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A recent meta-analysis of fMRI studies conducted by Shawn Rhoads, Jo Cutler, and Abigail Marsh analyzed the results of prior studies of generosity in which participants could freely choose to give or not give resources to someone else.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhoads |first1=Shawn A |last2=Cutler |first2=Jo |last3=Marsh |first3=Abigail A |title=A feature-based network analysis and fMRI meta-analysis reveal three distinct types of prosocial decisions |journal=Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience |date=30 December 2021 |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=1214–1233 |doi=10.1093/scan/nsab079 |pmid=34160604 |pmc=8717062 }}</ref> The results of this study confirmed that altruism is supported by distinct mechanisms from giving motivated by reciprocity or by fairness. This study also confirmed that the right ventral striatum is recruited during altruistic giving, as well as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, bilateral [[anterior cingulate cortex]], and bilateral anterior [[Insular cortex|insula]], which are regions previously implicated in [[empathy]].
[[Abigail Marsh]] has conducted studies of real-world altruists that have also identified an important role for the [[amygdala]] in human altruism. In real-world altruists, such as people who have donated kidneys to strangers, the amygdala is larger than in typical adults. Altruists' amygdalas are also more responsive than those of typical adults to the sight of others' distress, which is thought to reflect an empathic response to distress.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Abigail A. |last2=Stoycos |first2=Sarah A. |last3=Brethel-Haurwitz |first3=Kristin M. |last4=Robinson |first4=Paul |last5=VanMeter |first5=John W. |last6=Cardinale |first6=Elise M. |date=2014-10-21 |title=Neural and cognitive characteristics of extraordinary altruists |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=42 |pages=15036–15041 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1408440111 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4210306 |pmid=25225374|bibcode=2014PNAS..11115036M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brethel-Haurwitz |first1=Kristin M. |last2=O'Connell |first2=Katherine |last3=Cardinale |first3=Elise M. |last4=Stoianova |first4=Maria |last5=Stoycos |first5=Sarah A. |last6=Lozier |first6=Leah M. |last7=VanMeter |first7=John W. |last8=Marsh |first8=Abigail A. |date=2017-10-25 |title=Amygdala–midbrain connectivity indicates a role for the mammalian parental care system in human altruism |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=284 |issue=1865 |pages=20171731 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2017.1731 |issn=0962-8452 |pmc=5666102 |pmid=29070724}}</ref> This structure may also be involved in altruistic choices due to its role in encoding the value of outcomes for others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhoads |first1=Shawn A |last2=O'Connell |first2=Katherine |last3=Berluti |first3=Kathryn |last4=Ploe |first4=Montana L |last5=Elizabeth |first5=Hannah S |last6=Amormino |first6=Paige |last7=Li |first7=Joanna L |last8=Dutton |first8=Mary Ann |last9=VanMeter |first9=Ashley Skye |last10=Marsh |first10=Abigail A |title=Neural responses underlying extraordinary altruists' generosity for socially distant others |journal=PNAS Nexus |date=3 July 2023 |volume=2 |issue=7 |pages=pgad199 |doi=10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad199 |pmc=10321390 |pmid=37416875 }}</ref> This is consistent with the findings of research in non-human animals, which has
====Psychology====
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The notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since the belief is that such a practice promotes the practitioner's own happiness: "The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being becomes" (Dalai Lama).<ref name="Speech by the Dalai Lama"/>
In Buddhism, a person's actions cause karma, which consists of consequences proportional to the moral implications of their actions. Deeds considered to be bad are punished, while those considered to be good are rewarded.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Todd |url=https://college.holycross.edu/faculty/tlewis/PDFs/Altruism_in_Classical_Buddhism.pdf |title=Altruism in World Religions |date=2005 |publisher=Georgetown UNiversity Press |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |location=Washington, D.C. |publication-date=2005 |pages=90 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 5: Altruism in Classical Bhuddism |editor-last2=Chilton |editor-first2=Bruce D}}</ref>
===Jainism===
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===Islam===
In
On the topic of donating blood to non-Muslims (a controversial topic within the faith),
For [[Sufism|Sufis]], 'iythar means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns, where concern for others is deemed as a demand made by [[God in Islam|God]] on the human body, considered to be property of God alone. The importance of 'iythar (aka {{transliteration|ar|īthār}}) lies in sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; [[Islam]] considers those practicing {{transliteration|ar|īthār}} as abiding by the highest degree of nobility.<ref>{{cite book| first = M. Fethullah|last=Gülen| title = Key Concepts in the Practice of Sufism: Emerald Hills of the Heart| year = 2004| publisher = Fountain| location = Rutherford, N.J.| isbn = 978-1-932099-75-1| pages = 10–11 }}</ref>
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Extreme altruism also known as costly altruism, extraordinary altruism, or heroic behaviours (shall be distinguished from [[Hero|heroism]]), refers to selfless acts directed to a stranger which significantly exceed the normal altruistic behaviours, often involving risks or great cost to the altruists themselves.<ref name=":0" /> Since acts of extreme altruism are often directed towards strangers, many commonly accepted models of simple altruism appear inadequate in explaining this phenomenon.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Waal |first1=Frans B.M. |title=Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |date=1 January 2008 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=279–300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 |pmid=17550343 }}</ref>
One of the initial concepts was introduced by Wilson in 1976, which he referred to as
The current{{when|date=April 2024}} slow progress in the field is due to general ethical guidelines that restrict exposing research participants to costly or risky decisions.{{fact|date=April 2024}} Consequently, much research has based their studies on living organ donations and the actions of [[Carnegie Hero Fund|Carnegie Hero medal Recipients]], actions which involve high risk, high cost, and are of infrequent occurrences.{{fact|date=April 2024}} A typical example of extreme altruism would be non-directed kidney
However, current research can only be carried out on a small population that meets the requirements of extreme altruism. Most of the time the research is also via the form of self-report which could lead to self-report biases.{{fact|date=April 2024}} Due to the limitations, the current gap between high stakes and normal altruism remains unknown.<ref name=":3" />
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* Enhanced Fear Recognition
Abigail Marsh has described psychopaths as the
* Fast Decisions when Perform Acts of Extreme Altruism.
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=== Possible Explanations ===
Evolutionary theories such as the kin-selection, reciprocity, vested interest and punishment either contradict or do not fully explain the concept of extreme altruism.<ref name=":7">{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9781315690100 |title=Handbook of Heroism and Heroic Leadership |date=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-42611-0 |url=https://eprints.kingston.ac.uk/id/eprint/48727/6/Rotella-A-48727-AAM.pdf |editor-last1=Allison |editor-last2=Goethals |editor-last3=Kramer |editor-first1=Scott T. |editor-first2=George R. |editor-first3=Roderick M. }}{{pn|date=May 2024}}</ref> As a result, considerable research has attempted for a separate explanation for this behaviour.
* Costly Signalling Theory for Extreme Behaviours
Research suggests that males are more likely to engage in heroic and risk-taking behaviours due to a preference among females for such traits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelly |first1=Susan |last2=Dunbar |first2=R. I. M. |title=Who dares, wins: Heroism versus altruism in women's mate choice |journal=Human Nature |date=June 2001 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=89–105 |doi=10.1007/s12110-001-1018-6 |pmid=26192164 }}</ref> These extreme altruistic behaviours could serve to act as an unconscious
* Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
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