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The '''Centennial International Exhibition''',
It was held in [[Fairmount Park]] along the [[Schuylkill River]] on fairgrounds designed by [[Herman J. Schwarzmann]]. Nearly 10 million visitors attended the exposition, and 37 countries participated in it.
== Precursor ==
[[File:Great Sanitary Fair 1864.jpg
[[Image:Joseph Roswell Hawley - Brady-Handy.jpg
The [[Great Central Fair]] on Logan Square in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1864 (also known as the Great Sanitary Fair), was one of the many [[United States Sanitary Commission]]'s [[Sanitary Fair]]s held during the Civil War. They provided a creative and communal means for ordinary citizens to promote the welfare of Union soldiers and dedicate themselves to the survival of the nation, and the Great Central Fair bolstered [[Philadelphia in the American Civil War|Philadelphia's role as a vital center]] in the Union war effort. It anticipated the combination of public, private, and commercial investments that were necessary to mount the Centennial Exposition. Both had a similar [[Gothic Revival architecture|neo-Gothic]] appearance, the waving flags, the huge central hall, the "curiosities" and relics, handmade and industrial exhibits, and also a visit from the president and his family.▼
[[Image:Centennial Board of Finance 1875.jpg|thumb|
The [[Great Central Fair]] on [[Logan Square, Philadelphia|Logan Square]] in [[Philadelphia]], in 1864, also known as the Great Sanitary Fair, was one of the many [[United States Sanitary Commission]]'s [[Sanitary Fair]]s held during the [[American Civil War]].
▲The
== Planning==
The idea of the Centennial Exposition is credited to John L. Campbell, a professor of mathematics, [[natural philosophy]], and astronomy at [[Wabash College]]
The [[Franklin Institute]] became an early supporter of the exposition and asked the [[Philadelphia City Council]] for use of [[Fairmount Park]]. With reference to the numerous events of national importance that were held in the past and related to the city of Philadelphia, the City Council resolved in January 1870 to hold the Centennial Exposition in the city in 1876.{{Citation needed|date=December 2015}}
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The Philadelphia City Council and the [[Pennsylvania General Assembly]] created a committee to study the project and seek support of the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]]. Congressman [[William D. Kelley]] spoke for the city and state, and [[Daniel Johnson Morrell]] introduced a [[Bill (proposed law)|bill]] to create a United States Centennial Commission. The bill, which passed on March 3, 1871, provided that the U.S. government would not be liable for any expenses.
The United States Centennial Commission organized on March 3, 1872, with [[Joseph Roswell Hawley|Joseph R. Hawley]] of [[Connecticut]] as president. The Centennial Commission's commissioners included one representative from each state and territory in the United States.<ref name="images7" /> On June 1, 1872, Congress created a Centennial Board of Finance to help raise money. The board's president was [[John Welsh (diplomat)|John Welsh]], brother of philanthropist William Welsh, who had raised funds for the Great Sanitary Fair in 1864.<ref name="history460" /> The board was authorized to sell up to $10 million in stock via $10 shares. The board sold $1,784,320 (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|1784320|1873|r=0}}}} today{{when|date=July 2024}}{{Inflation-fn|US}}) worth of shares by February 22, 1873. Philadelphia contributed $1.5 million and Pennsylvania gave $1 million. On February 11, 1876, Congress appropriated $1.5 million in a loan.
▲[[Image:Joseph Roswell Hawley - Brady-Handy.jpg|left|upright|thumb|Joseph R. Hawley]]
▲[[Image:Centennial Board of Finance 1875.jpg|thumb|Stock certificate for five $10 shares issued by the Centennial Board of Finance]]
The
In 1873, the Centennial Commission named [[Alfred T. Goshorn]] as the director general of the Exposition. The Fairmount Park Commission set aside {{convert|450|acre|km2}} of West Fairmount Park for the exposition, which was dedicated on July 4, 1873,<ref name="history461" /> by [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]] [[George M. Robeson]]. The Commission decided to classify the exhibits into seven departments: agriculture, art, education and science, horticulture, machinery, manufactures, and mining and metallurgy. Newspaper publisher [[John W. Forney]] agreed to head and pay for a Philadelphia commission sent to Europe to invite nations to exhibit at the exposition. Despite fears of a European boycott and [[Tariffs in United States history|high American tariff]]s making foreign goods not worthwhile, no European country declined the invitation.<ref name="history462">''Philadelphia: A 300-Year History'', p. 462</ref>
To accommodate out-of-town visitors, temporary [[hotel]]s were constructed near the exposition's grounds. A Centennial Lodging-House Agency made a list of rooms in hotels, [[boarding house]]s, and private homes and then sold tickets for the available rooms in cities promoting the Centennial or on trains heading for Philadelphia. [[Philadelphia streetcars]] increased service, and the [[Pennsylvania Railroad]] ran special trains from Philadelphia's [[Market Street (Philadelphia)|Market Street]], [[New York City]], [[
