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[[File:Belisaire demandant l'aumone Jacques-Louis David.jpg|thumb|Giving [[alms]] to the poor is often considered an altruistic action.]]
'''Altruism''' is the [[moral principle|principle]] and [[moral behavior|practice]] of concern for the [[well-being]] and/or [[happiness]] of other [[human]]s or animals above oneself. While objects of altruistic concern vary, it is an important moral value in many [[Culture|cultures]] and [[Religion|religions]]. It may be considered a synonym of selflessness, the opposite of [[selfishness]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Kraut |first=Richard |title=Altruism |date=2020 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/altruism/ |access-date=2024-05-05 |edition=Fall 2020 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}</ref>
The word ''altruism'' was popularized (and possibly coined) by the French philosopher [[Auguste Comte]] in French, as {{lang|fr|altruisme}}, for an [[antonym]] of [[egoism]].<ref>{{multiref2
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}}</ref> He derived it from the Italian {{lang|it|altrui}}, which in turn was derived from Latin {{lang|la|alteri}}, meaning "[[alterity|other people]]" or "somebody else".<ref>{{cite book|last=Ciciloni|first=Ferdinando|title=A Grammar of the Italian Language|date=1825|publisher=John Murray|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/agrammaritalian00cicigoog/page/n81 64]|url=https://archive.org/details/agrammaritalian00cicigoog}}</ref>
Altruism, as observed in populations of organisms, is when an individual performs an action at a cost to
Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of [[loyalty]] or concern for the [[common good]]. The latter are predicated upon social relationships, whilst altruism does not consider relationships. Whether "true" altruism is possible in human psychology is a subject of debate. The theory of [[psychological egoism]] suggests that no act of [[sharing]], [[Helping behavior|helping]], or [[Self-sacrifice|sacrificing]] can be truly altruistic, as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal [[gratification]]. The validity of this argument depends on whether such [[Motivation#Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation|intrinsic rewards]] qualify as "benefits".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=May |first=Joshua |title=Altruism and Psychological Egoism |url=https://philpapers.org/browse/altruism-and-psychological-egoism |website=PhilPapers.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ENVS203: Altruism |url=https://learn.saylor.org/mod/page/view.php?id=8333 |access-date=2024-05-05 |website=Saylor Academy |language=en-us}}</ref>
The term ''[[altruism (ethics)|altruism]]'' may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is usually contrasted with [[ethical egoism|egoism]], which claims individuals are morally obligated to serve themselves first.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Low |first1=Kim Cheng Patrick |title=Altruistic CSR |date=2013 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Corporate Social Responsibility |pages=81–91 |editor-last=Idowu |editor-first=Samuel O. |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28036-8_186 |access-date=2024-05-05 |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-28036-8_186 |isbn=978-3-642-28036-8 |last2=Ang |first2=Sik-Liong |editor2-last=Capaldi |editor2-first=Nicholas |editor3-last=Zu |editor3-first=Liangrong |editor4-last=Gupta |editor4-first=Ananda Das}}</ref>
[[Effective altruism]] is the use of evidence and reason to determine the most effective ways to benefit others.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is effective altruism? {{!}} Effective Altruism |url=https://www.effectivealtruism.org/articles/introduction-to-effective-altruism |access-date=2024-05-05 |website=www.effectivealtruism.org |language=en}}</ref>
==The notion of altruism==
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* [[Kin selection]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Biological Altruism|chapter=Kin Selection and Inclusive Fitness|chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism-biological/#KinSelIncFit|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last=Okasha|first=Samir|year=2013}}</ref> That animals and humans are more altruistic towards close kin than to distant kin and non-kin has been confirmed in numerous studies across many different cultures. Even subtle cues indicating kinship may unconsciously increase altruistic behavior. One kinship cue is facial resemblance. One study found that slightly altering photographs to resemble the faces of study participants more closely increased the trust the participants expressed regarding depicted persons. Another cue is having the same family name, especially if rare, which has been found to increase helpful behavior. Another study found more cooperative behavior, the greater the number of perceived kin in a group. Using kinship terms in political speeches increased audience agreement with the speaker in one study. This effect was powerful for firstborns, who are typically close to their families.<ref name=AEP1/>
