020). Historical Brewing Techniques: The Lost Art of Farmhouse Brewing. Brewers Publications. pp. 254–257. ISBN 978-1-938-46955-8.
  12. ^ Daily Consular and Trade Reports. Vol. 1. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1913. p. 114.
  13. ^ Russia's patriotic kvas drinkers say no to cola-nisation. The New Zealand Herald. BUSINESS; General. July 12, 2008. [dead link]
  14. ^ Россия. Квас "Никола" стал маркой № 1 в продажах кваса по результатам летнего сезона. Пивное дело (18 September 2014).
  15. ^ Kwas chlebowy – przepis Kafeteria - kwas chlebowy. (in Polish)
  16. ^ Kwas chlebowy sapieżyński kodeński. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Poland (2 July 2018).
  17. ^ Delorme, Andrzej (October 1–15, 1999). "Alternatywa dla Coca Coli?". Pismo Ekologów. Zielone Brygady (14(140)/99). ISSN 1231-2126.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
  18. ^ Broszura o naturalnym kwasie chlebowym Archived 2014-04-29 at the Wayback Machine Booklet about natural kvass. (in Polish)
  19. ^ Gerima dystrybutor kwasu chlebowego w Polsce Gerima – distributor of kvass in Poland. (in Polish)
  20. ^ Kwas chlebowy sapieżyński kodeński Information about traditional Polish kvass. (in Polish)
  21. ^ Ich kwas chlebowy podbija rynek News article about Polish manufacturers of kvass made from traditional recipes.(in Polish)
  22. ^ What and How Latvians Used to Eat. Acorn Coffee, Beer, Sugar and Sweets. (11 March 2021).
  23. ^ Lyons, J. Michael. "Soviet Brew Is Back, This Time, in Bottles", 31 March 2002. 
  24. ^ Smith, Benjamin. "In Latvia, Forces of Globalism Ferment Market for Traditional Soft-Drink Brew", 7 September 2002. 
  25. ^ Quality and Classification Requirements for Kvass and Kvass (Malt) Beverage.
  26. ^ Latvian kvass takes awards at Moscow beverage expo. Public Broadcasting of Latvia (1 September 2014). Retrieved on 19 December 2021.
  27. ^ Iļģuciema kvass won the 2nd place in The Latvia's Most Loved Drink top. Ilgezeem. Retrieved on 30 July 2021.
  28. ^ Iļģuciema kvass won 1st place in the Most Loved Latvian Beverage Brand top!. Ilgezeem. Retrieved on 30 July 2021.
  29. ^ Webb, Tim; Beaumont, Stephen (2016). World Atlas of Beer: THE ESSENTIAL NEW GUIDE TO THE BEERS OF THE WORLD. Hachette UK. p. 148. ISBN 9781784722524.
  30. ^ Drinks in Belarus.
  31. ^ Sõukand, Renata; Kalle, Raivo (2016). Changes in the Use of Wild Food Plants in Estonia 18th - 21st Century. Springer Publishing. p. 98. ISBN 978-3-319-33949-8.
  32. ^ Laitinen, Mika; Mosher, Randy (2019). Viking Age Brew: The Craft of Brewing Sahti Farmhouse Ale. Chicago Review Press. pp. 98–104. ISBN 978-1-641-60047-7.
  33. ^ Xinjiang native beer-kvass. INFNews (22 December 2021).
  34. ^ Yike, Wang (22 February 2018). "Beverages of Xinjiang". Youlin Magazine. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
  35. ^ "Chinese Thirst for Kvass Draws Wahaha into Russian Niche". Goldsea. 15 April 2013. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
  36. ^ Brod Kvas - how a famous Russian drink began production in Somerset (2 March 2020).
  37. ^ Bills, John William (12 November 2017). Here's What to Drink if You're Going to Serbia.
  38. ^ Cite error: The named reference Foodbalt was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  39. ^ Gambuś, Halina; Mickowska, Barbara; Barton, Henryk J.; Augustyn, Grażyna (February 2015). "Health benefits of kvass manufactured from rye wholemeal bread". Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Food Sciences. Slovak University of Agriculture. 4 (3 (special issue)): 34–39. doi:10.15414/jmbfs.2015.4.special3.34-39. ISSN 1338-5178. Archived from the original on 2022-01-06. Retrieved 2022-04-28.
  40. ^ Jargin, Sergei V. (September–October 2009). "Kvass: A Possible Contributor to Chronic Alcoholism in the Former Soviet Union—Alcohol Content Should Be Indicated on Labels and in Advertising". Alcohol and Alcoholism. 44 (5): 529. doi:10.1093/alcalc/agp055. PMID 19734161.
  41. ^ Mucha, Sławomir (10 October 2018). Kwas chlebowy. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Poland.
  42. ^ Katz, Sandor (2003). Wild Fermentation: The Flavor, Nutrition, and Craft of Live-Culture Foods. White River Junction, VA: Chelsea Green. p. 121. ISBN 1-931498-23-7.
  43. ^ Александр Николаевич Афанасьев (1865–1869). Поэтические воззрения славян на природу. Директ-медиа (2014) том. 1, стр. 260. ISBN 978-5-4458-9827-6 (Alexander Afanasyev. The Poetic Outlook of Slavs about Nature, 1865–1869; reprinted 2014, p. 260; in Russian)
  44. ^ Karl Joseph Simrock. Handbuch der deutschen Mythologie mit Einschluss der nordischen, 1st edition (1855), p. 272 or 2nd edition (1864), p. 244. Bonn, Marcus.
  45. ^ Jooseppi Julius Mikkola. Bidrag till belysning af slaviska lånord i nordiska språk. Arkiv för nordisk filologi, vol. 19 (1903), p. 331.
  46. ^ Georges Dumézil (1974). Gods of the Ancient Northmen, p. 21. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03507-2
  47. ^ Jan de Vries (2000). Altnordisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, p. 336. 4th edition, Leiden (in German)
  48. ^ Lubensky, Sophia (2013). Russian-English Dictionary of Idioms (Revised ed.). Yale University Press. p. 695. ISBN 9780300162271.
  49. ^ Svyatoslav Loginov, "We Used to Bake Blini..." ("Бывало пекли блины...") (in Russian)
  50. ^ Latour, Abby (29 October 2018). Kvas Patriotism in Russia: Cultural Problems, Cultural Myths. Jordan Center for the Advanced Study of Russia.
  51. ^ Śliwińska, Jolanta (29 June 2017). Kwas chlebowy sapieżyński kodeński.[permanent dead link]
  52. ^ War and Peace. Leo Tolstoy. Book 10, chapter 29, Pennsylvania State University translation.
  53. ^ Vered, Ronit. "A Touch of Kvass", 15 November 2012. 

External links[edit]

Media related to Kvass at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of kvass at Wiktionary

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