Philadelphia passed an ordinance that authorized Mayor William S. Stokley to appoint 500 men as Centennial Guards for the exposition. Among soldiers and local men hired by the city was [[Frank Geyer]], best known for investigating one of America's first serial killers, [[H. H. Holmes]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Pennsylvania and the Centennial Exposition: Comprising the Preliminary and Final Reports of the Pennsylvania Board of Centennial Managers Made to the Legislature at the Sessions of 1877–8 |last=Pennsylvania Board of Centennial Managers |publisher=Gillan & Nagle |year=1878 |location=Pennsylvania |pages=97–99}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Detective in the White City: The Real Story of Frank Geyer |last=Crighton |first=JD |publisher=RW Publishing House |year=2017 |isbn=9781946100023 |location=Murrieta, CA |pages=28–29}}</ref> Centennial Guards policed exhibits, kept the peace, reunited lost children, and received, recorded, and when possible, returned lost items, the most unusual of which were front hair pieces and false teeth.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Pennsylvania and the Centennial Exposition: Comprising the Preliminary and Final Reports of the Pennsylvania Board of Centennial Managers Made to the Legislature at the Sessions of 1877–8 |last=Pennsylvania Board of Centennial Managers |publisher=Gillan & Nagle |year=1878 |location=Pennsylvania |pages=98}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Detective in the White City: The Real Story of Frank Geyer |last=Crighton |first=JD |publisher=RW Publishing House |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-946100-02-3 |location=Murrieta, CA |pages=29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Memorial of the International Exhibition |last=Burr |first=Samuel |publisher=L. Stebbins |year=1877 |location=Hartford, CT |pages=757–59
Guards were required to live onsite and were housed at six police stations strategically located throughout the Exposition. A magistrate's office and courtroom were located at the only two-story police station located on the grounds and was used to conduct prisoner hearings. Officers slept in cramped quarters, which fostered health issues. Eight guards died while working the Exposition, six from [[typhoid fever]], one from [[smallpox]], and one from organic disease of the heart.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Illustrated History of the Centennial Exposition Held in Commemoration of the One Hundredth Anniversary of American Independence |last=McCabe |first=James D. |publisher=The National Publishing Company |year=1876 |location=Philadelphia, PA |pages=620}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Detective in the White City: The Real Story of Frank Geyer |last=Crighton |first=JD |publisher=RW Publishing House |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-946100-02-3 |location=Murrieta, CA |pages=29–30}}</ref>
The [[Centennial National Bank]] was chartered on January 19, 1876, to be the "financial agent of the board at the Centennial Exhibition, receiving and accounting for daily receipts, changing foreign moneys into current funds, etc.," according to an article three days later in ''[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]]''. Its main branch, designed by [[Frank Furness]], was opened that April on the southeast corner of [[Market Street (Philadelphia)|Market Street]] and 32nd Street. A branch office operated during the exposition on the fairgrounds.<ref name="brynmawr2">{{Cite web |url=http://www.brynmawr.edu/iconog/uphp/AABN/centbank/centbank.html |title=Centennial National Bank |access-date=2010-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100606200738/http://www.brynmawr.edu/iconog/uphp/AABN/centbank/centbank.html |archive-date=2010-06-06 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The Centennial Commission ran out of funds for printing and other expenses.
▲Philadelphia passed an ordinance that authorized Mayor William S. Stokley to appoint 500 men as Centennial Guards for the exposition. Among soldiers and local men hired by the city was [[Frank Geyer]], best known for investigating one of America's first serial killers, [[H. H. Holmes]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pennsylvania and the Centennial Exposition: Comprising the Preliminary and Final Reports of the Pennsylvania Board of Centennial Managers Made to the Legislature at the Sessions of 1877–8|last=Pennsylvania Board of Centennial Managers|publisher=Gillan & Nagle|year=1878|location=Pennsylvania|pages=97–99}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Detective in the White City: The Real Story of Frank Geyer|last=Crighton|first=JD|publisher=RW Publishing House|year=2017|isbn=9781946100023|location=Murrieta, CA|pages=28–29}}</ref> Centennial Guards policed exhibits, kept the peace, reunited lost children, and received, recorded, and when possible, returned lost items, the most unusual of which were front hair pieces and false teeth.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pennsylvania and the Centennial Exposition: Comprising the Preliminary and Final Reports of the Pennsylvania Board of Centennial Managers Made to the Legislature at the Sessions of 1877–8|last=Pennsylvania Board of Centennial Managers|publisher=Gillan & Nagle|year=1878|location=Pennsylvania|pages=98}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Detective in the White City: The Real Story of Frank Geyer|last=Crighton|first=JD|publisher=RW Publishing House|year=2017|isbn=978-1-946100-02-3|location=Murrieta, CA|pages=29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Memorial of the International Exhibition|last=Burr|first=Samuel|publisher=L. Stebbins|year=1877|location=Hartford, CT|pages=757–59}}</ref> Guards were required to live onsite and were housed at six police stations strategically located throughout the Exposition. A magistrate's office and courtroom were located at the only two-story police station located on the grounds and was used to conduct prisoner hearings. Officers slept in cramped quarters, which fostered health issues. Eight guards died while working the Exposition, six from [[typhoid fever]], one from [[smallpox]], and one from organic disease of the heart.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Illustrated History of the Centennial Exposition Held in Commemoration of the One Hundredth Anniversary of American Independence|last=McCabe|first=James D.|publisher=The National Publishing Company|year=1876|location=Philadelphia, PA|pages=620}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Detective in the White City: The Real Story of Frank Geyer|last=Crighton|first=JD|publisher=RW Publishing House|year=2017|isbn=978-1-946100-02-3|location=Murrieta, CA|pages=29–30}}</ref>
==Herman J. Schwarzmann==
[[Herman J. Schwarzmann]], an engineer for the Fairmount Park Commission, was appointed the main designer of the exposition. In 1869, Schwarzmann