* Vested interests. People are likely to suffer if their friends, allies and those from similar social [[ingroup]]s suffer or disappear. Helping such group members may, therefore, also benefit the altruist. Making ingroup membership more noticeable increases cooperativeness. Extreme self-sacrifice towards the ingroup may be adaptive if a hostile [[Ingroups and outgroups|outgroup]] threatens the entire ingroup.<ref name=AEP1/>
* [[Reciprocal altruism]].<ref>{{cite journal
** Direct [[Reciprocity (social psychology)|reciprocity]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.7466396 |first1=R|last1=Axelrod|first2=W.D.|last2=Hamilton |title=The evolution of cooperation |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=211 |issue=4489 |date=27 March 1981 |pages=1390–1396 |pmid=7466396 |bibcode = 1981Sci...211.1390A|citeseerx=10.1.1.147.9644 }}</ref> Research shows that it can be beneficial to help others if there is a chance that they will reciprocate the help. The effective [[tit for tat]] strategy is one [[game theory|game theoretic]] example. Many people seem to be following a similar strategy by cooperating if and only if others cooperate in return.<ref name=AEP1/>
**:One consequence is that people are more cooperative with one another if they are more likely to interact again in the future. People tend to be less cooperative if they perceive that the frequency of helpers in the population is lower. They tend to help less if they see non-cooperativeness by others, and this effect tends to be stronger than the opposite effect of seeing cooperative behaviors. Simply changing the cooperative framing of a proposal may increase cooperativeness, such as calling it a "Community Game" instead of a "Wall Street Game".<ref name=AEP1/>
**:A tendency towards reciprocity implies that people feel obligated to respond if someone helps them. This has been used by charities that give small gifts to potential donors hoping to induce reciprocity. Another method is to announce publicly that someone has given a large donation. The tendency to reciprocate can even generalize, so people become more helpful toward others after being helped. On the other hand, people will avoid or even retaliate against those perceived not to be cooperating. People sometimes mistakenly fail to help when they intended to, or their helping may not be noticed, which may cause unintended conflicts. As such, it may be an optimal strategy to be slightly forgiving of and have a slightly generous interpretation of non-cooperation.<ref name=AEP1/>
**:People are more likely to cooperate on a task if they can communicate with one another first. This may be due to better cooperativeness assessments or promises exchange. They are more cooperative if they can gradually build trust instead of being asked to give extensive help immediately. Direct reciprocity and cooperation in a group can be increased by changing the focus and incentives from intra-group competition to larger-scale competitions, such as between groups or against the general population. Thus, giving grades and promotions based only on an individual's performance relative to a small local group, as is common, may reduce cooperative behaviors in the group.<ref name=AEP1/>
** Indirect reciprocity.<ref>{{cite journal |
** [[Strong reciprocity]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gintis |first=Herbert |author-link=Herbert Gintis|title=Strong Reciprocity and Human Sociality|journal=[[Journal of Theoretical Biology]]|volume=206|issue=2|date=September 2000|pmid=10966755|pages=169–179|doi=10.1006/jtbi.2000.2111|bibcode=2000JThBi.206..169G |hdl=10419/105717|hdl-access=free|citeseerx=10.1.1.335.7226 |s2cid=9260305 }}</ref> This form of reciprocity is expressed by people who invest more resources in cooperation and punishment than what is deemed optimal based on established theories of altruism.
** Pseudo-reciprocity.<ref>{{cite book | chapter=By-product Benefits, Reciprocity, and Pseudoreciprocity in Mutualism|editor-last=Hammerstein | editor-first=Peter | title=Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation | publisher=MIT Press | date=2003 |pages=203–222 | isbn=978-0-262-08326-3 | doi=10.7551/mitpress/3232.003.0013}}</ref> An organism behaves altruistically and the recipient does not reciprocate but has an increased chance of acting in a way that is selfish but also as a byproduct benefits the altruist.
