Bhakti yoga: Difference between revisions

{{Short description|OneDevotional of three classical pathspath to moksha in Hinduism}}

'''Bhakti yoga''' ({{lang-sa|भक्ति योग}}), also called '''Bhakti marga''' ({{lang|sa|भक्ति मार्ग}}, literally the path of ''[[Bhaktibhakti]]''), is a spiritual path or [[spiritual practice]] within Hinduism focused on loving devotion towards any [[Personal god#Hinduism|personal deity]].<ref name=karen19>Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, pages 19-24</ref><ref name="Cutler">{{cite book|last=Cutler|first=Norman|title=Songs of Experience|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1987|pages=1–2|isbn=978-0-253-35334-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=veSItWingx8C&pg=PA1}}</ref> It is one of the [[Three Yogas|three classical paths]] in Hinduism which lead to ''[[Mokshamoksha]]'', the other paths being [[Jnanajnana yoga]] and [[Karmakarma yoga]].

The tradition has ancient roots. Bhakti is mentioned in the ''[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]]'' where it simply means participation, devotion and love for any endeavor.<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 326</ref><ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/266/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, page 267</ref> ''Bhakti yoga'' as one of three spiritual paths for salvation is discussed in depth by the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.<ref>John Lochtefeld (2014), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing New York, {{ISBN|978-0823922871}}, pages 98-100, also see articles on bhaktimārga and jnanamārga</ref><ref name="Klostermaier">{{cite book|last=Klostermaier|first=Klaus|author-link=Klaus Klostermaier|title=A survey of Hinduism|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1989|pages=210–212|isbn=978-0-88706-807-2}}</ref><ref>Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, pages 14-15, 37-38</ref>

The ''Bhaktibhakti marga'' involving these deities grew with the ''[[Bhaktibhakti Movementmovement]]'', starting about the mid-1st millennium CE, from [[Tamil Nadu]] in South India. The movement was led by the Saiva [[Nayanars]]<ref name="Embree">{{cite book|last=Embree|first=Ainslie Thomas | author-link=Ainslie Embree|author2=Stephen N. Hay |author3=William Theodore De Bary |title=Sources of Indian Tradition|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1988|pages=342|isbn=978-0-231-06651-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=An5mD6KMiSIC&pg=PA342}}</ref> and the Vaisnava [[Alvars]]. Their ideas and practices inspired bhakti poetry and devotion throughout India over the 12th-18th century CE.<ref name="Flood">{{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1996|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/131 131]|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Embree" /> Bhakti marga is a part of the religious practice in [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaivism]], and [[Shaktism]].<ref name="Rinehart">{{cite book|last=Rinehart|first=Robin|title=Contemporary Hinduism: ritual, culture, and practice|year=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|pages=45, 51|isbn=978-1-57607-905-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMPYnfS_R90C&pg=PA51}}</ref><ref name="Brannigan2010p18" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Samrat S Kumar|title=Bhakti – The Yoga of Love: Trans-Rational Approaches to Peace Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RzA3oAAHAQIC|year=2010|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-643-50130-1|pages=35–37 with footnotes}}</ref>

[[File:(A) Hindu in midst of puja in Himachal Pradesh India.jpg|upright|thumb|left|Bhakti yoga by a Hindu in [[Himachal Pradesh]].]]

The term ''yoga'' literally means "union, yoke", and in this context connotes a path or practice for "salvation, liberation".<ref name="Brannigan2010p18" /> The ''yoga'' referred to here is the "joining together, union" of one's ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'' (true self) with the concept of Supreme ''[[Brahman]]'' (true Reality).<ref name="Brannigan2010p18" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Prabhupada|first=His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami|title=Bhagavad Gita Chapter 14 Verse 27|url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/bg/14/27/|access-date=2020-07-25|website=vedabase.io|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Prabhupada|first=His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami|title=Bhagavad Gita Chapter 18 Verse 54|url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/bg/18/54/|access-date=2020-07-25|website=vedabase.io|language=en}}</ref>