At the Vienna Exposition, there was no convenient way for visitors to reach the fairgrounds, and exorbitant rates were charged by carriage drivers. Drawing lessons from this failure, the Philadelphia
==Structures==
[[File:International Exhibition map-The Adams & Westlake non explosive oil stove. No. 2 Stove - The Adams & Westlake Stove for 1882 is a complete change from all former patterns. (back).jpg|thumb|Map of the
More than 200 buildings were constructed within the
The Centennial Commission sponsored a [[Architectural design competition|design competition]] for the principal buildings, conducted in two rounds; winners of the first round had to have details such as construction cost and time prepared for the runoff on September 20, 1873. After the ten design winners were chosen, it was determined that none of them allowed enough time for construction and limited finances.{{citation needed|date = November 2015}}
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=== Main Exhibition Building ===
[[File:MainBuilding.jpg|thumb|
[[File:1876FairMainBldgGrandStandW.jpg|thumb|
The Centennial Commission turned to third-place winner's architect Henry Pettit and engineer [[Wilson Brothers & Company|Joseph M. Wilson]] for design and construction of the Main Exhibition Building. A temporary structure, the Main Building was the largest building in the world by area, enclosing {{
It was constructed using [[Prefabrication|prefabricated]] parts, with a wood and iron frame resting on a substructure of 672 stone piers.
▲The Centennial Commission turned to third-place winner's architect Henry Pettit and engineer [[Wilson Brothers & Company|Joseph M. Wilson]] for design and construction of the Main Exhibition Building. A temporary structure, the Main Building was the largest building in the world by area, enclosing {{convert|21.5|acre|m2|abbr=on}}.<ref name="history462" /> It measured {{convert|464|feet|m|abbr=on}} in width and {{convert|1880|feet|m|abbr=on}} in length.
▲It was constructed using [[Prefabrication|prefabricated]] parts, with a wood and iron frame resting on a substructure of 672 stone piers. Wrought iron roof trusses were supported by the columns of the superstructure.
The building took eighteen months to complete and cost $1,580,000. The building was surrounded by portals on all four sides. The east entrance of the building was used as an access way for carriages, and the south entrance of the building served as a primary entrance to the building for streetcars. The north side related the building to the Art Gallery and the west side served as a passageway to the Machinery and Agricultural Halls.
In the Main Exhibition Building, columns were placed at a uniform distance of {{
The orientation of the building was
The structure of the building featured a central avenue with a series of parallel sheds that were {{
The exterior of the building featured four towers, each {{
Within the building, exhibits were arranged in a grid, in a dual arrangement of type and national origin. Exhibits from the United States were placed in the center of the building, and foreign exhibits were arranged around the center, based on the nation's distance from the United States. Exhibits inside the Main Exhibition Building dealt with [[mining]], [[metallurgy]], [[manufacturing]], education, and science.<ref>''Philadelphia's 1876 Centennial Exhibition'', pp. 29–30</ref> Offices for foreign commissioners were placed in proximity to the products exhibited along in the aisles along the sides of the building. The walkways leading to the exit doors were ten feet wide.
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=== Agricultural Hall ===
The third-largest structure at the exposition was Agricultural Hall. Designed by [[James H. Windrim]], Agricultural Hall was {{
=== Horticultural Hall ===
[[File:Horticultural Hall, from Robert N. Dennis collection of stereoscopic views 3.jpg|thumb|
Situated high atop a hill presiding over Fountain Avenue, Horticultural Hall epitomized floral achievement, which attracted professional and amateur gardeners. Unlike the other main buildings, it was meant to be permanent. Horticultural Hall had an iron and glass frame on a brick and marble foundation and was {{
Inside, nurserymen, florists, and landscape architects exhibited a variety of tropical plants, garden equipment, and garden plans. In dramatic fashion, the exposition introduced the general public to the notion of landscape design, as exemplified the building itself and the grounds surrounding it. A long, sunken parterre leading to Horticultural Hall became the exposition's iconic floral feature, reproduced on countless postcards and other memorabilia. This sunken garden enabled visitors on the raised walkways to see the patterns and shapes of the flowerbeds. After the Exposition, the building continued to be used for horticultural exhibits until it was severely damaged by [[Hurricane Hazel]] in 1954 and was subsequently demolished.<ref name="history464" /> As a replacement, the [[The Horticulture Center (Philadelphia)|Fairmount Park Horticulture Center]] was built on the site in 1976 as part of the [[United States Bicentennial]] exposition. === Machinery Hall ===
[[File:Machhall.jpg|thumb|Machinery Hall]]
Designed by Joseph M. Wilson and Henry Pettit, Machinery Hall was the second largest structure in the exposition and located west of the Main Exhibition Building. With a superstructure made of wood and glass resting on a foundation of massive masonry, it had a main hall painted light blue, {{
One of the major attractions on display in the building was the [[Corliss steam engine#Centennial Engine|Corliss Centennial Steam Engine]] that ran power to all the machinery in the building as well as other parts of the world's fair. The 1,400 horsepower engine was {{cvt|45
Amenities available to the visitors within the hall were rolling chairs, telegraph offices, and dinner for fifty cents. Machinery Hall had 8,000 operating machines and was filled with a wide assortment of hand tools, machine tools, material handling equipment, and the latest fastener technology.