* [[Signalling theory|Costly signaling]] and the [[handicap principle]].<ref>{{
:Hunters who [[Sharing|share]] meat display a costly signal of ability. The research found that good hunters have higher reproductive success and more adulterous relations even if they receive no more of the hunted meat than anyone else. Similarly, holding large feasts and giving large donations are ways of demonstrating one's resources. [[Hero|Heroic]] risk-taking has also been interpreted as a costly signal of ability.<ref name=AEP1/>
[[File:FEMA - 15337 - Photograph by Andrea Booher taken on 09-10-2005 in Texas.jpg|thumb|Volunteers assist Hurricane victims at the [[Houston Astrodome]], following [[Hurricane Katrina]].]]
:Both indirect reciprocity and costly signaling depend on reputation value and tend to make similar predictions. One is that people will be more helpful when they know that their helping behavior will be communicated to people they will interact with later, publicly announced, discussed, or observed by someone else. This has been documented in many studies. The effect is sensitive to subtle cues, such as people being more helpful when there were stylized eyespots instead of a logo on a computer screen. {{dubious|reason=failed to replicate: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8494318/|date=July 2023}} Weak reputational cues such as eyespots may become unimportant if there are stronger cues present and may lose their effect with continued exposure unless reinforced with real reputational effects.<ref name=AEP1/> Public displays such as public weeping for dead celebrities and participation in demonstrations may be influenced by a desire to be seen as generous. People who know that they are publicly monitored sometimes even wastefully donate the money they know is not needed by the recipient because of reputational concerns.<ref name="AEP2">{{Cite book | last1=Iredal|first1=Wendy | last2=van Vugt|first2=Mark |chapter=Altruism as showing off: a signaling perspective on promoting green behavior and acts of kindness | editor1-last = Roberts | doi = 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001 | editor1-first = S. Craig | title = Applied Evolutionary Psychology | year = 2011 | publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-958607-3 }}</ref>
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The benefits for the altruist may be increased, and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups. Research has found that people are more altruistic to kin than to no-kin, to friends than strangers, to those attractive than to those unattractive, to non-competitors than competitors, and to members in-groups than to members of out-groups.<ref name=AEP1/>
The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]], a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]]s, such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides''. These protists live as individual [[amoeba]]e until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body.<ref>{{
Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success.<ref>{{cite journal
Such cooperative behaviors have sometimes been seen as arguments for left-wing politics, for example, by the Russian [[Zoology|zoologist]] and [[Anarchism|anarchist]] [[Peter Kropotkin]] in his 1902 book ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' and [[Ethics|Moral Philosopher]] [[Peter Singer]] in his book ''[[A Darwinian Left]]''.
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Bill Harbaugh, a [[University of Oregon]] economist, in an fMRI scanner test conducted with his psychologist colleague Dr. Ulrich Mayr, reached the same conclusions as Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman about giving to charity, although they were able to divide the study group into two groups: "egoists" and "altruists". One of their discoveries was that, though rarely, even some of the considered "egoists" sometimes gave more than expected because that would help others, leading to the conclusion that there are other factors in charity, such as a person's environment and values.<ref name="neurons"/>
A recent meta-analysis of fMRI studies conducted by Shawn Rhoads, Jo Cutler, and Abigail Marsh analyzed the results of prior studies of generosity in which participants could freely choose to give or not give resources to someone else.<ref>{{
