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{{Short description|Stone of peat that did not turn into coal}}
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This article is written in British English because coal balls were discovered in England, and the term "coal ball" itself is the English name for it.
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{{good article}}{{Use British English|date=August 2011}}{{Use dmy dates|date=DecemberApril 20112021}}
{{Infobox rock
|name=Coal ball
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The first [[Academic publishing|scientific description]] of coal balls was made in 1855 by Sir [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]] and [[Edward William Binney]], who reported on examples in the coal seams of [[Yorkshire]] and [[Lancashire]], England. European scientists did much of the early research.{{sfn|Scott|Rex|1985|p=124}}{{sfn|Noé|1923a|p=385}}
 
Coal balls in North America were first found in [[Iowa]] coal seams in 1894,{{sfn|Darrah|Lyons|1995|p=176}}{{sfn|Andrews|1946|p=334}} although the connection to European coal balls was not made until [[Adolf Carl Noé]] (whose coal ball was found by Gilbert Cady{{sfn|Darrah|Lyons|1995|p=176}}{{sfn|Leighton|Peppers|2011}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Memorial to Gilbert Haven Cady |url=https://rock.geosociety.org/net/documents/gsa/memorials/v03/Cady-GH.pdf |website=Geological Society of America |publisher=Geological Society of America |access-date=23 April 2024}}</ref>) drew the parallel in 1922.{{sfn|Noé|1923a|p=385}} Noé's work renewed interest in coal balls, and by the 1930s had drawn paleobotanists from Europe to the [[Illinois Basin]] in search of them.{{sfn|Phillips|Pfefferkorn|Peppers|1973|p=24}}
 
There are two theories&nbsp;– the autochthonous (''[[in situ]]'') theory and the allochthonous (drift) theory&nbsp;– that attempt to explain the formation of coal balls, although the subject is mostly speculation.{{sfn|Phillips|Avcin|Berggren|1976|p=17}}
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===Contents===
[[File:Coal ball structures.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Plate-like entities relatively larger than surrounding structures that resemble small bubbles.|Calcite (middle) and [[microdolomitesDolomite (mineral)|dolomite]] (top and bottom) are common materials found in coal balls.]]
 
Coal balls are not made of coal;{{sfn|Andrews|1951|p=432}}{{sfn|Andrews|1946|p=327}} they are non-flammable and useless for fuel. Coal balls are calcium-rich permineralised life forms,{{sfn|Scott|Rex|1985|p=123}} mostly containing [[calcium carbonate|calcium]] and [[magnesium carbonate|magnesium]] [[carbonate]]s, [[pyrite]], and [[quartz]].{{sfn|Lomax|1903|p=811}}{{sfn|Gabel|Dyche|1986|p=99}} Other minerals, including [[gypsum]], [[illite]], [[kaolinite]], and [[lepidocrocite]] also appear in coal balls, albeit in lesser quantities.{{sfn|Demaris|2000|p=224}} Although coal balls are usually about the size of a man's fist,{{sfn|Evening Independent|1923|p=13}} their sizes vary greatly, ranging from that of a [[walnut]] up to {{convert|3|ft|0}} in diameter.{{sfn|Feliciano|1924|p=230}} Coal balls have been found that were smaller than a [[thimble]].{{sfn|Andrews|1946|p=327}}
 
Coal balls commonly contain [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]]s, [[aragonite]], and masses of organic matter at various stages of [[decomposition]].{{sfn|Phillips|Avcin|Berggren|1976|p=6}} Hooker and Binney analysed a coal ball and found "a lack of [[coniferous]] wood&nbsp;... and fronds of ferns" and noted that the discovered plant matter "appear[ed] to [have been arranged] just as they fell from the plants that produced them".{{sfn|Hooker|Binney|1855|p=150}} Coal balls usually do not preserve the [[leaf|leaves]] of plants.{{sfn|Evans|Amos|1961|p=452}}
 
