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Devanagari

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Devanāgarī
Rigveda manuscript in Devanāgarī (early 19th century)
Script type
Time period
c. 1200–present
DirectionLeft-to-right Edit this on Wikidata
RegionIndia and Nepal
LanguagesSeveral Indian languages, including Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Pahari (Garhwali and Kumaoni), Nepali, Bhili, Konkani, Bhojpuri, Magahi, Kurukh, Nepal Bhasa, Sindhi and Kashmiri. Sometimes used to write or transliterate Sherpa. Formerly used to write Gujarati.
Related scripts
Parent systems
Child systems
Gujarati
Moḍī
Ranjana
Canadian Aboriginal syllabics[1]
Sister systems
Sharada, Eastern Nāgarī
ISO 15924
ISO 15924Deva (315), ​Devanagari (Nagari)
Unicode
Unicode alias
Devanagari
U+0900–U+097F and U+A8E0–U+A8FF
 This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

Devanagari (pronounced /ˌdeɪvəˈnɑːɡəriː/; Hindustani: [d̪eːʋˈnaːɡri]; देवनागरी Devanāgarī — compound of "Deva" (देव) the half-human/demi-divine and "nágari" (नगर) literally "to talk", or — dialect: “A dialect of Devas”), also called Nagari (Nāgarī, the name of its parent writing system), is an abugida alphabet of India and Nepal. It is written from left to right, does not have distinct letter cases, and is recognizable (along with most other North Indic scripts, with the Gujarati script being an exception) by a horizontal line that runs along the top of full letters. Devanāgarī is the main script used to write Standard Hindi, Marathi, and Nepali. Since the 19th century, it has been the most commonly used script for Sanskrit. Devanāgarī is also employed for Bhojpuri, Gujari, Pahari (Garhwali and Kumaoni), Konkani, Magahi, Maithili, Marwari, Bhili, Newari, Santhali, Tharu, and sometimes Sindhi, Sherpa and Kashmiri. It was formerly used to write Gujarati.

Origins

Devanāgarī is part of the Brahmic family of scripts of India, Nepal, Tibet, and South-East Asia.[2] It is a descendant of the Gupta script, along with Siddham and Sharada.[2] Eastern variants of Gupta called Nāgarī are first attested from the 8th century; from c. 1200 these gradually replaced Siddham, which survived as a vehicle for Tantric Buddhism in East Asia, and Sharada, which remained in parallel use in Kashmir. An early version of Devanagari is visible in the Kutila inscription of Bareilly dated to Vikram Samvat 1049 (i.e. 992 CE), which demonstrates the emergence of the horizontal bar to group letters belonging to a word.[3]

Sanskrit nāgarī is the feminine of nāgara "urban(e)", a vrddhi adjectival form of nagaram, called establishment. It is feminine from its original phrasing with lipi ("script") as nāgarī lipi "urban(e) script", that is, the script of the cultured establishment. There are several varieties of Nāgarī in use, one of which was distinguished by affixing Deva "half-human/demi-divine" to form a tatpurusha compound meaning the "dialect of Devas".

The use of the name Devanāgarī is relatively recent, and the older term Nāgarī is still common.[2] The rapid spread of the term Devanāgarī may be related to the almost exclusive use of this script to publish sacred Sanskrit texts.[2] This has led to such a close connection between Devanāgarī and Sanskrit that Devanāgarī is now widely thought to be the Sanskrit script; however, before the colonial period there was no standard script for Sanskrit, which was written in whichever script was familiar to the local populace.