[[Abigail Marsh]] has conducted studies of real-world altruists that have also identified an important role for the [[amygdala]] in human altruism. In real-world altruists, such as people who have donated kidneys to strangers, the amygdala is larger than in typical adults. Altruists' amygdalas are also more responsive than those of typical adults to the sight of others' distress, which is thought to reflect an empathic response to distress.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Abigail A. |last2=Stoycos |first2=Sarah A. |last3=Brethel-Haurwitz |first3=Kristin M. |last4=Robinson |first4=Paul |last5=VanMeter |first5=John W. |last6=Cardinale |first6=Elise M. |date=2014-10-21 |title=Neural and cognitive characteristics of extraordinary altruists |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=42 |pages=15036–15041 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1408440111 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4210306 |pmid=25225374|bibcode=2014PNAS..11115036M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brethel-Haurwitz |first1=Kristin M. |last2=O'Connell |first2=Katherine |last3=Cardinale |first3=Elise M. |last4=Stoianova |first4=Maria |last5=Stoycos |first5=Sarah A. |last6=Lozier |first6=Leah M. |last7=VanMeter |first7=John W. |last8=Marsh |first8=Abigail A. |date=2017-10-25 |title=Amygdala–midbrain connectivity indicates a role for the mammalian parental care system in human altruism |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=284 |issue=1865 |pages=20171731 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2017.1731 |issn=0962-8452 |pmc=5666102 |pmid=29070724}}</ref> This structure may also be involved in altruistic choices due to its role in encoding the value of outcomes for others.<ref>{{
====Psychology====
The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines ''psychological altruism'' as "a motivational state to increase another's welfare". Psychological altruism is contrasted with ''psychological egoism'', which refers to the motivation to increase one's welfare.<ref name="encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia|article=Altruism|encyclopedia = International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences|editor-first= William A. Jr. |editor-last = Darity|edition= 2nd |volume = 1|location = Detroit|publisher = Macmillan Reference USA|date= 2008|pages = 87–88}}</ref> In keeping with this, research in real-world altruists, including altruistic kidney donors, bone marrow donors, humanitarian aid workers, and [[Hero|heroic]] rescuers findings that these altruists are primarily distinguished from other adults by unselfish traits and decision-making patterns. This suggests that human altruism reflects genuinely high valuation of others' outcomes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Rhoads |first1=Shawn A. |last2=Vekaria |first2=Kruti M. |last3=O’Connell |first3=Katherine |last4=Elizabeth |first4=Hannah S. |last5=Rand |first5=David G. |last6=Kozak Williams |first6=Megan N. |last7=Marsh |first7=Abigail A. |date=2023-03-31 |title=Unselfish traits and social decision-making patterns characterize six populations of real-world extraordinary altruists |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1807 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-37283-5 |issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free |pmid=37002205 |pmc=10066349 }}</ref>
There has been some debate on whether humans are capable of psychological altruism.<ref name="batson3">{{cite book|last=Batson|first=C.|year=2011|title=Altruism in humans|location=New York, N.Y. U.S.|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors.<ref name="prosocial">{{cite book|last=Batson|first= C. Daniel |date=2012|chapter = A history of prosocial behavior research |editor1-first = Arie W.|editor1-last= Kruglanski|editor2-link=Wolfgang Stroebe|editor2-first=Wolfgang|editor2-last = Stroebe|title = Handbook of the history of social psychology |pages = 243–264|location= New York, NY |publisher = Psychology Press|isbn =978-1-84872-868-4 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MOlUSV2koMcC&pg=PA242}}</ref> However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is difficult to prove. The [[social exchange theory]] postulates that altruism only exists when the benefits outweigh the costs to the self.<ref name="noaltruism">{{cite journal |