Bhakti yoga is one of three ''yoga''yogas taught in ''Bhagavad Gita''.<ref name="Brannigan2010p18" /> ''Bhakti yoga'' is a devotee's loving devotion to a personal god as the path for spirituality.<ref name=bishop47 /> The other two paths are ''jnana yoga'' and ''karma'' yoga. ''Jnana'' yoga is the path of wisdom where the individual pursues knowledge and introspective self-understanding as spiritual practice, and ''karma yoga'' is the path of virtuous action (karma) where one acts without expecting rewards or consequences, also known as ''[[Nishkama Karma|nishkama karma]]''.<ref name="Brannigan2010p18">{{cite book|author=Michael C. Brannigan|title=Striking a Balance: A Primer in Traditional Asian Values|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=axvPxswqNLQC&pg=PA18| year=2010| publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7391-3846-5|pages=18–22}}</ref><ref name=bishop47>{{cite book|author=Gordon S. Wakefield|title=The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ga815P6vxygC&pg=PA46|year=1983|publisher=WJK Press|isbn=978-0-664-22170-6|pages=46–47}}</ref> Later, new movements within Hinduism added [[raja yoga]] as the fourth spiritual path, but this is not universally accepted as distinct to other three.<ref>{{cite book|author=Roderick Hindery|title=Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-FswBLvTkvQC |year=1978|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0866-9|pages=26–27}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=George D. Chryssides|title=Historical Dictionary of New Religious Movements|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WA12nHRtmAwC |year=2012|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-6194-7|page=285}}</ref>

The ''Bhagavata Purana'' is a popular and influential text in the Vaishnavism traditions, and. itIt discusses [[Ishvara]] pranidhana (devotion to a personal god).<ref name="Bryant2017" /> The Sanskrit text presents various modes of bhakti specifically to incarnations of [[Vishnu]], particularly in terms of "Narayana, Krishna". According to Edwin Bryant, and other scholars,<ref>{{cite book|author=Lloyd Pflueger|editor=Knut A. Jacobsen|title=Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jPK2spNnwm4C&pg=PA36|year=2008|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-3232-9|pages=36–44}}</ref> the Bhakti yoga taught in this text is inspired by ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]]'' and ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', and they focus on "the ultimate truths of the individual self and its loving relationship with a personal god".<ref name="Bryant2017" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Gregor Maehle|title=Ashtanga Yoga: Practice and Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f9ygWu2xM3QC&pg=PA160|year=2011|publisher=New World Library|isbn=978-1-57731-986-3|pages=160–163}}</ref> The presentation in the ''Bhagavata Purana'' is not in abstract terms, but through "charming and delightful tales that capture the heart and mind", the goal of Bhakti yoga, states Bryant.<ref name="Bryant2017">{{cite book|author=Edwin F. Bryant|title=Bhakti Yoga: Tales and Teachings from the Bhagavata Purana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2c-_DQAAQBAJ|year=2017|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=978-0-374-71439-0|pages=1–7}}</ref>

The [[Hamsa Gita|Uddhava Gita]], which is the eleventh book of the Bhagavata Purana, discusses bhakti through a dialogue between Lord Krishna and [[Uddhava]], his devotee. This text highlights the pure devotion and bhakti that the [[Gopi|gopis]] of [[Vrindavan]] had for Lord Krishna.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rosen |first=Steven |title=Krishna's Other Song |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-313-38326-7 |location=Santa Barbara, California}}</ref>

Hinduism, in its scriptures such as chapter 7 of the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' (chapter 7), recognizes four kinds of devotees who practice Bhakti yoga.<ref name=grimes84 /><ref name="Malpan1992p147">{{cite book|author=Varghese Malpan|title=A Comparative Study of the Bhagavad-gītā and the Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius of Loyola on the Process of Spiritual Liberation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cSy_BSaO2BwC&pg=PA149|year=1992|publisher=GBP|isbn=978-88-7652-648-0|pages=147–152}}</ref><ref name="Hawley2011p71">{{cite book|author=Jack Hawley|title=The Bhagavad Gita: A Walkthrough for Westerners |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nfe_tgzvbg0C&pg=PA71 |year=2011|publisher=New World Library|isbn=978-1-60868-057-3|pages=71–73}}</ref> Some practice it because they are hard pressed or stressed by anxiety or their life's circumstances and see Bhakti yoga as a form of relief. The second type practice Bhakti yoga to learn about god out of curiosity and intellectual intrigue. The third type seek rewards in this or in afterlife through their Bhakti yoga. The fourth are those who love god driven by pure love, knowing and seeking nothing beyond that experience of love union.<ref name=grimes84>{{cite book|author=John A. Grimes|title=A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qcoUFYOX0bEC|year=1996|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-3067-5|page=84}}</ref><ref name="Malpan1992p147" />

The [[Shaiva Siddhanta|Śaivasiddhānta]] tradition favors Bhakti yoga, emphasizing loving devotion to Shiva.{{Sfn|Mariasusai Dhavamony|1971|pp=14-22, 257-258}}<ref>{{cite book|author=P. Arunachalam|title=Polonnaruwa Bronzes and Siva Worship and Symbolism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s09kLczxYhkC&pg=PA22|year=2004|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1929-6|page=22}}</ref> Its theology presents three universal realities: the ''pashu'' (individual soul), the ''pati'' (lord, Shiva), and the ''pasha'' (soul's bondage) through ignorance, [[karma]] and [[maya (illusion)|maya]]. The tradition teaches ethical living, service to the community and through one's work, loving worship, yoga practice and discipline, continuous learning and self-knowledge as means for liberating the individual soul from bondage.<ref name=britshaivasiddhanta>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaiva-siddhanta Shaiva Siddhanta], Encyclopedia Britannica (2014)</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=S Parmeshwaranand|title=Encyclopaedia of the Śaivism|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HQvbJDacNDMC|year=2004|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-7625-427-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HQvbJDacNDMC/page/n216 210]–217}}</ref>

