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**:A tendency towards reciprocity implies that people feel obligated to respond if someone helps them. This has been used by charities that give small gifts to potential donors hoping to induce reciprocity. Another method is to announce publicly that someone has given a large donation. The tendency to reciprocate can even generalize, so people become more helpful toward others after being helped. On the other hand, people will avoid or even retaliate against those perceived not to be cooperating. People sometimes mistakenly fail to help when they intended to, or their helping may not be noticed, which may cause unintended conflicts. As such, it may be an optimal strategy to be slightly forgiving of and have a slightly generous interpretation of non-cooperation.<ref name=AEP1/>
**:People are more likely to cooperate on a task if they can communicate with one another first. This may be due to better cooperativeness assessments or promises exchange. They are more cooperative if they can gradually build trust instead of being asked to give extensive help immediately. Direct reciprocity and cooperation in a group can be increased by changing the focus and incentives from intra-group competition to larger-scale competitions, such as between groups or against the general population. Thus, giving grades and promotions based only on an individual's performance relative to a small local group, as is common, may reduce cooperative behaviors in the group.<ref name=AEP1/>
** Indirect reciprocity.<ref>{{cite journal |doilast1=10.1038/nature04131Nowak |first1=Martin A. |last1last2=NowakSigmund |first2=Karl|last2=Sigmund |title=Evolution of indirect reciprocity |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]date=October 2005 |volume=437 |issue=27|date=October7063 2005|pages=1291–1298 |pmiddoi=16251955|bibcode = 2005Natur10.437.1291N1038/nature04131 |s2cidpmid=3153895|url=http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/7763/1/IR-05-079.pdf16251955 }}</ref> Because people avoid poor reciprocators and cheaters, a person's [[reputation]] is important. A person esteemed for their reciprocity is more likely to receive assistance, even from individuals they have not directly interacted with before.<ref name=AEP1/>
** [[Strong reciprocity]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gintis |first=Herbert |author-link=Herbert Gintis|title=Strong Reciprocity and Human Sociality|journal=[[Journal of Theoretical Biology]]|volume=206|issue=2|date=September 2000|pmid=10966755|pages=169–179|doi=10.1006/jtbi.2000.2111|bibcode=2000JThBi.206..169G |hdl=10419/105717|hdl-access=free|citeseerx=10.1.1.335.7226 |s2cid=9260305 }}</ref> This form of reciprocity is expressed by people who invest more resources in cooperation and punishment than what is deemed optimal based on established theories of altruism.
** Pseudo-reciprocity.<ref>{{cite book | chapter=By-product Benefits, Reciprocity, and Pseudoreciprocity in Mutualism|editor-last=Hammerstein | editor-first=Peter | title=Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation | publisher=MIT Press | date=2003 |pages=203–222 | isbn=978-0-262-08326-3 | doi=10.7551/mitpress/3232.003.0013}}</ref> An organism behaves altruistically and the recipient does not reciprocate but has an increased chance of acting in a way that is selfish but also as a byproduct benefits the altruist.
* [[Signalling theory|Costly signaling]] and the [[handicap principle]].<ref>{{Citecite journal|doi=10.2307/3677205 |last1=Zahavi |first1=A.|year=1995Amotz |title=Altruism as a handicap –Handicap: The limitationsLimitations of kinKin selectionSelection and reciprocity|jstor=3677205Reciprocity |journal= Journal of Avian Biology |date=1995 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=1–3 |urldoi=https://www10.researchgate.net2307/publication/2452714763677205 |jstor=3677205 }}</ref> Altruism, by diverting resources from the altruist, can act as an "honest signal" of available resources and the skills to acquire them. This may signal to others that the altruist is a valuable potential partner. It may also signal interactive and cooperative intentions, since someone who does not expect to interact further in the future gains nothing from such costly signaling. While it's uncertain if costly signaling can predict long-term cooperative traits, people tend to trust helpers more. Costly signaling loses its value when everyone shares identical traits, resources, and cooperative intentions, but it gains significance as population variability in these aspects increases.<ref name=AEP1/>
 
