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[[File:Belisaire demandant l'aumone Jacques-Louis David.jpg|thumb|Giving [[alms]] to the poor is often considered an altruistic action.]]
'''Altruism''' is the [[moral principle|principle]] and [[moral behavior|practice]] of concern for the [[well-being]] and/or [[happiness]] of other [[human]]s or animals above oneself. While objects of altruistic concern vary, it is an important moral value in many [[Culture|cultures]] and [[Religion|religions]]. It may be considered a synonym of selflessness, the opposite of [[selfishness]].<ref>{{
The word ''altruism'' was popularized (and possibly coined) by the French philosopher [[Auguste Comte]] in French, as {{lang|fr|altruisme}}, for an [[antonym]] of [[egoism]].<ref>{{multiref2
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}}</ref> He derived it from the Italian {{lang|it|altrui}}, which in turn was derived from Latin {{lang|la|alteri}}, meaning "[[alterity|other people]]" or "somebody else".<ref>{{cite book|last=Ciciloni|first=Ferdinando|title=A Grammar of the Italian Language|date=1825|publisher=John Murray|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/agrammaritalian00cicigoog/page/n81 64]|url=https://archive.org/details/agrammaritalian00cicigoog}}</ref>
Altruism, as observed in populations of organisms, is when an individual performs an action at a cost to itself (in terms of e.g. pleasure and quality of life, time, probability of survival or reproduction) that benefits, directly or indirectly, another individual, without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action.<ref>{{
Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of [[loyalty]] or concern for the [[common good]]. The latter are predicated upon social relationships, whilst altruism does not consider relationships. Whether "true" altruism is possible in human psychology is a subject of debate. The theory of [[psychological egoism]] suggests that no act of [[sharing]], [[Helping behavior|helping]], or [[Self-sacrifice|sacrificing]] can be truly altruistic, as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal [[gratification]]. The validity of this argument depends on whether such [[Motivation#Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation|intrinsic rewards]] qualify as "benefits".<ref>{{
The term ''[[altruism (ethics)|altruism]]'' may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is usually contrasted with [[ethical egoism|egoism]], which claims individuals are morally obligated to serve themselves first.<ref>{{
[[Effective altruism]] is the use of evidence and reason to determine the most effective ways to benefit others.<ref>{{
==The notion of altruism==
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:Hunters who [[Sharing|share]] meat display a costly signal of ability. The research found that good hunters have higher reproductive success and more adulterous relations even if they receive no more of the hunted meat than anyone else. Similarly, holding large feasts and giving large donations are ways of demonstrating one's resources. [[Hero|Heroic]] risk-taking has also been interpreted as a costly signal of ability.<ref name=AEP1/>
[[File:FEMA - 15337 - Photograph by Andrea Booher taken on 09-10-2005 in Texas.jpg|thumb|Volunteers assist Hurricane victims at the [[Houston Astrodome]], following [[Hurricane Katrina]].]]
:Both indirect reciprocity and costly signaling depend on reputation value and tend to make similar predictions. One is that people will be more helpful when they know that their helping behavior will be communicated to people they will interact with later, publicly announced, discussed, or observed by someone else. This has been documented in many studies. The effect is sensitive to subtle cues, such as people being more helpful when there were stylized eyespots instead of a logo on a computer screen. {{dubious|reason=failed to replicate: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8494318/|date=July 2023}} Weak reputational cues such as eyespots may become unimportant if there are stronger cues present and may lose their effect with continued exposure unless reinforced with real reputational effects.<ref name=AEP1/> Public displays such as public weeping for dead celebrities and participation in demonstrations may be influenced by a desire to be seen as generous. People who know that they are publicly monitored sometimes even wastefully donate the money they know is not needed by the recipient because of reputational concerns.<ref name="AEP2">{{Cite book | last1=Iredal|first1=Wendy | last2=van Vugt|first2=Mark |chapter=Altruism as showing off: a signaling perspective on promoting green behavior and acts of kindness | editor1-last = Roberts | doi = 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001 | editor1-first = S. Craig | title = Applied Evolutionary Psychology | year = 2011 | publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-958607-3 }}</ref>
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A recent meta-analysis of fMRI studies conducted by Shawn Rhoads, Jo Cutler, and Abigail Marsh analyzed the results of prior studies of generosity in which participants could freely choose to give or not give resources to someone else.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhoads |first1=Shawn A |last2=Cutler |first2=Jo |last3=Marsh |first3=Abigail A |title=A feature-based network analysis and fMRI meta-analysis reveal three distinct types of prosocial decisions |journal=Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience |date=30 December 2021 |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=1214–1233 |doi=10.1093/scan/nsab079 |pmid=34160604 |pmc=8717062 }}</ref> The results of this study confirmed that altruism is supported by distinct mechanisms from giving motivated by reciprocity or by fairness. This study also confirmed that the right ventral striatum is recruited during altruistic giving, as well as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, bilateral [[anterior cingulate cortex]], and bilateral anterior [[Insular cortex|insula]], which are regions previously implicated in [[empathy]].