Some of the sandstone that was used to build the hall was from [[Curwensville, Pennsylvania
=== Memorial Hall ===
[[File:Memorial Hall Phila.jpg|thumb|Memorial Hall]]
[[File:Edward L.Wilson and W.Irving Adams, Italian Dept. Memorial Hall Annex.jpg|thumb|The Italian Department of Memorial Hall Annex]]
The Art Gallery building (now known as [[Memorial Hall (Philadelphia)|Memorial Hall]]) is the only large exhibit building still standing on the exposition site. Constructed of brick, glass, iron, and granite in the [[Beaux-Arts architecture|beaux-arts style]], it was the largest art hall in the country when it opened, with a massive {{cvt|1.5
Memorial Hall was designed by Herman J. Schwarzmann, who basically adopted an art museum plan submitted by Nicholas Félix Escalier to the {{Lang|fr|[[Prix de Rome]]|italic=no}} competition in 1867–69. Memorial Hall became the prototype, both from a stylistic and organizational standpoint, for other museums such as the [[Art Institute of Chicago]] (1892–1893), the [[Milwaukee Public Museum]] (1893–1897), the [[Brooklyn Museum]] (1893–1924), and the [[Detroit Institute of Art]] (1920–1927). Libraries such as the [[Library of Congress]], the [[New York Public Library]], and the [[Free Library of Philadelphia]] also emulated its form. Finally, Memorial Hall was the architectural inspiration for the German capitol, the [[Reichstag building#History|Reichstag building]] in Berlin.<ref>Filler, Martin, ''Makers of Modern Architecture'', Volume 1, New York: The New York Review of Books, 2007, {{ISBN|978-1-59017-227-8}}, p. 226</ref>
After the exposition, Memorial Hall reopened in 1877 as the Pennsylvania Museum of Art and included the Pennsylvania Museum School of Industrial Art. In 1928 the museum moved to Fairmount at the head of the Benjamin Franklin Parkway, and in 1938 was renamed the [[Philadelphia Museum of Art]]. Memorial Hall continued to house the school, and afterward was taken over by the Fairmount Park Commission in 1958.<ref>''Philadelphia's 1876 Centennial Exhibition'', p. 105</ref> The museum school is now the [[University of the Arts (Philadelphia)|University of the Arts]]. Used for a time as a police station, the building now houses the [[Please Touch Museum]],<ref name="history462" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pleasetouchmuseum.org/memorial_hall_update/ |title=Memorial Hall Update |access-date=2007-01-17 |last=Resinger |first=Kelly |publisher=Please Touch Museum |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206165647/http://www.pleasetouchmuseum.org/memorial_hall_update/ |archive-date=2007-02-06 }}</ref> which includes a faithful 20x30-foot model of the exposition grounds and 200 buildings.▼
▲After the exposition, Memorial Hall reopened in 1877 as the Pennsylvania Museum of Art and included the Pennsylvania Museum School of Industrial Art. In 1928 the museum moved to Fairmount at the head of the Benjamin Franklin Parkway, and in 1938 was renamed the [[Philadelphia Museum of Art]]. Memorial Hall continued to house the school, and afterward was taken over by the Fairmount Park Commission in 1958.<ref>''Philadelphia's 1876 Centennial Exhibition'', p. 105</ref> The museum school is now the [[University of the Arts (Philadelphia)|University of the Arts]]. Used for a time as a police station, the building now houses the [[Please Touch Museum]],<ref name="history462" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pleasetouchmuseum.org/memorial_hall_update/ |title=Memorial Hall Update |access-date=2007-01-17 |last=Resinger |first=Kelly |publisher=Please Touch Museum |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206165647/http://www.pleasetouchmuseum.org/memorial_hall_update/ |archive-date=2007-02-06
=== Women's Pavilion ===
[[File:Woman's pavilion, by Centennial Photographic Co.RHS.jpg|thumb|
The Women's Pavilion was the first structure at an international exposition to highlight the work of women, with exhibits created and operated by women. Female organizers drew upon deep-rooted traditions of separatism and sorority in planning, fundraising, and managing a pavilion devoted entirely to the artistic and industrial pursuits of their gender. They had to build their own structure because they lost their spot in one of the larger pavilions (the Main Building) due to an unexpected increase in the participation of foreign countries. Their aim was to employ only women in the construction of the pavilion and even to power it, and they succeeded with the exception of the design by Hermann J. Schwarzmann. Their overarching goal was to advance women's social, economic, and legal standing, abolish restrictions discriminating against their gender, encourage sexual harmony, and gain influence, leverage, and freedom for all women in and outside of the home by increasing women's confidence and ability to choose.