In 1962, Sergius Mamay and Ellis Yochelson analysed North American coal balls.{{sfn|Scott|Rex|1985|p=126}} Their discovery of marine organisms led to classification of coal balls were sorted into three types: normal (sometimes known as floral), containing only plant matter; faunal, containing animal [[fossil]]s only; and mixed, containing both plant and animal material.{{sfn|Lyons et al.|1984|p=228}} Mixed coal balls are further divided into heterogeneous, where the plant and animal material was distinctly separated; and homogeneous, lacking that separation.{{sfn|Mamay|Yochelson|1962|p=196}}
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{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal|title=American Coal-Ball Floras|last=Andrews|first=Henry N., Jr|journal=Botanical Review|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] on behalf of the [[New York Botanical Garden Press]]|year=1951|volume=17|issue=6|pages=431–469|jstor=4353462|ref=harv|doi=10.1007/BF02879039 |s2cid=28942723}}
* {{cite journal | title = Coal Balls&nbsp;– A Key to the Past | journal = [[The Scientific Monthly]] | date = April 1946 | first = Henry N. | last = Andrews | volume = 62 | issue = 4 | pages = 327–334| id = | jstor = 18958|ref=harv |bibcode = 1946SciMo..62..327A }}
* {{cite journal | title = Coal Balls: New Discoveries in Plant Petrifactions from Kansas Coal Beds | journal = [[Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science]] | date = December 1951 | first = Robert W. | last = Baxter | volume = 54 | issue = 4 | pages = 526–535| id = | jstor = 3626215|ref=harv | doi=10.2307/3626215}}
* {{cite journal|title=A New Technique for Thin Sections of Pyritized Permineralizations|last=Chitaley|first=Shya|journal=Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology|volume=45|issue=3–4|year=1985|pages=301–306|ref=harv|doi=10.1016/0034-6667(85)90005-3}}
* {{cite book|last1=Darrah|first1=William Culp|last2=Lyons|first2=Paul C.|title=Historical Perspective of Early Twentieth Century Carboniferous Paleobotany in North America|year=1995|publisher=[[Geological Society of America]]|location=United States of America|isbn=978-0-8137-1185-1|ref=harv 0}}
* {{cite journal | title= Formation and distribution of coal balls in the Herrin Coal (Pennsylvanian), Franklin County, Illinois Basin, USA|last=Demaris|first=Phillip J.|url=http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/content/157/1/221 |journal=[[Journal of the Geological Society]] | date = January 2000|volume = 157 |issue=1| pages = 221–228| doi = 10.1144/jgs.157.1.221|refbibcode=harv 2000JGSoc.157..221D|s2cid=129037655}}
* {{cite journal|title=An Example of the Origin of Coal-Balls|journal=Proceedings of the Geologists' Association|volume=72|issue=4|lastlast1=Evans|firstfirst1=W. D.|last2=Amos|first2=Dewey H.|date=February 1961|publisher=[[University of Nottingham]]|doi=10.1016/S0016-7878(61)80038-2|ref=harv|pagespage=445 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Feliciano |first=José Maria |title=The Relation of Concretions to Coal Seams |journal=The Journal of Geology |date=1 May 1924 |volume=32 |issue=3 |doi=10.1086/623086 |pages=230–239 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |bibcode=1924JG.....32..230F |jstor=30059936|refs2cid=harv128663837 }}
* {{cite journal | title = Making Coal Ball Peels to Study Fossil Plants | journal = The American Biology Teacher | publisher = [[University of California Press]] | date = February 1986 | firstfirst1 = Mark L. | lastlast1 = Gabel | last2=Dyche | first2= Steven E. | volume = 48 | issue = 2 | pages = 99–101| id = | jstor=4448216|ref=harv | doi = 10.2307/4448216 | jstor=4448216}}