[[Abigail Marsh]] has conducted studies of real-world altruists that have also identified an important role for the [[amygdala]] in human altruism. In real-world altruists, such as people who have donated kidneys to strangers, the amygdala is larger than in typical adults. Altruists' amygdalas are also more responsive than those of typical adults to the sight of others' distress, which is thought to reflect an empathic response to distress.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Abigail A. |last2=Stoycos |first2=Sarah A. |last3=Brethel-Haurwitz |first3=Kristin M. |last4=Robinson |first4=Paul |last5=VanMeter |first5=John W. |last6=Cardinale |first6=Elise M. |date=2014-10-21 |title=Neural and cognitive characteristics of extraordinary altruists |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=42 |pages=15036–15041 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1408440111 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4210306 |pmid=25225374|bibcode=2014PNAS..11115036M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brethel-Haurwitz |first1=Kristin M. |last2=O'Connell |first2=Katherine |last3=Cardinale |first3=Elise M. |last4=Stoianova |first4=Maria |last5=Stoycos |first5=Sarah A. |last6=Lozier |first6=Leah M. |last7=VanMeter |first7=John W. |last8=Marsh |first8=Abigail A. |date=2017-10-25 |title=Amygdala–midbrain connectivity indicates a role for the mammalian parental care system in human altruism |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=284 |issue=1865 |pages=20171731 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2017.1731 |issn=0962-8452 |pmc=5666102 |pmid=29070724}}</ref> This structure may also be involved in altruistic choices due to its role in encoding the value of outcomes for others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhoads |first1=Shawn A |last2=O'Connell |first2=Katherine |last3=Berluti |first3=Kathryn |last4=Ploe |first4=Montana L |last5=Elizabeth |first5=Hannah S |last6=Amormino |first6=Paige |last7=Li |first7=Joanna L |last8=Dutton |first8=Mary Ann |last9=VanMeter |first9=Ashley Skye |last10=Marsh |first10=Abigail A |title=Neural responses underlying extraordinary altruists' generosity for socially distant others |journal=PNAS Nexus |date=3 July 2023 |volume=2 |issue=7 |pages=pgad199 |doi=10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad199 |pmc=10321390 |pmid=37416875 }}</ref> This is consistent with the findings of research in non-human animals, which has
====Psychology====
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The notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since the belief is that such a practice promotes the practitioner's own happiness: "The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being becomes" (Dalai Lama).<ref name="Speech by the Dalai Lama"/>
In Buddhism, a person's actions cause karma, which consists of consequences proportional to the moral implications of their actions. Deeds considered to be bad are punished, while those considered to be good are rewarded.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Todd |url=https://college.holycross.edu/faculty/tlewis/PDFs/Altruism_in_Classical_Buddhism.pdf |title=Altruism in World Religions |date=2005 |publisher=Georgetown UNiversity Press |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |location=Washington, D.C. |publication-date=2005 |pages=90 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 5: Altruism in Classical Bhuddism |editor-last2=Chilton |editor-first2=Bruce D}}</ref>
===Jainism===
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===Christianity===
{{Catholic philosophy}}
[[Thomas Aquinas]] interprets "You should love your neighbour as yourself"<ref>{{Bibleverse|Leviticus|19}} and {{Bibleverse|Matthew|22}}</ref> as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others.<ref>Thomas Aquinas, ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', II:II Quaestio 25, Article 4</ref> Considering that "the love with which a man loves himself is the form and root of friendship" he quotes Aristotle that "the origin of friendly relations with others lies in our relations to ourselves",.<ref>Aristotle, [[Nicomachean Ethics]] IX.4 1166a1</ref> Aquinas concluded that though we are not bound to love others more than ourselves, we naturally seek the [[common good]], the good of the whole, more than any private good, the good of a part. However, he thought we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbours, and more than our bodily life—since the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is to share in eternal [[Beatitudes|beatitude]]: a more desirable thing than bodily well-being. In coining the word "altruism", as stated above, [[Auguste Comte|Comte]] was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools within Catholicism. The aim and focus of Christian life is a life that glorifies God, with obeying christ's command to treat others equally, caring for them and understanding eternity in heaven is what Jesus Resurrection at calvary was all about.