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Much of the pavilion was devoted to [[Human ecology#Connection to home economics|human ecology]] and [[home economics]]. On exhibit were over 80 patented inventions, including a reliance stove, a hand attachment for sewing machines, a dishwasher, a fountain griddle-greaser, [[Mary Florence Potts|a heating iron with removable handle]], a frame for stretching and drying lace curtains, and a stocking and glove darner. The Centennial women not only showed domestic production but also employed a popular means for justifying female autonomy outside of the home by demonstrating to visitors the many ways women were making a profitable living. Exhibits demonstrated positive achievements and women's influence in domains such as industrial and fine arts (wood-carvings, furniture-making, and ceramics), fancy articles (clothing and woven goods), and philanthropy as well as philosophy, science, medicine, education, and literature.
Mexico participated in the pavilion's exhibits, indicating the growth of a sector of elite women during the [[Porfirio Díaz]] regime of the late nineteenth century, with many individual women sending examples of woven textiles and embroidery.<ref>Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo, ''Mexico at the World's Fairs: Crafting a Nation''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1996,
=== Other buildings ===
[[File:A573, Ohio House, Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States, 2017.jpg|thumb|The [[Ohio House (Philadelphia)|Ohio House]]
Eleven nations had their own exhibition buildings, and others contributed small structures, including the Swedish School house referenced below, now in [[Central Park]], New York City. The British buildings were extensive and exhibited the evolved bicycle, with tension spokes and a large front wheel. Two English manufacturers, Bayless Thomas and Rudge, displayed their high-wheel bikes (called "ordinary bikes" or "penny farthings") at the exposition. The bicycle displays inspired [[Albert Augustus Pope]] to begin making high-wheel bikes in the United States. He started the Columbia Bike Company and published a journal called "[[League of American Wheelmen|LAW]] Bulletin and Good Roads", which was the beginning of the [[Good Roads Movement]].{{citation needed|date = November 2015}}.
26 of the 37 U.S. states<!-- source is manual count at our [[U.S. State]] --> constructed buildings along States Drive in the exhibition grounds. Only three such state houses are still extant: the [[Ohio House (Philadelphia)|Ohio House]] at its original location in Fairmount Park,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fairmountpark.org/OhioHouse.asp |title=Ohio House |access-date=2012-01-19 |publisher=Philadelphia Parks & Recreation: Fairmount Park |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126034423/http://www.fairmountpark.org/OhioHouse.asp |archive-date=2012-01-26
The [[Federal government of the United States|United States government]] had a cross-shaped building that held exhibits from various government departments. The remaining structures were corporate exhibitions, administration buildings, restaurants, and other buildings designed for public comfort.<ref>''Philadelphia's 1876 Centennial Exhibition'', p. 109.</ref>
==Exposition==
[[Image:Centennialhorthall.jpg|thumb|
[[Image:The Centennial Tower Philadelphia 1876.jpeg|thumb
The formal name of the exposition was the International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, and Products of the Soil and Mine, but the official theme was the celebration of the United States centennial.
At the same time, the exposition was designed to show the world the United States' industrial and innovative prowess.<ref name="images7" /> The exposition was originally scheduled to open in April, marking the anniversary of the [[Battles of Lexington and Concord]], but construction delays caused the date to be pushed back to May 10. Bells rang all over Philadelphia to signal the exposition's opening. The opening ceremony was attended by [[Ulysses S. Grant|President Ulysses Grant]] and his [[Julia Grant|wife]] as well as [[Pedro II of Brazil|Emperor Pedro II of Brazil]] and his [[Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies|wife]]. A cantata commissioned for the occasion written by [[Dudley Buck]] and [[Sidney Lanier]] was performed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Orr |first=N. Lee |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/177069162 |title=Dudley Buck |date=2008 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=978-0-252-03279-0 |location=Urbana |oclc=177069162 |access-date=November 7, 2022 |archive-date=January 25, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125143214/http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/177069162 |url-status=live }}</ref> The opening ceremony concluded in Machinery Hall, with Grant and Pedro II turning on the [[Corliss Steam Engine]] which powered most of the other machines at the exposition. The official number of first day attendees was 186,272 people, with 110,000 entering with free passes.
In the days following the opening ceremony, attendance dropped dramatically, with only 12,720 people visiting the exposition the next day. The average daily attendance for May was 36,000 and for June 39,000. A severe heat wave began in mid-June and continued into July, hurting attendance. The average temperature was {{cvt|81|F|C}}, and on ten days during the heat wave the temperature reached {{cvt|100|F|C}}. The average daily attendance for July was 35,000, but it rose in August to 42,000 despite the return of high temperatures at the end of the month.<ref name="history466">''Philadelphia: A 300-Year History'', p. 466</ref>
Cooling temperatures, news reports, and word of mouth began increasing attendance in the final three months of the exposition, with many of the visitors coming from farther distances. In September the average daily attendance rose to 94,000 and in October to 102,000. The highest attendance date of the entire exposition was September 28. The day, which saw about a quarter of a million people attend, was Pennsylvania Day. It celebrated the 100th anniversary of the [[Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776]], and exposition events included speeches, receptions, and [[fireworks]]. The final month of the exposition, November, had an average daily attendance of 115,000. By the time the exposition ended on November 10, a total of 10,164,489 had visited the fair.<ref name="history467" /> Among the attendees who were duly impressed by the exposition were [[Princeton University]] sophomore [[Woodrow Wilson]] and his minister father, Although not financially successful for investors, the Centennial Exposition impressed foreigners with the industrial and commercial growth of the country. The level of exports increased, the level of imports decreased, and the trade balance grew in favor of the United States.