* {{cite journal|title=Coal-ball floras of the Namurian-Westphalian of Europe|last=Galtier|first=Jean|journal=Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology|volume=95|issue=1–4|pages=51–72|publisher=[[Elsevier Science B.V.]]|year=1997|ref=harv|doi=10.1016/S0034-6667(96)00027-9 }}
* {{cite journal|lastlast1=Hooker|firstfirst1=Joseph Dalton|last2=Binney|first2=Edward William|year=1855|title=On the structure of certain limestone nodules enclosed in seams of bituminous coal, with a description of some trigonocarpons contained in them|journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]|publisher=[[Royal Society]]|location=Britain|volume=145|pages=149–156|jstor=108514|doi=10.1098/rstl.1855.0006|refbibcode=harv 1855RSPT..145..149D|s2cid=110524923}} {{PD-notice}}
* {{cite journal|title=Petrified Coals and Their Bearing on the Problem of the Origin of Coals|last1=Jeffrey|first1=Edward C.|year=1917|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]|volume=3|issue=3|pages=206–211|ref=harv|pmc=1091213|pmid=16576220 |bibcode = 1917PNAS....3..206J |doi = 10.1073/pnas.3.3.206 |doi-access=free}} {{PD-notice}}
* <!--Per page xii, references to this work are preferred to be made in this manner:-->{{cite book | last1 = Jones | first1 = T. P. | last2 = Rowe | first2 = N. P. | title = Fossil plants and spores: modern techniques | publisher = Geological Society | year = 1999 | location = London | isbn = 978-1-86239-035-5|ref=harv }}
* {{cite journal|title=Concerning "Lake Balls," "Cladophora Balls" and "Coal Balls"|last=Kindle|first=E. M.|publisher=[[University of Notre Dame]]|journal=[[American Midland Naturalist]]|volume=15|issue=6|date=November 1934|jstor=2419894|ref=harv|pages=752–760|doi=10.2307/2419894 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.isgs.uiuc.edu/about-isgs/heritage/noe.shtml |title=ISGS&nbsp;– Our Heritage&nbsp;– A Memorial: Adolf C. Noé |publisher=University of Illinois Board of Trustees |date=16 May 2011 |lastlast1=Leighton |firstfirst1=Morris W. |last2=Peppers |first2=Russel A. |ref={{harvid|Leighton|Peppers|2011}} |archiveurlarchive-url=https://wwwweb.webcitationarchive.org/65MsaJfDU?url=web/20081204130445/http://www.isgs.uiuc.edu/about-isgs/heritage/noe.shtml |archivedatearchive-date=114 FebruaryDecember 20122008 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy }}
* {{cite journal|last=Lomax|first=James|year=1903|title=On the occurrence of the nodular concretions (coal balls) in the lower coal measures|journal=Report of the annualAnnual meeting|publisher=[[British Association for the Advancement of Science]]Meeting|volume=72|pages=811–812|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qdsUAAAAYAAJ|ref=harv }} {{PD-notice}}
* {{cite journal|title=Coalification of organic matter in coal balls of the Pennsylvanian (upper Carboniferous) of the Illinois Basin, United States|journal=Organic Geochemistry|volume=5|issue=4|pages=227–239|year=1984|publisher=[[Pergamon Press]]|last1=Lyons|first1=Paul C.|last2=Thompson|first2=Carolyn L.|last3=Hatcher|first3=Patrick G.|last4=Brown|first4=Floyd W.|last5=Millay|first5=Michael A.|last6=Szeverenyi|first6=Nikolaus|last7=Maciel|first7=Gary E.|ref={{harvid|Lyons et al.|1984}}|doi=10.1016/0146-6380(84)90010-X }}
* {{cite journal|lastlast1=Mamay|firstfirst1=Sergius H.|last2=Yochelson|first2=Ellis L.|year=1962|title=Occurrence and significance of marine animal remains in American coal balls|journal=Shorter Contributions to General Geology|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|pages=193–224|id={{Google books|yCYlAQAAIAAJ|Geological Survey Professional Paper, Volume 354}}|ref=harv }}