:Hunters who [[Sharing|share]] meat display a costly signal of ability. The research found that good hunters have higher reproductive success and more adulterous relations even if they receive no more of the hunted meat than anyone else. Similarly, holding large feasts and giving large donations are ways of demonstrating one's resources. [[Hero|Heroic]] risk-taking has also been interpreted as a costly signal of ability.<ref name=AEP1/>
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The benefits for the altruist may be increased, and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups. Research has found that people are more altruistic to kin than to no-kin, to friends than strangers, to those attractive than to those unattractive, to non-competitors than competitors, and to members in-groups than to members of out-groups.<ref name=AEP1/>
 
The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]], a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]]s, such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides''. These protists live as individual [[amoeba]]e until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body.<ref>{{Citecite journal |last1=Hudson |first1=Richard Ellis |last2=Aukema |first2=Juliann Eve |last3=Rispe |first3=Claude |last4=Roze |first4=Denis |date=July 2002 |title=Altruism, cheatingCheating, and anticheaterAnticheater adaptationsAdaptations in cellularCellular slimeSlime molds |url=https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-02683365/file/2002_Hudson%20et%20al._Am%20Nat_1.pdfMolds |journal=The American Naturalist |date=July 2002 |volume=160 |issue=1 |pages=31–43 |doi=10.1086/340613 |issn=1537-5323 |pmid=18707497 |access-date=1 February 2024}}</ref>
 
Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1207/s15327965pli1701_01 |last1=Brown |first1=S.Stephanie L. |last2=Brown |first2=R.M. |year=2006Michael |title=TARGET ARTICLE: Selective investmentInvestment theoryTheory: Recasting the functionalFunctional significanceSignificance of closeClose relationshipsRelationships |urljournal=http://icos.groups.si.umich.edu/Brown-Stephanie.pdfPsychological |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714230521/http://icos.groups.si.umich.edu/Brown-Stephanie.pdfInquiry |url-status=dead |archive-date=14January July 20142006 |journalvolume=Psychological Inquiry17 |volumeissue=171 |pages=1–29 |doi=10.1207/s15327965pli1701_01 |s2cid=144718661 }}</ref>
 
Such cooperative behaviors have sometimes been seen as arguments for left-wing politics, for example, by the Russian [[Zoology|zoologist]] and [[Anarchism|anarchist]] [[Peter Kropotkin]] in his 1902 book ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' and [[Ethics|Moral Philosopher]] [[Peter Singer]] in his book ''[[A Darwinian Left]]''.
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Bill Harbaugh, a [[University of Oregon]] economist, in an fMRI scanner test conducted with his psychologist colleague Dr. Ulrich Mayr, reached the same conclusions as Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman about giving to charity, although they were able to divide the study group into two groups: "egoists" and "altruists". One of their discoveries was that, though rarely, even some of the considered "egoists" sometimes gave more than expected because that would help others, leading to the conclusion that there are other factors in charity, such as a person's environment and values.<ref name="neurons"/>
 
A recent meta-analysis of fMRI studies conducted by Shawn Rhoads, Jo Cutler, and Abigail Marsh analyzed the results of prior studies of generosity in which participants could freely choose to give or not give resources to someone else.<ref>{{Citecite journal |lastlast1=Rhoads |firstfirst1=S.Shawn A. |datelast2=2021Cutler |first2=Jo |last3=Marsh |first3=Abigail A |title=A feature-based network analysis and fMRI meta-analysis reveal three distinct types of prosocial decisions |url=https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/16/12/1214/6308359 |access-date=2023-12-30 |journal=Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience |date=30 December 2021 |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=1214–1233 |doi=10.1093/scan/nsab079 |pmid=34160604 |pmc=8717062 }}</ref> The results of this study confirmed that altruism is supported by distinct mechanisms from giving motivated by reciprocity or by fairness. This study also confirmed that the right ventral striatum is recruited during altruistic giving, as well as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, bilateral [[anterior cingulate cortex]], and bilateral anterior [[Insular cortex|insula]], which are regions previously implicated in [[empathy]].
 