The historic Shaiva Siddhanta literature is an enormous body of texts.{{sfn| Sanderson|1988|pp=668-669}} The Shaiva Siddhanta practices have focussed on abstract ideas of spirituality,{{sfn|Sanderson|1988|pp=668-669}} worship and loving devotion to Shiva as SadaShiva, and taught the authority of the Vedas and Shaiva Agamas.{{sfn|Hilko Wiardo Schomerus|2000|pp=1–7, 29-37, 44-49}}<ref>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA375|year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|pages=375–376}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rohan A. Dunuwila|title=Śaiva Siddhānta Theology: A Context for Hindu-Christian Dialogue|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cDsdAAAAMAAJ|year=1985|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-0-89581-675-7|pages=29–30, 66–73}}</ref>

Bhakti oftoward the goddess is another significant tradition, one found in [[Shaktism]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Laura Amazzone|title=Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PM_TNDu8NHUC&pg=PA45|year=2012|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=978-0-7618-5314-5|pages=45–51}}</ref> The theology of oneness and unity of "the divine Goddess and the devotee", their eternal fearless love for each other is a theme found in ''Devi Gita'', a text embedded inside the ''[[Devi-Bhagavata Purana]]''. The specific Bhakti yoga practices amongst Shakta are similar to those in other traditions of Hinduism.<ref>{{cite book|author=C. Mackenzie Brown|title=The Devi Gita: The Song of the Goddess: A Translation, Annotation, and Commentary|date=11 September 1998|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HZVhvra-n9wC |publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-9773-9|pages=208–210}}</ref><ref name="McDaniel2004p11">{{cite book|author=June McDaniel|title=Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=caeJpIj9SdkC&pg=PA11 |year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-534713-5|pages=11–13, 209–221, 265–266}}</ref> The Shakta devotion is common in eastern states of India, particularly [[West Bengal]]. The personal god here varies, and includes [[Durga]], [[Tara (Buddhism)|Tara Ma]] (Buddhist influence), [[Kali]] and to a lesser extent [[Saraswati]], [[Lakshmi]], [[Bharat Mata]] (land goddess), according to June McDaniel.<ref name="McDaniel2004p11" />

[[File:Meerabai (crop).jpg|upright|thumb|[[Meera]]bai is considered one of the most significant saints in the [[Vaishnava]] bhakti tradition.<ref name=smpandey>SM Pandey (1965), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1061803 Mīrābāī and Her Contributions to the Bhakti Movement], History of Religions, Vol. 5, No. 1, pages 54-73</ref>]]

<blockquote> (1) ''śravaṇa'' ("listening" to the scriptural stories of Krishna and his companions), (2) ''[[Kirtan|kīrtana]]'' ("praising"; usually refers to ecstatic group singing), (3) ''smaraṇa'' ("remembering" or fixing the mind on Vishnu), (4) ''pāda-sevana'' (rendering service), (5) ''arcana'' (worshiping an image), (6) ''vandana'' (paying homage), (7) ''dāsya'' (servitude), (8) ''sākhya'' (friendship), and (9) ''ātma-nivedana'' (complete surrender of the self).''</blockquote>

These nine principles of devotional service were incorporated by [[Rupa Goswami]] linked to [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] as integral to spiritual practice focused on Krishna.<ref name="Halberman" /> The gopis practiced these forms of bhakti when they were separated from Shri Krishna.<ref name="Halberman" />

* ''[[Narada Bhakti Sutra]]''

=== BibliographyWorks cited ===

* {{cite book|authorfirst=Mariasusai |last=Dhavamony|title=Love of God according to Śaiva Siddhānta: a study in the mysticism and theology of Śaivism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tD8qAAAAYAAJ|year=1971|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-826523-8}}

* {{cite book|authorfirst=JeaneaneHilko D.Wiardo Fowler|last=Schomerus|title=PerspectivesŚaiva Siddhānta: An Indian School of realityMystical Thought : anPresented introductionas toa System and Documented from the philosophyOriginal ofTamil Sources Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJbsAAAAIAAJ|year=20022000|publisher=SussexMotilal AcademicBanarsidass Press|isbn=978-181-898723208-931569-68}}