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{{Speciesbox
| name = Azure-shouldered tanager
| image = Sanhaçu-de-encontro-azul (Thraupis cyanoptera) (cropped).jpg
| image_caption =
| status = NT
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn" />
| status_ref = <ref>{{cite iucn|author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year= 2017 |title= ''Tangara cyanoptera'' |amends= 2016 |page= e.T22722537A119488957 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T22722537A119488957.en |access-date=2 December 2023}}</ref>▼
| genus = Thraupis
| species = cyanoptera
| authority = ([[Louis Pierre Vieillot|Vieillot]], 1817)
| synonyms = * ''Saltator cyanopterus'' <small>[[Louis Pierre Vieillot|Vieillot]], 1817</small>
* ''Tangara cyanoptera'' <small>([[Louis Pierre Vieillot|Vieillot]], 1817)</small>
| range_map = Thraupis cyanoptera map.svg
}}
The '''azure-shouldered tanager''' ('''''Thraupis cyanoptera''''') is a [[species]] of bird in the tanager [[Family (biology)|family]], [[Thraupidae]]. [[Species description|Described]] by the French zoologist [[Louis Pierre Vieillot]] in 1817, it is [[Endemism|only found]] in the [[Atlantic Forest]] of southeastern Brazil, from southeastern [[Bahia]], eastern [[Minas Gerais]], and [[Espírito Santo]] south to northern [[Rio Grande do Sul]]. It inhabits humid [[montane forests]], open woodlands, [[Secondary forest|secondary growth]], and [[Woodland edge|forest edges]] and can be found at elevations of up to {{Cvt|1600|m|ft}}, but usually stays below {{Cvt|1200|m|ft}}.
The species feeds on fruit, flowers, and leaves. Its habit of [[Folivore|eating leaves]] is an unusual aspect of its diet. Foraging takes place in [[Mixed-species foraging flock|mixed-species]] or single species flocks of as many as 15–20 birds. Like other tanagers in southeastern Brazil, the azure-shouldered tanager's breeding season begins after the end of the dry season. Nests are generally built deep inside tangles of [[Epiphyte|epiphytic]] [[Bromeliaceae|bromeliads]] in trees. Eggs are laid in [[Clutch (eggs)|clutches]] of two and may be either pale blue some very dark purple spots or white with evenly spread-out small brown splotches. It is classified as being [[Near-threatened species|near threatened]] on the [[IUCN Red List]] due to its small population and ongoing habitat loss. Current threats to the species include urbanization, industrialization, agriculture, and the construction of roads.
== Taxonomy ==
The azure-shouldered tanager was originally [[Species description|described]] in 1817 as ''Saltator cyanopterus'' by the French zoologist [[Louis Pierre Vieillot]] on the basis of a specimen from [[Nova Friburgo|Nova Friburgo, Rio de Janeiro]].<ref name="Vieillot" /><ref name="Naumburg" /> The generic name ''[[Thraupis]]'' is derived from the Ancient Greek word ''thraupis'', a name for a small unidentified bird mentioned in the writings of [[Aristotle]]; in modern ornithology, it is used to denote tanagers. The [[specific epithet]] is from the Greek ''kuanopteros'', meaning 'dark-winged' or 'blue-winged'.<ref name="Helm" /> "Azure-shouldered tanager" is the official [[common name]] designated by the [[International Ornithologists' Union]] (IOU).<ref name="ioc" /> In [[Brazilian Portuguese]], the tanager is called {{Lang|pt|sanhaço-de-encontro-azul}}.<ref name="BOW" />
The IOU and [[Clements Checklist]] classify the azure-shouldered tanager in the [[genus]] ''Thraupis'', a group of seven [[Neotropical realm|Neotropical]] species in the tanager [[Family (biology)|family]], [[Thraupidae]].<ref name="ioc" /> The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) and [[BirdLife International]] instead place the species in the genus ''Tangara''.<ref name="iucn" /> A 2022 [[phylogenetic]] study of the genus found the azure-shouldered tanager to be the second-most [[Basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] species within ''Thraupis'', next to only the [[glaucous tanager]].<ref name="Cueva" />
== Description ==