[[Daniel Batson]], a psychologist, examined this question and argued against the social exchange theory. He identified four significant motives: to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or to uphold a moral principle ([[principlism]]). Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that [[empathy]]-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless.<ref name="baston2">{{cite book|last1=Batson|first1= C. Daniel|last2= Ahmad|first2= Nadia|last3= Stocks|first3= E. L. |date = 2011|chapter = Four forms of prosocial motivation: Egoism, altruism, collectivism, and principlism|editor-first = David|editor-last =Dunning|title = Social motivation |pages = 103–126|location= New York, NY |publisher = Psychology Press|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gOB4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA103|isbn = 978-1-136-84720-2}}</ref> The ''[[empathy-altruism]] hypothesis'' states that psychological altruism exists and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with personal distress, which compels people to reduce their unpleasant emotions and increase their positive ones by helping someone in need. Empathy is thus not selfless since altruism works either as a way to avoid those negative, unpleasant feelings and have positive, pleasant feelings when triggered by others' need for help or as a way to gain social reward or avoid social punishment by helping. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid allowing it unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering.<ref name="encyclopedia"/>
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Feeling over-taxed by the needs of others has negative effects on health and happiness.<ref name="volunteer5"/> For example, one study on volunteerism found that feeling overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on mental health than helping had a positive one (although positive effects were still significant).<ref name="overwhelmed">{{cite journal|last1=Schwartz|first1=C.|last2=Meisenhelder|first2=J.|last3=Ma|first3=Y.|last4=Reed|first4=G.|year=2003|title=Altruistic Social Interest Behaviors Are Associated With Better Mental Health|journal=Psychosomatic Medicine|volume=65|issue=5|pages=778–785|doi=10.1097/01.PSY.0000079378.39062.D4|pmid=14508020|citeseerx=10.1.1.529.7780|s2cid=20644442}}</ref>
====
Both genetics and environment have been implicated in influencing pro-social or altruistic behavior.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199964772.001.0001 |title=Prosocial Development |date=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-996477-2 |editor-last1=Padilla-Walker |editor-last2=Carlo |editor-first1=Laura M. |editor-first2=Gustavo }}{{pn|date=May 2024}}</ref> Candidate genes include OXTR ([[gene polymorphism|polymorphism]]s in the [[oxytocin receptor]]),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singer |first1=Tania |last2=Snozzi |first2=Romana |last3=Bird |first3=Geoffrey |last4=Petrovic |first4=Predrag |last5=Silani |first5=Giorgia |last6=Heinrichs |first6=Markus |last7=Dolan |first7=Raymond J. |title=Effects of oxytocin and prosocial behavior on brain responses to direct and vicariously experienced pain |journal=Emotion |date=December 2008 |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=781–791 |doi=10.1037/a0014195 |pmid=19102589 |pmc=2672051 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Israel |first1=Salomon |last2=Weisel |first2=Ori |last3=Ebstein |first3=Richard P. |last4=Bornstein |first4=Gary |title=Oxytocin, but not vasopressin, increases both parochial and universal altruism |journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology |date=August 2012 |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1341–1344 |doi=10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.02.001 |pmid=22377540 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barraza |first1=Jorge A. |last2=McCullough |first2=Michael E. |last3=Ahmadi |first3=Sheila |last4=Zak |first4=Paul J. |title=Oxytocin infusion increases charitable donations regardless of monetary resources |journal=Hormones and Behavior |date=July 2011 |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=148–151 |doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.04.008 |pmid=21596046 }}</ref> [[CD38]], [[COMT]], [[DRD4]], [[DRD5]], [[IGF2]], [[AVPR1A]]<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0025274 | doi-access=free | title=AVPR1A Variant Associated with Preschoolers' Lower Altruistic Behavior | date=2011 | last1=Avinun | first1=Reut | last2=Israel | first2=Salomon | last3=Shalev | first3=Idan | last4=Gritsenko | first4=Inga | last5=Bornstein | first5=Gary | last6=Ebstein | first6=Richard P. | last7=Knafo | first7=Ariel | journal=PLOS ONE | volume=6 | issue=9 | pages=e25274 | pmid=21980412 | pmc=3182215 | bibcode=2011PLoSO...625274A }}</ref> and [[GABRB2]].<ref>{{cite journal| pmc=3871336 | pmid=24132092 | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2013.0395 | volume=9 | issue=6 | title=Genes underlying altruism | year=2013 | journal=Biol Lett | page=20130395 | last1 = Thompson | first1 = GJ | last2 = Hurd | first2 = PL | last3 = Crespi | first3 = BJ}}</ref> It is theorized that some of these genes influence altruistic behavior by modulating levels of neurotransmitters such as [[serotonin]] and [[dopamine]].