* {{cite journal|url=http://library.isgs.uiuc.edu/Pubs/pdfs/circulars/c530.pdf|format=PDF|title=Geologic disturbances in Illinois coal seams|publisher=Illinois State Geological Survey|volume=530|first=W. John|last=Nelson|year=1983|accessdateaccess-date=19 January 2012|refarchive-url=harvhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120417075834/http://library.isgs.uiuc.edu/Pubs/pdfs/circulars/c530.pdf|archive-date=17 April 2012}}
* {{cite journal | title = A Paleozoic Angiosperm | journal = The Journal of Geology | date = June 1923b | first = Adolph C. | last = Noé | volume = 31 | issue = 4 | pages = 344–347| jstor = 30078443 | doi = 10.1086/623025 | bibcode = 1923JG.....31..344N|ref s2cid =harv 129159972 }}
* {{cite journal | title = Coal Balls | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | publisher = [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] | date = 30 March 1923a | first = Adolph C. | last = Noé | volume = 57 | issue = 1474 | pagespage = 385| id = | jstor=1648633 | pmid=17748916 | doi=10.1126/science.57.1474.385|ref=harv |bibcode = 1923Sci....57..385N }}
* {{cite web|url=http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/bitstream/1808/3746/3/paleo.paper.082op.pdf|title=Textures and Conditions of Formation of Middle Pennsylvanian Coal Balls, Central United States|last=Perkins|first=Thomas|year=1976|publisher=[[University of Kansas]]|accessdateaccess-date=16 July 2011|ref=harv }}
* {{cite web|url=http://library.isgs.uiuc.edu/Pubs/pdfs/ges/es11.pdf|title=Fossil Peats from the Illinois Basin: A guide to the study of coal balls of Pennsylvanian age|lastlast1=Phillips|firstfirst1=Tom|last2=Avcin|first2=Matthew J.|last3=Berggren|first3=Dwain|work=[[University of Illinois]]|year=1976|accessdateaccess-date=16 July 2011|refarchive-url=harvhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111009122255/http://library.isgs.uiuc.edu/Pubs/pdfs/ges/es11.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2011}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.life.illinois.edu/plantbio/People/Faculty/Phillips.htm |title=T L 'Tommy' Phillips, Department of Plant Biology, University of Illinois |last=Phillips |first=Tom L. |publisher=University of Illinois |accessdateaccess-date=31 July 2011 |archiveurlarchive-url=https://wwwweb.webcitationarchive.org/60aBzdvjr?url=web/20110727023325/http://www.life.illinois.edu/plantbio/People/Faculty/Phillips.htm |archivedatearchive-date=3127 July 2011 |deadurl=no |ref=harv |df=dmy }}
* {{cite webjournal | url = http://library.isgs.uiuc.edu/Pubs/pdfs/circulars/c480.pdf | title = Development of Paleobotany in the Illinois Basin | accessdateaccess-date = 15 September 2011 | lastlast1 = Phillips | firstfirst1 = Tom L. | last2 = Pfefferkorn | first2 = Herman L. | last3 = Peppers | first3 = Russel A. | year = 1973 | format = PDF | publisher = Illinois State Geological Survey | ref = harv | deadurl = yes | archiveurlarchive-url = https://wwwweb.webcitationarchive.org/65MsdHHUJ?url=web/20120326144058/http://library.isgs.uiuc.edu/Pubs/pdfs/circulars/c480.pdf | archivedatearchive-date = 1126 FebruaryMarch 2012 | dfdoi = dmy10.5962/bhl.title.61485 | hdl = 2142/43012 | hdl-allaccess = free }}
* {{cite journal | title = Changing patterns of Pennsylvanian coal-swamp vegetation and implications of climatic control on coal occurrence | journal = International Journal of Coal Geology | date = February 1984 | firstfirst1 = Tom L. | lastlast1 = Phillips | last2=Peppers|first2= Russel A. | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = 205–255|ref=harv | doi = 10.1016/0166-5162(84)90019-3 }}