The azure-shouldered tanager is a large, thick-billed tanager with an average length of {{Convert|18|cm|in|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} and a mass of {{Convert|41–46|g|oz|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}. Both sexes look alike. Adults are overall bluish in color, with gray-blue upperparts and heads, darker lores, and more bluish crowns. The throat and underparts are paler than the upper body, while the rump, uppertail coverts, and tail are bright blue. The flanks have a greenish wash. The upperwing-coverts are a rich, glossy violet-blue and the greater coverts are dark with wide turquoise-blue edges. The primary coverts and flight-feathers are also dusky broad turquoise fringes. The upper mandible of the bill is blackish, while the lower mandible is blue-gray. The iris is dark brown and legs are dark horn-gray. Juveniles are duller than adults.<ref name="BOW" />{{Gallery|Thraupis cyanoptera 342378715.jpg|Back view|Thraupis cyanoptera -Reserva Guainumbi, Sao Luis do Paraitinga, Sao Paulo, Brasil-8 (cropped).jpg|Frontal view|Sanhaçu-de-encontro-azul (tighter crop).jpg|Side view|align=center}}
=== Vocalizations ===
The azure-shouldered tanager's song very different from that of other ''Thraupis'' tanagers; it has an initial assortment of soft notes, followed by clear, musical ''jittle-jittle-jittle, jeeeyr-jurr'' notes. These notes are usually repeated twice or thrice and can also be transcribed as ''look heeere, right heeere, drink-drink-jrrr''. The song is initially complex and later becomes slower and more melodic. The species's calls include a thin ''sweee'' and several other squeaky notes.<ref name="BOW" />
== Distribution and habitat ==
The azure-shouldered tanager is [[Endemism|only found]] in the [[Atlantic Forest]] of southeastern Brazil,<ref name="Zima" /> from southeastern [[Bahia]], eastern [[Minas Gerais]], and [[Espírito Santo]] south to northern [[Rio Grande do Sul]]. It has been reported as far west as Paraguay, but these records are thought to represent misidentified sayaca tanagers. It prefers forested habitats more than other ''Thraupis'' tanagers and inhabits humid [[montane forests]], open woodlands, [[Secondary forest|secondary growth]], and [[Woodland edge|forest edges]].<ref name="BOW" /> On [[Santa Catarina Island]], it has also been recorded from orchards.<ref name="Naka" /> It is mainly found on the Atlantic slopes of [[Serra do Mar]]. The species can be found at elevations of up to {{Cvt|1600|m|ft}}, although it usually stays below {{Cvt|1200|m|ft}}. It is likely non-migratory, but may migrate in the far south of its distribution.<ref name="BOW" />
== Behavior and ecology ==
=== Diet ===
[[File:Thraupis cyanoptera 49393511.jpg|thumb|Feeding on a banana]]
Azure-shouldered tanagers are [[frugivorous]] and feed on fruit, flowers, and leaves.<ref name="BOW" /><ref name="Pacheco" /> Species consumed include ''[[Psychotria constricta]]'' and [[Psychotria velloziana|''P. velloziana'']],<ref name="Pacheco" /> the fruit of [[Melastomataceae|melastomes]], ''[[Livistona]]'' palms,<ref name="BOW" /> and ''[[Eugenia umbelliflora]]'',<ref name="Côrtes" /> flowers and leaves of ''[[Acnistus arborescens]]'' and ''Solanum'' species, and ''[[Sechium]]'' leaves. The species' habit of [[Folivore|eating leaves]] is an unusual aspect of its diet.<ref name="Pacheco" /> Like other tanagers, azure-shouldered tanagers will chew fruit and leave parts of the fruit below the tree; although they have small gapes, they will crush larger fruit externally, allowing them to eat fruit of a variety of sizes. A study of network organization in Brazilian Atlantic Forest found the azure-shouldered tanager to have the third-largest contribution to the [[network topology]], a fact that may be attributable to its highly frugivorous diet.<ref name="Vidal" /> A study of seed dispersal in ''E. umbelliflora'' found that although azure-shouldered tanagers are likely to move seeds to places that are favorable for [[germination]], they have a low probability of seed removal.<ref name="Côrtes" />