[[Abigail Marsh]] has conducted studies of real-world altruists that have also identified an important role for the [[amygdala]] in human altruism. In real-world altruists, such as people who have donated kidneys to strangers, the amygdala is larger than in typical adults. Altruists' amygdalas are also more responsive than those of typical adults to the sight of others' distress, which is thought to reflect an empathic response to distress.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Abigail A. |last2=Stoycos |first2=Sarah A. |last3=Brethel-Haurwitz |first3=Kristin M. |last4=Robinson |first4=Paul |last5=VanMeter |first5=John W. |last6=Cardinale |first6=Elise M. |date=2014-10-21 |title=Neural and cognitive characteristics of extraordinary altruists |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=42 |pages=15036–15041 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1408440111 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4210306 |pmid=25225374|bibcode=2014PNAS..11115036M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brethel-Haurwitz |first1=Kristin M. |last2=O'Connell |first2=Katherine |last3=Cardinale |first3=Elise M. |last4=Stoianova |first4=Maria |last5=Stoycos |first5=Sarah A. |last6=Lozier |first6=Leah M. |last7=VanMeter |first7=John W. |last8=Marsh |first8=Abigail A. |date=2017-10-25 |title=Amygdala–midbrain connectivity indicates a role for the mammalian parental care system in human altruism |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=284 |issue=1865 |pages=20171731 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2017.1731 |issn=0962-8452 |pmc=5666102 |pmid=29070724}}</ref> This structure may also be involved in altruistic choices due to its role in encoding the value of outcomes for others.<ref>{{Citecite journal |last1=Rhoads |first1=Shawn A |last2=O'Connell |first2=Katherine |last3=Berluti |first3=Kathryn |last4=Ploe |first4=Montana L |last5=Elizabeth |first5=Hannah S |last6=Amormino |first6=Paige |last7=Li |first7=Joanna L |last8=Dutton |first8=Mary Ann |last9=VanMeter |first9=Ashley Skye |last10=Marsh |first10=Abigail A |date=2023-06-13 |title=Neural responses underlying extraordinary altruists'altruists’ generosity for socially distant others |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad199 |journal=PNAS Nexus |date=3 July 2023 |volume=2 |issue=7 |pages=pgad199 |doi=10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad199 |issn=2752-6542 |pmc=10321390 |pmid=37416875 }}</ref> This is consistent with the findings of research in non-human animals, which has identified neurons within the amygdala that specifically encode the value of others' outcomes, activity in which appears to drive altruistic choices in monkeys.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dal Monte |first1=Olga |last2=Chu |first2=Cheng C. J. |last3=Fagan |first3=Nicholas A. |last4=Chang |first4=Steve W. C. |date=April 2020 |title=Specialized medial prefrontal–amygdala coordination in other-regarding decision preference |journal=Nature Neuroscience |language=en |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=565–574 |doi=10.1038/s41593-020-0593-y |pmid=32094970 |pmc=7131896 |issn=1546-1726|hdl=2318/1730693 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citecite journal |lastlast1=Putnam |firstfirst1=P.Philip T. |datelast2=2023Chu |first2=Cheng-Chi J. |last3=Fagan |first3=Nicholas A. |last4=Dal Monte |first4=Olga |last5=Chang |first5=Steve W.C. |title=Dissociation of vicarious and experienced rewards by coupling frequency within the same neural pathway |urljournal=https://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(23)00393-8Neuron |journaldate=NeuronAugust 2023 |volume=111 |issue=16 |pages=2513–2522.e4 |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2023.05.020 |pmid=37348507 |pmc=10527039 |pmc-embargo-date=August 16, 2024 }}</ref>
 