* {{cite journal|url=http://digirep.rhul.ac.uk/file/c58e6257-7af3-2f87-0eeb-c9c521ae0dbb/1/38ScottandRex.pdf|title=The formation and significance of Carboniferous coal balls|journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]|lastlast1=Scott|firstfirst1=Andrew C.|last2=Rex|first2=G.M.|year=1985|accessdateaccess-date=15 July 2011|volume=B 311|pages=123–137|jstor=2396976|ref=harv|issue=1148|doi=10.1098/rstb.1985.0144 |bibcode = 1985RSPTB.311..123S }}
* {{cite book | last1 = Seward | first1 = A. C. | title = Plant Life Through the Ages: A Geological and Botanical Retrospect | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-1-108-01600-6|ref=harv 1}}
* {{cite book|last=Seward|first=Albert Charles|title=Fossil plants: a text-book for students of botany and geology|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.271130|year=1898|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=84–87|ref=harv[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.271130/page/n103 84]–87}} {{PD-notice}}
* {{cite journal|lastlast1=Stopes|firstfirst1=Marie C.|authorlinkauthor-link=Marie Stopes|last2=Watson|first2=David M. S.|authorlink2author-link2=D. M. S. Watson|year=1909|title=On the Present Distribution and Origin of the Calcareous Concretions in Coal Seams, Known as 'Coal Balls'|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|publisher=Royal Society|location=Britain|volume=200|pages=167–218|jstor=91931|bibcode=1909RSPTB.200..167S|ref=harv|doi=10.1098/rstb.1909.0005|issue=262–273 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite web |url=http://paleobiology.si.edu/paleoart/techniques/pages/reconstuct9.htm |title=NMNH Paleobiology: Illustration Techniques |work=paleobiology.si.edu |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |year=2007 |accessdateaccess-date=9 August 2011 |archiveurlarchive-url=https://wwwweb.webcitationarchive.org/60pHMElgE?url=web/20110826114828/http://paleobiology.si.edu/paleoart/techniques/pages/reconstuct9.htm |archivedatearchive-date=1026 August 2011 |deadurl=no |ref={{Harvid|Smithsonian Institution|2007}} |df=dmy }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.mrl.ucsb.edu/mrl/centralfacilities/xray/xray-basics/index.html#x2 |title=Materials Research Lab&nbsp;– Introduction to X-ray Diffraction |work=Materials Research Lab |publisher=[[University of Santa Barbara, California]] |year=2011 |accessdateaccess-date=25 August 2011 |archiveurlarchive-url=https://wwwweb.webcitationarchive.org/61DXItxK1?url=web/20110811110503/http://www.mrl.ucsb.edu/mrl/centralfacilities/xray/xray-basics/index.html |archivedatearchive-date=2611 August 2011 |deadurl=yes |ref={{harvid|University of Santa Barbara, California|2011}} |df=dmy }}
* {{cite news|title=Ore Deposits Under Study&nbsp;– Chicago University professor to engage in research work|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=xvFPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=zFQDAAAAIBAJ&dq=coal+balls&pg=3547%2C4532691|accessdateaccess-date=1 September 2011|newspaper=[[Evening Independent]]|date=19 June 1923|page=13|ref={{Harvid|Evening Independent|1923}} }}
* {{cite web|title=Paleobotany |url=https://www.cmnh.org/site/researchandcollections/Paleobotany.aspx |publisher=[[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]] |accessdateaccess-date=10 September 2011 |archiveurlarchive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812211835/http://www.cmnh.org/site/ResearchandCollections/Paleobotany.aspx |archivedatearchive-date=12 August 2011 |deadurlurl-status=bot: unknown |ref={{Harvid|Cleveland Museum of Natural History}} |df=dmy }}
{{refend}}
 
==Further reading==
* {{cite journal|title=Contributions to Our Knowledge of American Carboniferous Floras|last=Andrews|first=Henry N.|journal=[[Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden]]|issue=1|date=February 1942|pages=1–12, 14, 16, 18 |jstor=2394237|ref=harv|volume=29|doi=10.2307/2394237 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/17000}}