Foraging takes place in [[Mixed-species foraging flock|mixed-species]] or single species flocks of as many as 15–20 birds. The azure-shouldered tanager's foraging behavior is similar to to that of the sayaca tanager; foraging occurs in tall trees and, in Espírito Santo, in moss on large branches. The species is aggressive to sayaca tanagers.<ref name="BOW" />
=== Breeding ===
[[File:Thraupis cyanoptera nesting sites.png|thumb|Azure-shouldered tanagers nest in in tangles of [[Epiphyte|epiphytic]] [[Bromeliaceae|bromeliads]].|upright=0.8]]
[[File:Thraupis cyanoptera breeding collage.png|thumb|Collage showing azure-shouldered tanager's nest, eggs, and hatchlings]]
The azure-shouldered tanager's breeding season is similar to those of other tanagers in southeastern Brazil, all of which begin after the end of the dry season.<ref name="Zima" /> Breeding has been observed in October in [[Espírito Santo]] and in September in [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]].<ref name="Kirwan" /> In [[Carlos Botelho State Park]], São Paulo, nests have been found being constructed and with eggs in September and containing nestlings in October and November.<ref name="Zima" /> Both sexes bring grassy material and help construct the nest. Nests are generally built in tangles of [[Epiphyte|epiphytic]] [[Bromeliaceae|bromeliads]] in trees {{Convert|10 to 12|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall.<ref name="Zima" /><ref name="Kirwan" /> They are {{Convert|4.13–6|m|ft|abbr=on}} above the ground and are located deep inside the tangles, where nests are sheltered from light and rain. Azure-shouldered tanagers show some tolerance towards habitat disturbance near their nests and will sometimes build nests even in busy coastal cities.<ref name="Zima" />
Nests are shallow bottom-supported cups and are made mainly of long strips from dry bromeliad or other leaves. The rim of the nest is lined with thin vines and the nest chamber is lined with fine plant fibers, grass leaves, and occasionally black fungal [[hyphae]]. The exact material used to line the nests can vary slightly between individuals. Nest chambers in two measured nests had an outer diameter of {{Convert|13.8–15.4|cm|in|abbr=on}}, an inner diameter of {{Convert|6.7–7.2|cm|in|abbr=on}}, a depth of {{Convert|2.9–4.0|cm|in|abbr=on}}, and a height of {{Convert|5.3–7.6|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Zima" />
Eggs are laid in [[Clutch (eggs)|clutches]] of two. The first recorded descriptions of eggs mention them as being pale blue some very dark purple spots; however, modern descriptions have found eggs to be roughly elliptical in shape, with a white background marked with evenly spread-out small brown splotches. This discrepancy may be due to natural variation in egg background color, which is known in other ''Thraupis'' tanagers such as the sayaca tanager. Eggs have dimensions of {{Convert|28.0–29.9|mm|in|abbr=on}} by {{Convert|18.2–18.6|mm|in|abbr=on}} and a mass of {{Convert|4.5|g|oz|abbr=on}}. Nestlings have pink skin, gray down, yellow-brown bills, and swollen white flanges.<ref name="Zima" />
=== Parasites ===
Azure-shouldered tanagers are parasitized by the feather mite ''[[Amerodectes thraupicola]]'' and the [[Cestoda|cestode]] worm ''[[Anonchotaenia brasiliensis]]''.<ref name="Hernandes" /><ref name="Phillips" />
== Conservation ==
The azure-shouldered tanager is classified as being [[Near-threatened species|near threatened]] by the IUCN on the [[IUCN Red List]] due to its small population and ongoing habitat loss.<ref name="iucn" /> It has a small range, being found in the Atlantic Forest Lowlands [[Endemic Bird Area]], and is uncommon to locally common within this range. It is mainly a species of humid forest and is less adept at utilizing secondary forest and forest edges that other species in its genus, which has contributed to a large decline in its range.<ref name="BOW" /> Historically, the lowland forests this species inhabits were threatened by deforestation caused by agriculture, mining, and plantations. Current threats include urbanization, industrialization, agriculture, and the construction of roads.