====Psychology====
The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines ''psychological altruism'' as "a motivational state to increase another's welfare". Psychological altruism is contrasted with ''psychological egoism'', which refers to the motivation to increase one's welfare.<ref name="encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia|article=Altruism|encyclopedia = International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences|editor-first= William A. Jr. |editor-last = Darity|edition= 2nd |volume = 1|location = Detroit|publisher = Macmillan Reference USA|date= 2008|pages = 87–88}}</ref> In keeping with this, research in real-world altruists, including altruistic kidney donors, bone marrow donors, humanitarian aid workers, and [[Hero|heroic]] rescuers findings that these altruists are primarily distinguished from other adults by unselfish traits and decision-making patterns. This suggests that human altruism reflects genuinely high valuation of others' outcomes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Rhoads |first1=Shawn A. |last2=Vekaria |first2=Kruti M. |last3=O’Connell |first3=Katherine |last4=Elizabeth |first4=Hannah S. |last5=Rand |first5=David G. |last6=Kozak Williams |first6=Megan N. |last7=Marsh |first7=Abigail A. |date=2023-03-31 |title=Unselfish traits and social decision-making patterns characterize six populations of real-world extraordinary altruists |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1807 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-37283-5 |issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free |pmid=37002205 |pmc=10066349 }}</ref>
 
There has been some debate on whether humans are capable of psychological altruism.<ref name="batson3">{{cite book|last=Batson|first=C.|year=2011|title=Altruism in humans|location=New York, N.Y. U.S.|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors.<ref name="prosocial">{{cite book|last=Batson|first= C. Daniel |date=2012|chapter = A history of prosocial behavior research |editor1-first = Arie W.|editor1-last= Kruglanski|editor2-link=Wolfgang Stroebe|editor2-first=Wolfgang|editor2-last = Stroebe|title = Handbook of the history of social psychology |pages = 243–264|location= New York, NY |publisher = Psychology Press|isbn =978-1-84872-868-4 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MOlUSV2koMcC&pg=PA242}}</ref> However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is difficult to prove. The [[social exchange theory]] postulates that altruism only exists when the benefits outweigh the costs to the self.<ref name="noaltruism">{{cite journal | last1 = Maner | first1 = J.Jon K. | last2 = Luce | first2 = C.Carol L. | last3 = Neuberg | first3 = S.Steven L. | last4 = Cialdini | first4 = R.Robert B. | last5 = Brown | first5 = S.Stephanie | last6 = Sagarin | first6 = B.Brad J. | year = 2002 | title = The effectsEffects of perspectivePerspective takingTaking on motivationsMotivations for helpingHelping: Still noNo evidenceEvidence for altruismAltruism | url = https://www.academia.edu/14932530| journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |date=November volume2002 |volume= 28 | issue =11 11| pages = 1601–1610 | doi = 10.1177/014616702237586 | s2cid = 146125891 }}</ref>
 