* {{cite book|title=The Fossil Hunters: In Search of Ancient Plants|last=Andrews|first=Henry N.|year=1980|publisher=[[Cornell University Press]]|isbn=978-0-8014-1248-X6|oclc=251684423|ref=harv }}
* {{cite journal | title = Mineralogy and origin of coal balls | journal = Geological Society of America North Central and South Central Section | year = 1995 | first = Henry L | last = Barwood | pagespage = 37|ref=harv }}
* {{cite journal|title=Formation of Coal Seams|series=Coal Age|volume= 21|pages=699–701|editor-last=Beard|editor-first=James T.|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1922 |ref=harv }} {{PD-notice}}
* {{cite book|title=The Wyoming Valley, upper waters of the Susquehanna, and the Lackawanna coal-region: including views of the natural scenery of northern Pennsylvania : from the Indian occupancy to the year 1875|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924095270843|editor-last=Clark|editor-first=James Albert|year=1875|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924095270843/page/n349 236]|id={{Google books|VQiU4W7x8X4C|The Wyoming Valley, upper waters of the Susquehanna, and the Lackawanna coal-region: including views of the natural scenery of northern Pennsylvania : from the Indian occupancy to the year 1875}}|ref=harv }} {{PD-notice}}
* {{cite book|title=The American Cyclopaedia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge|editor-last=Ripley|editor-first=George|editor2-last=Dana|editor2-first=Charles A.|publisher=Appleton|year=1873|last=Conant|first=Blandina|volume=4|id={{Google books|aZhRAAAAYAAJ|The American Cyclopaedia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge, Volume 4}}|ref=harv }} {{PD-notice}}
* {{cite journal|lastlast1=DiMichele|firstfirst1=William A.|last2=Phillips|first2=Tom L.|year=1988|title=Paleoecology of the Middle Pennsylvanian-Age Herrin Coal Swamp (Illinois) Near a Contemporaneous River System, the Walshville Paleochannel|journal=Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology |volume=56|issue=1–2|pages=151–176|urlhdl=http://si-pddr.si.edu/jspui/bitstream/10088/7152/1/paleo_1988_DiMichele_Phillips_OldBen_RPP.pdf|doi=10.1016/0034-6667(88)90080-2|ref=harv }}
* {{cite journal|lastlast1=Holmes|firstfirst1=J|last2=Scott|first2=Andrew C.|year=1981|title=A note on the occurrence of marine animal remains in a Lancashire coal ball (Westphalian A)|journal=Geological Magazine|pages=307–308|doi=10.1017/S0016756800035809|volume=118|issue=3|refbibcode=harv 1981GeoM..118..307H|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|title=The Mode of Origin of Coal|last=Jeffrey|first=Edward C.|journal=The Journal of Geology|year=1915 |volume=23|pages=218–230|id={{Google books|kX3zAAAAMAAJ|The Journal of Geology, volume 23}}|ref=harv|doi=10.1086/622227|issue=3|bibcode=1915JG.....23..218J |doi-access=free}} {{PD-notice}}
* {{cite book|title=Taphonomy: a process approach|year=1999|last1=Martin|first1=Robert E.|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|edition=Illustrated|isbn=978-0-521-59833-0|ref=harv }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/paleo/fossils/permin.html |title=Fossils&nbsp;– Window To The Past (Permineralisation) |accessdateaccess-date=8 July 2011 |archiveurlarchive-url=https://wwwweb.webcitationarchive.org/60Wv0sx12?url=web/20130531184810/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/paleo/fossils/permin.html |archivedatearchive-date=2931 JulyMay 20112013 |deadurl=no |ref=harv |df=dmy }}
 
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[[Category:Carboniferous geology]]
[[Category:Mineralogy]]
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