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===Islam===
In
On the topic of donating blood to non-Muslims (a controversial topic within the faith),
For [[Sufism|Sufis]], 'iythar means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns, where concern for others is deemed as a demand made by [[God in Islam|God]] on the human body, considered to be property of God alone. The importance of 'iythar (aka {{transliteration|ar|īthār}}) lies in sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; [[Islam]] considers those practicing {{transliteration|ar|īthār}} as abiding by the highest degree of nobility.<ref>{{cite book| first = M. Fethullah|last=Gülen| title = Key Concepts in the Practice of Sufism: Emerald Hills of the Heart| year = 2004| publisher = Fountain| location = Rutherford, N.J.| isbn = 978-1-932099-75-1| pages = 10–11 }}</ref>
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[[Effective altruism]] is a [[philosophy]] and [[social movement]] that uses evidence and reasoning to determine the most effective ways to benefit others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=MacAskill |first1=William |title=Effective Altruism: Introduction |journal=Essays in Philosophy |date=2017 |volume=18 |issue=1 |doi=10.7710/1526-0569.1580 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Effective altruism encourages individuals to consider all causes and actions and to act in the way that brings about the greatest positive impact, based upon their values.<ref name="vox">{{cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/4/24/8457895/givewell-open-philanthropy-charity|title = You have $8 billion. You want to do as much good as possible. What do you do?|last = Matthews|first = Dylan|author-link = Dylan Matthews|date = 24 April 2015|access-date = 27 April 2015|website = [[Vox (website)|Vox]]}}</ref> It is the broad, evidence-based, and cause-neutral approach that distinguishes effective altruism from traditional altruism or [[Charity (practice)|charity]].<ref name="bcg">{{cite web|last1=Bennett|first1=Nicole|last2=Carter|first2=Ashley|last3=Resney|first3=Romney|last4=Woods|first4=Wendy|title=How Tech Entrepreneurs Are Disrupting Philanthropy|url=https://www.bcgperspectives.com/content/articles/innovation-strategy-how-tech-entrepreneurs-are-disrupting-philanthropy/|website=BCG Perspectives|publisher=Boston Consulting Group|access-date= 11 March 2017}}</ref> Effective altruism is part of the larger movement towards [[evidence-based practices]].