[[Daniel Batson]], a psychologist, examined this question and argued against the social exchange theory. He identified four significant motives: to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or to uphold a moral principle ([[principlism]]). Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that [[empathy]]-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless.<ref name="baston2">{{cite book|last1=Batson|first1= C. Daniel|last2= Ahmad|first2= Nadia|last3= Stocks|first3= E. L. |date = 2011|chapter = Four forms of prosocial motivation: Egoism, altruism, collectivism, and principlism|editor-first = David|editor-last =Dunning|title = Social motivation |pages = 103–126|location= New York, NY |publisher = Psychology Press|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gOB4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA103|isbn = 978-1-136-84720-2}}</ref> The ''[[empathy-altruism]] hypothesis'' states that psychological altruism exists and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with personal distress, which compels people to reduce their unpleasant emotions and increase their positive ones by helping someone in need. Empathy is thus not selfless since altruism works either as a way to avoid those negative, unpleasant feelings and have positive, pleasant feelings when triggered by others' need for help or as a way to gain social reward or avoid social punishment by helping. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid allowing it unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering.<ref name="encyclopedia"/>
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====Genetics and environment====
Both genetics and environment have been implicated in influencing pro-social or altruistic behavior.<ref>{{cite bookjournal | urldoi=https10.1093/acprof:oso//books9780199964772.google001.com/books?id=fM7RAgAAQBAJ | title=Prosocial Development: A Multidimensional Approach | isbn=978-0-19-996478-9 | last1=Padilla-Walker | first1=Laura M. | last2=Carlo | first2=Gustavo | date=15 December 2015 | publisher=Oxford University Press0001 }}{{pn}}</ref> Candidate genes include OXTR ([[gene polymorphism|polymorphism]]s in the [[oxytocin receptor]]),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singer |first1=Tania |last2=Snozzi |first2=Romana |last3=Bird |first3=Geoffrey |last4=Petrovic |first4=Predrag |last5=Silani |first5=Giorgia |last6=Heinrichs |first6=Markus |last7=Dolan |first7=Raymond J. |title=Effects of oxytocin and prosocial behavior on brain responses to direct and vicariously experienced pain |journal=Emotion |date=December 2008 |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=781–791 |doi=10.1037/a0014195 |pmid=19102589 |pmc=2672051 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Israel |first1=Salomon |last2=Weisel |first2=Ori |last3=Ebstein |first3=Richard P. |last4=Bornstein |first4=Gary |title=Oxytocin, but not vasopressin, increases both parochial and universal altruism |journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology |date=August 2012 |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1341–1344 |doi=10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.02.001 |pmid=22377540 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barraza |first1=Jorge A. |last2=McCullough |first2=Michael E. |last3=Ahmadi |first3=Sheila |last4=Zak |first4=Paul J. |title=Oxytocin infusion increases charitable donations regardless of monetary resources |journal=Hormones and Behavior |date=July 2011 |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=148–151 |doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.04.008 }}</ref> [[CD38]], [[COMT]], [[DRD4]], [[DRD5]], [[IGF2]], [[AVPR1A]]<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0025274 | doi-access=free | title=AVPR1A Variant Associated with Preschoolers' Lower Altruistic Behavior | date=2011 | last1=Avinun | first1=Reut | last2=Israel | first2=Salomon | last3=Shalev | first3=Idan | last4=Gritsenko | first4=Inga | last5=Bornstein | first5=Gary | last6=Ebstein | first6=Richard P. | last7=Knafo | first7=Ariel | journal=PLOS ONE | volume=6 | issue=9 | pages=e25274 | pmid=21980412 | pmc=3182215 | bibcode=2011PLoSO...625274A }}</ref> and [[GABRB2]].<ref>{{cite journal| pmc=3871336 | pmid=24132092 | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2013.0395 | volume=9 | issue=6 | title=Genes underlying altruism | year=2013 | journal=Biol Lett | page=20130395 | last1 = Thompson | first1 = GJ | last2 = Hurd | first2 = PL | last3 = Crespi | first3 = BJ}}</ref> It is theorized that some of these genes influence altruistic behavior by modulating levels of neurotransmitters such as [[serotonin]] and [[dopamine]].
 
===Sociology===
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===Effective altruism===
{{See also|Effective altruism|Earning to give|Giving What We Can}}
[[Effective altruism]] is a [[philosophy]] and [[social movement]] that uses evidence and reasoning to determine the most effective ways to benefit others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=MacAskill |first1=William |title=Effective Altruism: Introduction |journal=Essays in Philosophy |date=2017 31 January 2017|volume=18 |issue=1|page=2 |doi=10.7710/1526-0569.1580|language=en|issn=1526-0569|url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:2af97b37-be3f-4b27-a28d-c23bc6e716dd |doi-access=free }}</ref> Effective altruism encourages individuals to consider all causes and actions and to act in the way that brings about the greatest positive impact, based upon their values.<ref name="vox">{{cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/4/24/8457895/givewell-open-philanthropy-charity|title = You have $8 billion. You want to do as much good as possible. What do you do?|last = Matthews|first = Dylan|author-link = Dylan Matthews|date = 24 April 2015|access-date = 27 April 2015|website = [[Vox (website)|Vox]]}}</ref> It is the broad, evidence-based, and cause-neutral approach that distinguishes effective altruism from traditional altruism or [[Charity (practice)|charity]].<ref name="bcg">{{cite web|last1=Bennett|first1=Nicole|last2=Carter|first2=Ashley|last3=Resney|first3=Romney|last4=Woods|first4=Wendy|title=How Tech Entrepreneurs Are Disrupting Philanthropy|url=https://www.bcgperspectives.com/content/articles/innovation-strategy-how-tech-entrepreneurs-are-disrupting-philanthropy/|website=BCG Perspectives|publisher=Boston Consulting Group|access-date= 11 March 2017}}</ref> Effective altruism is part of the larger movement towards [[evidence-based practices]].
 