Pathological altruism is altruism taken to an unhealthy extreme, such that it either harms the altruistic person or the person's well-intentioned actions cause more harm than good.▼
The term "pathological altruism" was popularised by the book ''[[Pathological Altruism]]''.▼
Examples include [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and [[Occupational burnout|burnout]] seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, hoarding of animals, and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/pathological-altruism-9780199738571?cc=us&lang=en&|title=Pathological Altruism|date=19 December 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-973857-1}}</ref>▼
===Sociology===
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The notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since the belief is that such a practice promotes the practitioner's own happiness: "The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being becomes" (Dalai Lama).<ref name="Speech by the Dalai Lama"/>
In Buddhism, a person's actions cause karma, which consists of consequences proportional to the moral implications of their actions. Deeds considered to be bad are punished, while those considered to be good are rewarded.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Todd |url=https://college.holycross.edu/faculty/tlewis/PDFs/Altruism_in_Classical_Buddhism.pdf |title=Altruism in World Religions |date=2005 |publisher=Georgetown UNiversity Press |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |location=Washington, D.C. |publication-date=2005 |pages=90 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 5: Altruism in Classical Bhuddism |editor-last2=Chilton |editor-first2=Bruce D}}</ref>
===Jainism===
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===Christianity===
{{Catholic philosophy}}
[[Thomas Aquinas]] interprets "You should love your neighbour as yourself"<ref>{{Bibleverse|Leviticus|19}} and {{Bibleverse|Matthew|22}}</ref> as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others.<ref>Thomas Aquinas, ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', II:II Quaestio 25, Article 4</ref> Considering that "the love with which a man loves himself is the form and root of friendship" he quotes Aristotle that "the origin of friendly relations with others lies in our relations to ourselves",.<ref>Aristotle, [[Nicomachean Ethics]] IX.4 1166a1</ref> Aquinas concluded that though we are not bound to love others more than ourselves, we naturally seek the [[common good]], the good of the whole, more than any private good, the good of a part. However, he thought we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbours, and more than our bodily life—since the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is to share in eternal [[Beatitudes|beatitude]]: a more desirable thing than bodily well-being. In coining the word "altruism", as stated above, [[Auguste Comte|Comte]] was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools within Catholicism. The aim and focus of Christian life is a life that glorifies God, with obeying christ's command to treat others equally, caring for them and understanding eternity in heaven is what Jesus Resurrection at calvary was all about.
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===Islam===
In
On the topic of donating blood to non-Muslims (a controversial topic within the faith),
For [[Sufism|Sufis]], 'iythar means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns, where concern for others is deemed as a demand made by [[God in Islam|God]] on the human body, considered to be property of God alone. The importance of 'iythar (aka {{transliteration|ar|īthār}}) lies in sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; [[Islam]] considers those practicing {{transliteration|ar|īthār}} as abiding by the highest degree of nobility.<ref>{{cite book| first = M. Fethullah|last=Gülen| title = Key Concepts in the Practice of Sufism: Emerald Hills of the Heart| year = 2004| publisher = Fountain| location = Rutherford, N.J.| isbn = 978-1-932099-75-1| pages = 10–11 }}</ref>
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===Effective altruism===
{{See also|Effective altruism|Earning to give|Giving What We Can}}
[[Effective altruism]] is a [[philosophy]] and [[social movement]] that uses evidence and reasoning to determine the most effective ways to benefit others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=MacAskill |first1=William |title=Effective Altruism: Introduction |journal=Essays in Philosophy |date=2017
While a substantial proportion of effective altruists have focused on the [[nonprofit sector]], the philosophy of effective altruism applies more broadly to prioritizing the scientific projects, companies, and policy initiatives which can be estimated to save lives, help people, or otherwise have the biggest benefit.