While a substantial proportion of effective altruists have focused on the [[nonprofit sector]], the philosophy of effective altruism applies more broadly to prioritizing the scientific projects, companies, and policy initiatives which can be estimated to save lives, help people, or otherwise have the biggest benefit.<ref name="doing-good-better">{{cite book|last1=MacAskill|first1=William|title=Doing Good Better|date=2015|publisher=Avery|isbn=978-1-59240-910-5}}</ref> People associated with the movement include philosopher [[Peter Singer]],<ref name="blog.ted.com">{{cite web|last1=Walters|first1=Helen|title=The why and how of effective altruism: Peter Singer's talk visualized|url=http://blog.ted.com/why-how-effective-altruism-peter-singer-visualized/|website=TED Blog|date=19 September 2013}}</ref> Facebook co founder [[Dustin Moskovitz]],<ref name="Washington Post on Dustin Moskovitz and Cari Tuna">{{cite news | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/billionaire-couple-give-plenty-to-charity-but-they-do-quite-a-bit-of-homework/2014/12/26/19fae34c-86d6-11e4-b9b7-b8632ae73d25_story.html | title=Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy | date=26 December 2014 | agency=The Washington Post}}</ref> [[Cari Tuna]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.insidephilanthropy.com/tech-philanthropy/2013/9/12/meet-cari-tuna-the-woman-giving-away-dustin-moskovitzs-faceb.html|title=Meet Cari Tuna, the Woman Giving Away Dustin Moskovitz's Facebook Fortune|first=Favid|last=Callahan|work=Inside Philanthropy|date=12 September 2013|access-date=1 March 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]-based researchers [[William MacAskill]]<ref name="The Atlantic article The Greatest Good">{{cite news|last1=Thompson|first1=Derek|title=The Greatest Good|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/06/what-is-the-greatest-good/395768/#b06g25t20w15|work=The Atlantic|date=15 June 2015}}</ref> and [[Toby Ord]],<ref name="Peter Singer The Most Good You Can Do">{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NBWWX4ViD3E|website=YouTube|title=Peter Singer: "The Most Good You Can Do" | Talks at Google|date=22 April 2015 }}</ref> and professional poker player [[Liv Boeree]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite web|url=https://www.pokerstrategy.com/news/world-of-poker/Liv-Boeree-on-Effective-Altruism_100487/|title=News: Liv Boeree on Effective Altruism|website=www.pokerstrategy.com|access-date=11 April 2017}}
|2={{Cite web|url=http://www.livboeree.com/effective-altruism/|title=Effective Altruism {{!}} Liv Boeree|website=www.livboeree.com|language=en-GB|access-date=11 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170411220914/http://www.livboeree.com/effective-altruism/|archive-date=11 April 2017|url-status=dead}}
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Extreme altruism also known as costly altruism, extraordinary altruism, or heroic behaviours (shall be distinguished from [[Hero|heroism]]), refers to selfless acts directed to a stranger which significantly exceed the normal altruistic behaviours, often involving risks or great cost to the altruists themselves.<ref name=":0" /> Since acts of extreme altruism are often directed towards strangers, many commonly accepted models of simple altruism appear inadequate in explaining this phenomenon.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Waal |first1=Frans B.M. |title=Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |date=1 January 2008 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=279–300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 |pmid=17550343 }}</ref>
One of the initial concepts was introduced by Wilson in 1976, which he referred to as
The current{{when|date=April 2024}} slow progress in the field is due to general ethical guidelines that restrict exposing research participants to costly or risky decisions.{{fact|date=April 2024}} Consequently, much research has based their studies on living organ donations and the actions of [[Carnegie Hero Fund|Carnegie Hero medal Recipients]], actions which involve high risk, high cost, and are of infrequent occurrences.{{fact|date=April 2024}} A typical example of extreme altruism would be non-directed kidney
However, current research can only be carried out on a small population that meets the requirements of extreme altruism. Most of the time the research is also via the form of self-report which could lead to self-report biases.{{fact|date=April 2024}} Due to the limitations, the current gap between high stakes and normal altruism remains unknown.<ref name=":3" />
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* Enhanced Fear Recognition
Abigail Marsh has described psychopaths as the
* Fast Decisions when Perform Acts of Extreme Altruism.
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=== Possible Explanations ===
Evolutionary theories such as the kin-selection, reciprocity, vested interest and punishment either contradict or do not fully explain the concept of extreme altruism.<ref name=":7">{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9781315690100 |title=Handbook of Heroism and Heroic Leadership |date=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-42611-0 |url=https://eprints.kingston.ac.uk/id/eprint/48727/6/Rotella-A-48727-AAM.pdf |editor-last1=Allison |editor-last2=Goethals |editor-last3=Kramer |editor-first1=Scott T. |editor-first2=George R. |editor-first3=Roderick M. }}{{pn|date=May 2024}}</ref> As a result, considerable research has attempted for a separate explanation for this behaviour.
* Costly Signalling Theory for Extreme Behaviours
Research suggests that males are more likely to engage in heroic and risk-taking behaviours due to a preference among females for such traits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelly |first1=Susan |last2=Dunbar |first2=R. I. M. |title=Who dares, wins: Heroism versus altruism in women's mate choice |journal=Human Nature |date=June 2001 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=89–105 |doi=10.1007/s12110-001-1018-6 |pmid=26192164 }}</ref> These extreme altruistic behaviours could serve to act as an unconscious
* Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
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