While a substantial proportion of effective altruists have focused on the [[nonprofit sector]], the philosophy of effective altruism applies more broadly to prioritizing the scientific projects, companies, and policy initiatives which can be estimated to save lives, help people, or otherwise have the biggest benefit.<ref name="doing-good-better">{{cite book|last1=MacAskill|first1=William|title=Doing Good Better|date=2015|publisher=Avery|isbn=978-1-59240-910-5}}</ref> People associated with the movement include philosopher [[Peter Singer]],<ref name="blog.ted.com">{{cite web|last1=Walters|first1=Helen|title=The why and how of effective altruism: Peter Singer's talk visualized|url=http://blog.ted.com/why-how-effective-altruism-peter-singer-visualized/|website=TED Blog|date=19 September 2013}}</ref> Facebook co founder [[Dustin Moskovitz]],<ref name="Washington Post on Dustin Moskovitz and Cari Tuna">{{cite news | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/billionaire-couple-give-plenty-to-charity-but-they-do-quite-a-bit-of-homework/2014/12/26/19fae34c-86d6-11e4-b9b7-b8632ae73d25_story.html | title=Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy | date=26 December 2014 | agency=The Washington Post}}</ref> [[Cari Tuna]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.insidephilanthropy.com/tech-philanthropy/2013/9/12/meet-cari-tuna-the-woman-giving-away-dustin-moskovitzs-faceb.html|title=Meet Cari Tuna, the Woman Giving Away Dustin Moskovitz's Facebook Fortune|first=Favid|last=Callahan|work=Inside Philanthropy|date=12 September 2013|access-date=1 March 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]-based researchers [[William MacAskill]]<ref name="The Atlantic article The Greatest Good">{{cite news|last1=Thompson|first1=Derek|title=The Greatest Good|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/06/what-is-the-greatest-good/395768/#b06g25t20w15|work=The Atlantic|date=15 June 2015}}</ref> and [[Toby Ord]],<ref name="Peter Singer The Most Good You Can Do">{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NBWWX4ViD3E|website=YouTube|title=Peter Singer: "The Most Good You Can Do" &#124; Talks at Google}}</ref> and professional poker player [[Liv Boeree]].<ref>{{multiref2
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The term "pathological altruism" was popularised by the book ''[[Pathological Altruism]]''.
 
Examples include [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and [[Occupational burnout|burnout]] seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, hoarding of animals, and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid.<ref>{{cite bookjournal |urldoi=https10.1093/acprof:oso//global9780199738571.oup001.com/academic/product/pathological-altruism-9780199738571?cc=us&lang=en&|title=Pathological0001 Altruism|date=19 December 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-973857-1}}{{pn}}</ref>
Extreme altruism also known as costly altruism, extraordinary altruism, or heroic behaviours (shall be distinguished from [[Hero|heroism]]), refers to selfless acts directed to a stranger which significantly exceed the normal altruistic behaviours, often involving risks or great cost to the altruists themselves.<ref name=":0" /> Since acts of extreme altruism are often directed towards strangers, many commonly accepted models of simple altruism appear inadequate in explaining this phenomenon.<ref>{{Citecite journal |lastlast1=de Waal |firstfirst1=Frans B.M. |date=2008-01-01 |title=Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |languagedate=en1 January 2008 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=279–300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 |pmid=17550343 |issn=0066-4308}}</ref>
 