== Inventions ==
[[File:Centennial Exhibition monorail (LOC) - crop 02.jpg|thumb
The [[Centennial Monorail]] featured a steam locomotive and passenger car that straddled a single elevated iron rail. Mass-produced products and new inventions were on display within Machinery Hall. Inventions included the [[typewriter]] and [[electric pen]] along with new types of mass-produced sewing machines, stoves, lanterns, guns, wagons, carriages, and agricultural equipment.
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Consumer products first displayed to the public include:
* [[Alexander Graham Bell]]'s [[telephone]]
* [[Sholes and Glidden typewriter|The Sholes and Glidden typewriter (also known as the Remington No. 1)]]
* [[Heinz Ketchup]]
* [[Moses G. Farmer|Wallace]]-Farmer Electric Dynamo, precursor to [[electric light]]
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==Exhibits==
[[File:Collossal hand and torch. Bartholdi's statue of "Liberty.", from Robert N. Dennis collection of stereoscopic views.jpg|thumb|
[[File:Krupp Exhibit - 1876 Centennial Exhibition - Philadelphia - print.jpg|thumb|
The right arm and torch of the [[Statue of Liberty]] were showcased at the exposition. For a fee of 50 cents, visitors could climb the ladder to the balcony, and the money raised this way was used to fund the pedestal for the statue.
Technologies introduced at the fair include the [[Corliss Steam Engine]]. [[Pennsylvania Railroad]] displayed the ''[[John Bull (locomotive)|John Bull]]'' [[steam locomotive]] that was originally built in 1831.<ref>{{cite journal |title=American Locomotives and Cars |author=Forney, M. N. |pages=177 |volume=IV |journal=Scribner's Magazine |issue=2 |date=August 1888 |author-link=Matthias N. Forney}}</ref> The [[Waltham Watch Company]] displayed the first automatic screw-making machinery and won the Gold Medal in the first international [[watch]] precision competition. Until the start of 2004, many of the exposition's exhibits were displayed in the [[Smithsonian Institution]]'s [[Arts and Industries Building]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], adjacent to the Castle building.
The [[German Empire]], which had recently been founded after the German victory in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870–71, did not send a very big contribution. Its main contributor were the [[Krupp steelworks]], which sent in 37 civilian (mainly railway) items and 9 artillery items. Its big [[35.5 cm MRK L/22.5|35.5 cm]] gun of 57t was the showpiece of its contribution and drew quite some attention.<ref>{{citation |year=1876 |title=Philadelphia Exhibition 1876, Cast-steel Manufactory of Fried. Krupp |publisher=E.P. Coby & Co., New York |url=https://archive.org/embed/caststeelmanufa00cent }}</ref> It was kind of a tradition for Krupp to promote its trade mark by exhibiting its heaviest gun at each world's fair. However, the Philadelphia 57t gun was considerably lighter than the British [[RML 16-inch 80-ton gun|40 cm gun of 80t]] which was made at the same time.
Still basking in afterglow of its victory in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870–71, the newly founded [[German Empire]] foregrounded its arms industry, especially the powerful [[Krupp gun]]s and heavy cannons that were sold and exported to numerous nations in the following years. By way of contrast, the craftsmanship of France, which had been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War, was represented by the [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic Revival]] high altar that [[Edward Sorin]], founder of [[University of Notre Dame]], had commissioned from the workshop of Désiré Froc-Robert & Sons in Paris. After the exposition, the altar was installed at the Basilica of the Sacred Heart on Notre Dame's campus where it remains to this day.▼
▲
For Mexico, which was emerging from a long period of internal disorder and foreign invasions, the exposition was an opportunity for the [[Liberalism in Mexico|Liberal]] regime of President [[Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada]] to garner international recognition of his regime and to counter anti-Mexican public opinion in the United States. Prominent Mexican painters including [[José María Velasco Gómez|José María Velasco]], José Obregón, and Santiago Rebull exhibited there. Velasco's work was greatly admired, gaining him international recognition and enhancing his standing in Mexico.<ref>Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo, ''Mexico at the World's Fairs: Crafting a Modern Nation''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Perss 1996, 39–41, 55.</ref>▼
▲For Mexico, which was emerging from a long period of internal disorder and foreign invasions, the exposition was an opportunity for the [[Liberalism in Mexico|Liberal]] regime of President [[Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada]] to garner international recognition of his regime and to counter anti-Mexican public opinion in the United States. Prominent Mexican painters including [[José María Velasco Gómez|José María Velasco]], José Obregón, and Santiago Rebull exhibited there. Velasco's work was greatly admired, gaining him international recognition and enhancing his standing in Mexico.<ref>Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo, ''Mexico at the World's Fairs: Crafting a Modern Nation''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Perss 1996,
The Swedish Cottage, representing a rural Swedish schoolhouse of traditional style, was re-erected in [[Central Park]], New York, after the exposition closed. It is now the [[Swedish Cottage Marionette Theatre]].▼
▲The Swedish Cottage, representing a rural Swedish schoolhouse of traditional style, was re-erected in [[Central Park]]
▲[[File:Beaver Falls Cutlery Works (940).jpg|thumb|upright|"Largest knife and fork in the world"]]