<ref name="doing-good-better">{{cite book|last1=MacAskill|first1=William|title=Doing Good Better|date=2015|publisher=Avery|isbn=978-1-59240-910-5}}</ref> People associated with the movement include philosopher [[Peter Singer]],<ref name="blog.ted.com">{{cite web|last1=Walters|first1=Helen|title=The why and how of effective altruism: Peter Singer's talk visualized|url=http://blog.ted.com/why-how-effective-altruism-peter-singer-visualized/|website=TED Blog|date=19 September 2013}}</ref> Facebook co founder [[Dustin Moskovitz]],<ref name="Washington Post on Dustin Moskovitz and Cari Tuna">{{cite news | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/billionaire-couple-give-plenty-to-charity-but-they-do-quite-a-bit-of-homework/2014/12/26/19fae34c-86d6-11e4-b9b7-b8632ae73d25_story.html | title=Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy | date=26 December 2014 | agency=The Washington Post}}</ref> [[Cari Tuna]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.insidephilanthropy.com/tech-philanthropy/2013/9/12/meet-cari-tuna-the-woman-giving-away-dustin-moskovitzs-faceb.html|title=Meet Cari Tuna, the Woman Giving Away Dustin Moskovitz's Facebook Fortune|first=Favid|last=Callahan|work=Inside Philanthropy|date=12 September 2013|access-date=1 March 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]-based researchers [[William MacAskill]]<ref name="The Atlantic article The Greatest Good">{{cite news|last1=Thompson|first1=Derek|title=The Greatest Good|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/06/what-is-the-greatest-good/395768/#b06g25t20w15|work=The Atlantic|date=15 June 2015}}</ref> and [[Toby Ord]],<ref name="Peter Singer The Most Good You Can Do">{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NBWWX4ViD3E|website=YouTube|title=Peter Singer: "The Most Good You Can Do" | Talks at Google|date=22 April 2015 }}</ref> and professional poker player [[Liv Boeree]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite web|url=https://www.pokerstrategy.com/news/world-of-poker/Liv-Boeree-on-Effective-Altruism_100487/|title=News: Liv Boeree on Effective Altruism|website=www.pokerstrategy.com|access-date=11 April 2017}}
|2={{Cite web|url=http://www.livboeree.com/effective-altruism/|title=Effective Altruism {{!}} Liv Boeree|website=www.livboeree.com|language=en-GB|access-date=11 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170411220914/http://www.livboeree.com/effective-altruism/|archive-date=11 April 2017|url-status=dead}}
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== Extreme Altruism ==
Extreme altruism also known as costly altruism, extraordinary altruism, or heroic behaviours (shall be distinguished from [[Hero|heroism]]), refers to selfless acts directed to a stranger which significantly exceed the normal altruistic behaviours, often involving risks or great cost to the altruists themselves.<ref name=":0" /> Since acts of extreme altruism are often directed towards strangers, many commonly accepted models of simple altruism appear inadequate in explaining this phenomenon.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=de Waal |first=Frans B.M. |date=2008-01-01 |title=Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=279–300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 |pmid=17550343 |issn=0066-4308}}</ref>▼
===Pathological altruism===
One of the initial concepts was introduced by Wilson in 1976, which he referred to as “hard-core” altruism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wilson |first=John P. |date=December 1976 |title=Motivation, modeling, and altruism: A Person × Situation analysis. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.34.6.1078 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=1078–1086 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.34.6.1078 |issn=1939-1315}}</ref> This form is characterised by impulsive actions directed towards others, typically a stranger and lacking incentives for reward. Since then, several papers have mentioned the possibility of such altruism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Piliavin |first1=Jane Allyn |last2=Charng |first2=Hong-Wen |date=1990 |title=Altruism: A Review of Recent Theory and Research |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2083262 |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |volume=16 |pages=27–65 |doi=10.1146/annurev.so.16.080190.000331 |jstor=2083262 |issn=0360-0572}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Krebs |first=Dennis L. |date=1991 |title=Altruism and Egoism: A False Dichotomy? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1449250 |journal=Psychological Inquiry |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=137–139 |doi=10.1207/s15327965pli0202_9 |jstor=1449250 |issn=1047-840X}}</ref>▼
▲Pathological altruism is altruism taken to an unhealthy extreme, such that it either harms the altruistic person or the person's well-intentioned actions cause more harm than good.
▲The term "pathological altruism" was popularised by the book ''[[Pathological Altruism]]''.
▲Examples include [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and [[Occupational burnout|burnout]] seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, hoarding of animals, and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid.<ref>{{cite book |
▲Extreme altruism also known as costly altruism, extraordinary altruism, or heroic behaviours (shall be distinguished from [[Hero|heroism]]), refers to selfless acts directed to a stranger which significantly exceed the normal altruistic behaviours, often involving risks or great cost to the altruists themselves.<ref name=":0" /> Since acts of extreme altruism are often directed towards strangers, many commonly accepted models of simple altruism appear inadequate in explaining this phenomenon.<ref>{{
▲One of the initial concepts was introduced by Wilson in 1976, which he referred to as
The current{{when|date=April 2024}} slow progress in the field is due to general ethical guidelines that restrict exposing research participants to costly or risky decisions.
However, current research can only be carried out on a small population that meets the requirements of extreme altruism. Most of the time the research is also via the form of self-report which could lead to self-report biases.