One of the initial concepts was introduced by Wilson in 1976, which he referred to as “hard-core” altruism.<ref>{{Citecite journal |lastlast1=Wilson |firstfirst1=John P. |date=December 1976 |title=Motivation, modeling, and altruism: A Person × Situation analysis. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.34.6.1078 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |languagedate=enDecember 1976 |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=1078–1086 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.34.6.1078 |issn=1939-1315}}</ref> This form is characterised by impulsive actions directed towards others, typically a stranger and lacking incentives for reward. Since then, several papers have mentioned the possibility of such altruism.<ref>{{Citecite journal |last1=Piliavin |first1=Jane Allyn |last2=Charng |first2=Hong-Wen |date=1990 |title=Altruism: A Review of Recent Theory and Research |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2083262 |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |date=1990 |volume=16 |pages=27–65 |doi=10.1146/annurev.so.16.080190.000331 |jstor=2083262 |issn=0360-0572}}</ref><ref>{{Citecite journal |lastlast1=Krebs |firstfirst1=Dennis L. |date=1991 |title=Altruism and Egoism: A False Dichotomy? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1449250 |journal=Psychological Inquiry |date=1991 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=137–139 |doi=10.1207/s15327965pli0202_9 |jstor=1449250 |issn=1047-840X}}</ref>
 
The current{{when|date=April 2024}} slow progress in the field is due to general ethical guidelines that restrict exposing research participants to costly or risky decisions.{{fact|date=April 2024}} Consequently, much research has based their studies on living organ donations and the actions of [[Carnegie Hero Fund|Carnegie Hero medal Recipients]], actions which involve high risk, high cost, and are of infrequent occurrences.{{fact|date=April 2024}} A typical example of extreme altruism would be non-directed kidney donation - a living person donating one of their kidneys to a stranger without any benefits or knowing the recipient.
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* Enhanced Fear Recognition
 
Abigail Marsh has described psychopaths as the “opposite” group of people to extreme altruists<ref name=":8">{{Citecite journal |lastlast1=Marsh |firstfirst1=Abigail A. |date=2016 |title=Understanding amygdala responsiveness to fearful expressions through the lens of psychopathy and altruism |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jnr.23668 |journal=Journal of Neuroscience Research |languagedate=enJune 2016 |volume=94 |issue=6 |pages=513–525 |doi=10.1002/jnr.23668 |pmid=26366635 |issn=0360-4012}}</ref> and has conducted a few research, comparing these two groups of individuals. Utilising techniques such as brain imaging and behavioural experiments, Marsh’s team observed that kidney donors tend to have larger amygdala sizes and exhibit better abilities in recognizing fearful expressions compared to psychopathic individuals.<ref name=":0" /> Furthermore, an improved ability to recognize fear has been associated with an increase in prosocial behaviours, including greater charity contribution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Abigail A. |last2=Kozak |first2=Megan N. |last3=Ambady |first3=Nalini |date=2007 |title=Accurate identification of fear facial expressions predicts prosocial behavior. |journal=Emotion |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=239–251 |doi=10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.239 |issn=1931-1516 |pmc=2743452 |pmid=17516803 }}</ref>
 
* Fast Decisions when Perform Acts of Extreme Altruism.
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=== Possible Explanations ===
Evolutionary theories such as the kin-selection, reciprocity, vested interest and punishment either contradict or do not fully explain the concept of extreme altruism.<ref name=":7">{{Citecite book |last=Barclay |first=Sara Kafashan, Adam Sparks, Amanda Rotella, Pat |editor-first1=Scott T. |editor-first2=George R. |editor-first3=Roderick M. |editor-last1=Allison |editor-last2=Goethals |editor-last3=Kramer |chapter=Why Heroism Exists: Evolutionary Perspectives on Extreme Helping |date=2016 |title=Handbook of Heroism and Heroic Leadership |chapter-url=https://eprints.kingston.ac.uk/id/eprint/48727/6/Rotella-A-48727-AAM.pdf |publisher=Routledgejournal |doi=10.4324/9781315690100 |isbn=978-1-315-69010-0}}{{pn}}</ref> As a result, considerable research has attempted for a separate explanation for this behaviour.  
 
* Costly Signalling Theory for Extreme Behaviours