The official State Pavilion of New Jersey was a reconstruction of the [[Ford Mansion]] in [[Morristown, New Jersey]], which served as General George Washington's headquarters during the winter of 1779–80. Featuring costumed presenters and a "colonial kitchen" complete with a spinning wheel, the reconstructed mansion was accompanied by a polemical narrative about "old-fashioned domesticity". This quaint hearth-and-home interpretation of the colonial past was counterposed to the theme of progress, with the overarching theme of the exposition serving to reinforce a view of American progress as evolving from a small, hardy colonial stock rather than from a continual influx of multi-ethnic waves of immigration. It sparked an era of "Colonial Revival" in American architecture and house furnishings.▼
The [[Japan]] exhibit included a pavilion, house, and garden with one of the first "[[Bonsai|dwarfed trees]]" to be displayed outside of Japan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Del Tredici |first=Peter |date=June 8, 2017 |title=The Introduction of Japanese Plants Into North America |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12229-017-9184-3 |journal=The Botanical Review |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=215–252 |doi=10.1007/s12229-017-9184-3 |bibcode=2017BotRv..83..215D |s2cid=255561128 |issn=0006-8101 |access-date=June 6, 2023 |archive-date=February 2, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202084933/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12229-017-9184-3 |url-status=live }}</ref>
▲The official
[[Beaver Falls Cutlery Company]] exhibited the "largest knife and fork in the world" made by Chinese immigrant workers, among others.<ref name="Industrious Beaver Falls 1993" >{{cite book |last1=Anon |title=Industrious Beaver Falls |date=1993 |publisher=Beaver County Industrial Museum |location=Darlington, Pennsylvania |chapter=Gone but not forgotten: the Beaver Falls Cutlery Company}} This is based on {{cite book |last1=Anon |title=The Beaver Countian Vol III no.1 |date=1992 |location=Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania |pages=1–3 |chapter=The history and lore of Beaver Co.: the Chinese in Beaver Falls 1872}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Arts and Industries Building]], the [[Smithsonian]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], built in 1879–1881 to house exhibits from the Centennial Exposition
* [[Centennial Arboretum]]
* [[Centennial comfort stations]]
* [[Sesquicentennial Exposition]], the 150th anniversary of the United States (1926)
* [[United States Bicentennial]], the 200th anniversary (1976)
* [[United States Semiquincentennial]], the 250th anniversary (2026)
* [[List of world expositions]]
* [[List of world's fairs]]
== References ==
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== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Gross |first=Linda P. |author2=Theresa R. Snyder |title=Philadelphia's 1876 Centennial Exhibition |year=2005 |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |isbn=0-7385-3888-4
* {{cite book |last=Harrington |first=Kate |title=Centennial and Other Poems |year=1876 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |isbn=978-0-548-43372-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Ingram |first=J.S. |title=The Centennial Exposition |url=https://archive.org/details/centennialexpos00ingrgoog |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Hubbard Bros. |date=1876 |oclc=1186046 |ol=23285381M
* {{cite book |last=Wainwright |first=Nicholas |author2=Russell Weigley |author3=Edwin Wolf |title=Philadelphia: A 300-Year History |year=1982 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=0-393-01610-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/philadelphia300y00weig
* Strahan, Edward, ed. ''A Century After, Picturesque Glimpses of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania''. Philadelphia: Allen, Lane & Scott and J. W. Lauderbach 1875.
* "Centennial Exhibition: Exhibition Facts." ''Centennial Exhibition: Exhibition Facts''. N.p., 2001. Web. 06 Dec. 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20151116042008/http://libwww.library.phila.gov/CenCol/exhibitionfax.htm
* Weber, Austin. "Then & Now: The 1876 Centennial Exposition." ''Assembly''. Design, CMS, Hosting & Web Development, 1 Sept. 2001. http://www.assemblymag.com/articles/83790-then-now-the-1876-centennial-exposition
* {{cite magazine |last=Cordato |first=Mary F. |title=Toward A New Century: Women and The Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition, 1876 |magazine=Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography |volume=107 |issue=1 |date=January 1, 1983 |pages=113–135 |url=http://journals.psu.edu/pmhb/article/view/43884/43605 |access-date=2017-10-15}}
* "
* Calney, Mark. "The Centennial Exhibition—The State Buildings." ''Sci Am Scientific American'' 34.21 (1876): 322–24. ''The International Centennial Exhibition of 1876; or Why the British Started a World War''. Mark Calney 2010, 7 May 2006. Web. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064854/http://larouchejapan.com/japanese/drupal-6.14/sites/default/files/text/1876-Centennial-Exhibition.pdf▼
* {{cite web |title=Party Like It's 1876! 12 Items From the Centennial Exposition |website=Mental Floss |publisher=Mental Floss, Inc. |date=August 16, 2010 |url=http://mentalfloss.com/article/25483/party-its-1876-12-items-centennial-exposition |first=Scott |last=Allen |access-date=2017-10-15}}
▲*Calney, Mark. "The Centennial Exhibition—The State Buildings." ''Sci Am Scientific American'' 34.21 (1876): 322–24. ''The International Centennial Exhibition of 1876; or Why the British Started a World War''. Mark Calney 2010, 7 May 2006. Web. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064854/http://larouchejapan.com/japanese/drupal-6.14/sites/default/files/text/1876-Centennial-Exhibition.pdf
* {{cite web |title=
* {{cite
* Hunt, John Dixon ''A World of Gardens''. London: Reaktion Books, 2012.▼
* Bruno Giberti, ''Designing the Centennial: A History of the 1876 International Exhibition in Philadelphia'', University Press of Kentucky, 2002.