=== Characteristics of Extreme Altruists ===
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* Norms
In 1970, Schwartz hypothesised that extreme altruism is positively related to a person’s moral norms and is not influenced by the cost associated with the action.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Rusch |first=Hannes |date=2022 |title=Heroic behavior: A review of the literature on high-stakes altruism in the wild
* Enhanced Fear Recognition
Abigail Marsh has described psychopaths as the
* Fast Decisions when Perform Acts of Extreme Altruism.
Rand and Epstein explored the behaviours of 51 Carnegie Hero Medal Recipients, demonstrating how extreme altruistic behaviours often stem from system I of the [[Dual process theory|Dual Process Theory]], which leads to rapid and intuitive behaviours.<ref name=":4">{{
This discovery has led to ethical debates, particularly in the context of living organ donation, where laws regarding this issue differ by country.<ref>{{
* Social Discounting
One finding suggests how extreme altruists exhibit lower levels of social discounting as compared to others. With that meaning extreme altruists place a higher value on the welfare of strangers than a typical person does.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{
* Low Social-Economic Status
Analysis of 676 [[Carnegie Hero Fund|Carnegie Hero Award Recipients]]<ref name=":5">{{
=== Possible Explanations ===
Evolutionary theories such as the kin-selection, reciprocity, vested interest and punishment either contradict or do not fully explain the concept of extreme altruism.<ref name=":7">{{
* Costly Signalling Theory for Extreme Behaviours
Research suggests that males are more likely to engage in heroic and risk-taking behaviours due to a preference among females for such traits.<ref>{{
* Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
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While most altruistic behaviours offer some form of benefit, extreme altruism may sometimes result from a mistake where the victim does not reciprocate.<ref name=":7" /> Considering the impulsive characteristic of extreme altruists, some researchers suggest that these individuals have made a wrong judgement during the cost-benefit analysis.<ref name=":4" /> Furthermore, extreme altruism might be a rare variation of altruism where they lie towards to ends of a normal distribution.<ref name=":7" /> In the US, the annual prevalence rate per capita is less than 0.00005%, this shows the rarity of such behaviours.<ref name=":1" />
==Digital altruism==
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* {{cite book|author-link=Auguste Comte|last=Comte|first=Auguste|title=Catechisme positiviste (Catechism of Positivism)|orig-year=1852|translator-first=R.|translator-last=Congreve|location=London|publisher=Kegan Paul|year=1891}}
* {{cite book| last = Dawkins| first = Richard| title = The Selfish Gene| year = 1989| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = Oxford Oxfordshire| isbn = 978-0-19-286092-7| url-access = registration| url = https://archive.org/details/selfishgene00dawkrich}}
* {{
* {{Cite journal| last1 = Knox | first1 = T.| title = The volunteer's folly and socio-economic man: some thoughts on altruism, rationality, and community| journal = Journal of Socio-Economics| volume = 28| issue = 4| pages = 475–967| year = 1999| doi = 10.1016/S1053-5357(99)00045-1}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Peter Kropotkin|last=Kropotkin|first=Peter|title-link=Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution|title=Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution|year=1902}}
* {{Cite journal| last1 = Madsen | first1 = E. A.| last2 = Tunney | first2 = R. J.| last3 = Fieldman | first3 = G.| last4 = Plotkin | first4 = H. C.| last5 = Dunbar | first5 = R. I. M.| last6 = Richardson | first6 = J. M.| last7 = McFarland | first7 = D.| title = Kinship and altruism: A cross-cultural experimental study| journal = British Journal of Psychology| volume = 98| issue = Pt 2| pages = 339–359| year = 2007| pmid = 17456276| doi = 10.1348/000712606X129213| s2cid = 18056028| url = http://lup.lub.lu.se/record/4091558}}
* {{
* {{cite book|author-link=Friedrich Nietzsche|last=Nietzsche|first=Friedrich|title-link=Beyond Good and Evil|title=Beyond Good and Evil|year=1886}}
* {{Cite journal| pages = 1560–1563| year = 2006| pmid = 17158317| pmc = 3279745| doi = 10.1126/science.1133755| issue = 5805| volume = 314| title = Five Rules for the Evolution of Cooperation| journal = Science| last1 = Nowak | first1 = M. A.|bibcode = 2006Sci...314.1560N }}
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