<ref name="iucn" /> Azure-shouldered tanagers have been recorded being [[Wildlife trade|traded illegally]] in Brazilian street markets in Rio de Janeiro.<ref name="Matias" /> The species' population is likely declining at a slow to moderate rate.<ref name="iucn" /> The azure-shouldered tanager occurs in several protected areas, including several [[National park (Brazil)|national parks]], [[State park (Brazil)|state parks]], and the [[Sooretama Biological Reserve]]. It may have a limited range outside these protected areas.<ref name="BOW" /> Recommended conservation measures for the species include documenting trends in its populations, documenting habitat loss, determining its tolerance for habitat degradation, and protecting suitable habitat.<ref name="iucn" />
== References ==▼
<ref name="BOW">{{Cite journal |last=Hilty |first=Steven |date=2020-03-04 |editor-last=Billerman |editor-first=Shawn M. |editor2-last=Keeney |editor2-first=Brooke K. |editor3-last=Rodewald |editor3-first=Paul G. |editor4-last=Schulenberg |editor4-first=Thomas S. |title=Azure-shouldered Tanager (''Thraupis cyanoptera'') |url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/azstan1/1.0/introduction |journal=Birds of the World |language=en |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology |doi=10.2173/bow.azstan1.01 |access-date=2024-04-12}}</ref>
<ref name="Côrtes">{{Cite journal |last=Côrtes |first=Marina Corrêa |last2=Cazetta |first2=Eliana |last3=Staggemeier |first3=Vanessa Graziele |last4=Galetti |first4=Mauro |date=2009 |title=Linking frugivore activity to early recruitment of a bird dispersed tree, ''Eugenia umbelliflora'' (Myrtaceae) in the Atlantic rainforest |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1442-9993.2009.01926.x |journal=Austral Ecology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=256 |doi=10.1111/j.1442-9993.2009.01926.x |issn=1442-9985}}</ref>
<ref name="Cueva">{{Cite journal |last=Cueva |first=Diego |last2=Bravo |first2=Gustavo A. |last3=Silveira |first3=Luís Fábio |date=2022-10-05 |editor-last=Chiang |editor-first=Tzen-Yuh |title=Systematics of ''Thraupis'' (Aves, Passeriformes) reveals an extensive hybrid zone between ''T. episcopus'' (Blue-gray Tanager) and ''T. sayaca'' (Sayaca Tanager) |url=https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0270892 |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=17 |issue=10 |pages=e0270892 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0270892 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=PMC9534438 |pmid=36197923}}</ref>
<ref name="Helm">{{Cite book |last=Jobling |first=James A. |title=Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names |publisher=[[Christopher Helm]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4081-3326-2 |location=London |pages=127, 385 |language=en}}</ref>
<ref name="Hernandes">{{Cite journal |last=Hernandes |first=Fabio A. |date=2021-12-07 |title=New records of feather mites (Sarcoptiformes: Proctophyllodidae) on tanagers (Passeriformes: Thraupidae) from Brazil |url=https://www.entomologicalcommunications.org/index.php/entcom/article/view/ec03039 |journal=Entomological Communications |volume=3 |pages=1 |doi=10.37486/2675-1305.ec03039 |issn=2675-1305}}</ref>
<ref name="ioc">{{cite web |date=December 2023 |editor1-last=Gill |editor1-first=Frank |editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) |editor2-last=Donsker |editor2-first=David |editor3-last=Rasmussen |editor3-first=Pamela |editor3-link=Pamela Rasmussen |title=Tanagers and allies |url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/tanagers/ |access-date=24 April 2024 |work=IOC World Bird List Version 14.1 |publisher=International Ornithologists' Union}}</ref>
▲
<ref name="Kirwan">{{Cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=Guy M. |date=2009 |title=Notes on the breeding ecology and seasonality of some Brazilian birds |url=http://www.revbrasilornitol.com.br/BJO/article/view/3607 |journal=Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=133}}</ref>