▲*Hunt, John Dixon ''A World of Gardens''. London: Reaktion Books, 2012.
* International Exhibition. 1876, Official Catalogue, John R Nagle and company.▼
▲*Bruno Giberti, ''Designing the Centennial: A History of the 1876 International Exhibition in Philadelphia'', University Press of Kentucky, 2002.
* Tenorio-Trillo, Mauricio, ''Mexico at the World's Fairs: Crafting a Nation''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1996▼
▲*International Exhibition. 1876, Official Catalogue, John R Nagle and company.
* {{cite book |last=Crighton |first=JD |title=Detective in the White City: The Real Story of Frank Geyer |year=2017 |publisher=RW Publishing House |isbn=978-1-946100-02-3
▲*Tenorio-Trillo, Mauricio, ''Mexico at the World's Fairs: Crafting a Nation''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1996
▲*{{cite book |last=Crighton |first=JD |title=Detective in the White City: The Real Story of Frank Geyer |year=2017 |publisher=RW Publishing House |isbn=978-1-946100-02-3 }} (Frank Geyer was hired to work as a centennial guard for the Centennial Exposition. He later became famous for his investigation of [[H. H. Holmes]], one of America's first serial killers).
==External links==
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* [http://www.watkinsr.id.au/favre.html Philadelphia Exhibition 1876 Report to the Federal High Council] – [[horology|horological]] report by Ed. Favre-Perret at [http://www.watkinsr.id.au Richard Watkins Horological Books]<!-- Retrieved April 23, 2019. -->
* [http://www.watkinsr.id.au/david.html American and Swiss Watchmaking in 1876] by Jacques David at Richard Watkins Horological Books<!-- Retrieved April 23, 2019. -->
* [[Historic American Buildings Survey]] (HABS) documentation, filed under Philadelphia, Philadelphia County, PA:
** {{HABS |survey=PA-1080 |id=pa0943 |title=International Exhibition of 1876, St. George's House, States Drive |photos=7 |data=4 |supp=yes |link=no}}
* [http://findingaids.hagley.org/xtf/view?docId=ead/2003_255.xml Centennial Exhibition Photograph and Ephemera Collection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814205351/https://findingaids.hagley.org/xtf/view?docId=ead%2F2003_255.xml |date=2020-08-14 }} at the [[Hagley Museum and Library]]<!-- Retrieved April 23, 2019. -->▼
** {{HABS |survey=PA-1480 |id=pa0894 |title=Sons of Temperance Fountain, Independence Square (moved from Centennial Exhibition grounds at Belmont and Fountain Avenues) |photos=2 |data=1 |cap=1 |link=no}}
** {{HABS |survey=PA-1652 |id=pa1146 |title=Centennial Guard Box, Traffic Triangle, Benjamin Franklin Parkway vicinity |photos=1 |cap=1 |supp=yes |link=no}}
** {{HABS |survey=PA-1659 |id=pa0944 |title=International Exposition of 1876, Memorial Hall, Belmont Avenue |photos=35 |color=4 |data=3 |cap=6 |link=no}}
** {{HABS |survey=PA-1660 |id=pa0945 |title=International Exhibition of 1876, Ohio Building |photos=5 |color=2 |cap=3 |link=no}}
** {{HABS |survey=PA-6183 |id=pa3426 |title=Fairmount Park, Along Schuylkill River |dwgs=16 |data=44 |link=no}}
▲* [http://findingaids.hagley.org/xtf/view?docId=ead/2003_255.xml Centennial Exhibition Photograph and Ephemera Collection] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814205351/https://findingaids.hagley.org/xtf/view?docId=ead%2F2003_255.xml |date=
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150103005517/http://digitallibrary.hsp.org/index.php/Search/Index?search=centennial+exhibition Historical Society of Pennsylvania's collection of paintings] (Internet Archive) by [[David J. Kennedy (painter)|David J. Kennedy]]<!-- Retrieved failed April 26, 2019. -->
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120208101854/http://columbianexpo.50megs.com/1876/index.html A collection of stereoviews] (Internet Archive)<!-- Retrieved April 26, 2019. -->
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{{List of world exhibitions}}
{{United States Declaration of Independence}}
{{American Revolutionary War}}
{{Statue of Liberty}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Centennial Exposition| ]]
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[[Category:Regional centennial anniversaries]]
[[Category:West Fairmount Park]]
[[Category:World's fairs in Philadelphia]]
[[Category:History of cycling in the United States]]
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