<ref name="Matias">{{Cite journal |last=Matias |first=C. A. R. |last2=Oliveira |first2=V. M. |last3=Rodrigues |first3=D. P. |last4=Siciliano |first4=S. |date=2012 |title=Summary of the bird species seized in the illegal trade in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil |url=https://www.traffic.org/site/assets/files/2998/traffic_pub_bulletin_24_2.pdf |journal=TRAFFIC Bulletin |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=84}}</ref>
<ref name="Naka">{{Cite journal |last=Naka |first=Luciano N. |last2=Rodrigues |first2=Marcos |last3=Roos |first3=Andrei L. |last4=Azevedo |first4=Marcos A. G. |date=2001 |title=Bird conservation on Santa Catarina Island, Southern Brazil |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0959270902002083/type/journal_article |journal=Bird Conservation International |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=129 |doi=10.1017/S0959270902002083 |issn=0959-2709}}</ref>
<ref name="Naumburg">{{Cite journal |last=Naumburg |first=E. M. B. |date=1924 |title=''Thraupis sayaca'' and its allies |url=https://academic.oup.com/auk/article/41/1/105-116/5268674 |journal=The Auk |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=112 |doi=10.2307/4074092}}</ref>
<ref name="Pacheco">{{Cite journal |last=Pacheco |first=Fernando |last2=Parrini |first2=Ricardo |last3=Kirwan |first3=Guy M. |last4=Alves Serpa |first4=Guilherme |date=2014 |title=Birds of Vale das Taquaras region, Nova Friburgo, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil: checklist with historical and trophic approach |journal=Cotinga |volume=36 |pages=87–88}}</ref>
<ref name="Phillips">{{Cite journal |last=Phillips |first=Anna J. |last2=Georgiev |first2=Boyko B. |last3=Waeschenbach |first3=Andrea |last4=Mariaux |first4=Jean |date=2014-10-30 |title=Two new and two redescribed species of ''Anonchotaenia'' (Cestoda: Paruterinidae) from South American birds |url=http://folia.paru.cas.cz/doi/10.14411/fp.2014.058.html |journal=Folia Parasitologica |volume=61 |issue=5 |pages=454 |doi=10.14411/fp.2014.058}}</ref>
<ref name="Vidal">{{Cite journal |last=Vidal |first=Mariana M. |last2=Hasui |first2=Erica |last3=Pizo |first3=Marco A. |last4=Tamashiro |first4=Jorge Y. |last5=Silva |first5=Wesley R. |last6=Guimarães |first6=Paulo R. |date=2014 |title=Frugivores at higher risk of extinction are the key elements of a mutualistic network |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/13-1584.1 |journal=Ecology |language=en |volume=95 |issue=12 |pages=3444–3445 |doi=10.1890/13-1584.1 |issn=0012-9658}}</ref>
<ref name="Vieillot">{{Cite book |last=Vieillot |first=Louis Pierre |author-link=Louis Pierre Vieillot |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/18059070 |title=Nouveau dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle, appliquée aux arts, à l'agriculture, à l'économie rurale et domestique, à la médecine, etc |date=1816 |publisher=Chez Deterville |volume=14 |location=Paris |pages=104 |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.20211}}</ref>
<ref name="Zima">{{Cite journal |last=Zima |first=Paulo Victor Queijo |last2=Perrella |first2=Daniel Fernandes |last3=Francisco |first3=Mercival Roberto |date=2019 |title=First nest description of the Azure-shouldered Tanager (''Thraupis cyanoptera'', Thraupidae) |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF03544456 |journal=Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia |language=en |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=122–125 |doi=10.1007/BF03544456 |issn=2178-7875 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
}}
▲==References==
{{Commons category}}
▲{{Reflist}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q2193716}}
[[Category:Thraupis
[[Category:Birds of the Atlantic Forest]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1817
[[Category:Taxa named by Louis Pierre Vieillot]]
[[Category:Taxonomy articles created by Polbot]]
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