Principle

As a Brahmic abugida, the fundamental principle of Devanāgarī is that each letter represents a consonant, which carries an inherent schwa vowel a [ə].[4] For example, the letter क is read ka, the two letters कन are kana, the three कनय are kanaya, etc. Other vowels, or the absence of vowels, require modification of these consonants or their own letters:

  • Consonant clusters are written with ligatures (saṃyuktākṣara "conjuncts"). For example, the three letters कनय kanaya may be joined to form क्नय knaya, कन्य kanya, or क्न्य knya.
  • Vowels other than the inherent a are written with diacritics (termed matras). For example, using क ka, the following forms can be derived: के ke, कु ku, की kī, का kā, etc.
  • For vowels as an independent syllable (in writing, unattached to a consonant), either at the beginning of a word or after another vowel, there are full-letter forms. For example, while the vowel ū is written with the diacritic ू in कू kū, it has its own letter ऊ in ऊक ūka and कऊ kaū.
  • A final consonant is marked with the diacritic ्, called the virāma in Sanskrit, halant in Hindi, and occasionally a "killer stroke" in English. This cancels the inherent vowel, so that from क्नय knaya is derived क्नय् knay. The halant is often used for consonant clusters when typesetting conjunct ligatures is not feasible.

Such a letter or ligature, with its diacritics, is called an akṣara "syllable". For example, कनय kanaya is written with what are counted as three akshara, whereas क्न्य knya and कु ku are each written with one.

As far as handwriting is concerned, letters are usually written without the distinctive horizontal bar, which is only added once the word is completed.[5]

Letters

This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

The letter order of Devanāgarī, like nearly all Brahmi scripts, is based on phonetic principles which consider both the manner and place of articulation of the consonants and vowels they represent. This arrangement is usually referred to as the varṇamālā "garland of letters".[6] The format of Devanāgarī for Sanskrit serves as the prototype for its application, with minor variations or additions, to other languages.[7]

Vowels

The vowels and their arrangement are:[8]

Independent form Romanized As diacritic with प Independent form Romanized As diacritic with प
kaṇṭhya
(Guttural) 		अ a प आ ā पा
tālavya
(Palatal) 		इ i पि ई ī पी
oṣṭhya
(Labial) 		उ u पु ऊ ū पू
mūrḍhanya
(Retroflex) 		ऋ ṛ पृ ॠ ṝ पॄ
dantya
(Dental) 		ऌ ḷ पॢ ॡ ḹ पॣ
kaṇṭhatālavya
(Palato-Guttural) 		ए e पे ऐ ai पै
kaṇṭhoṣṭhya
(Labio-Guttural) 		ओ o पो औ au पौ
  • Arranged with the vowels are two consonantal diacritics, the final nasal anusvāra ं ṃ and the final fricative visarga ः ḥ (called अं aṃ and अः aḥ). Masica (1991:146) notes of the anusvāra in Sankrit that "there is some controversy as to whether it represents a homorganic nasal consonant [...], a nasalized vowel, a nasalized semivowel, or all these according to context". The visarga represents post-vocalic voiceless glottal fricative [h], in Sanskrit an allophone of s, or less commonly r, usually in word-final position. Some traditions of recitation append an echo of the vowel after the breath:[9] इः [ihi]. Masica (1991:146) considers the visarga along with letters ङ ṅa and ञ ña for the "largely predictable" velar and palatal nasals to be examples of "phonetic overkill in the system".
  • Another diacritic is the candrabindu/anunāsika ँ. Salomon (2003:76–77) describes it as a "more emphatic form" of the anusvāra, "sometimes [...] used to mark a true [vowel] nasalization". In a New Indo-Aryan language such as Hindi the distinction is formal: the candrabindu indicates vowel nasalization[10] while the anusvār indicates a homorganic nasal preceding another consonant:[11] e.g. हँसी [ɦə̃si] "laughter", गंगा [ɡəŋɡɑ] "the Ganges". When an akshara has a vowel diacritic above the top line, that leaves no room for the candra ("moon") stroke candrabindu, which is dispensed with in favour of the lone dot:[12] हूँ [ɦũ] "am", but हैं [ɦɛ̃] "are". Some writers and typesetters dispense with the "moon" stroke altogether, using only the dot in all situations.[13]
  • The avagraha ऽ (usually transliterated with an apostrophe) is a Sanskrit punctuation mark for the elision of a vowel in sandhi: एकोऽयम् ekoyam (< ekas + ayam) "this one". An original long vowel lost to coalescence is sometimes marked with a double avagraha: सदाऽऽत्मा sadātmā (< sadā + ātmā) "always, the self".[14] In Hindi, Snell (2000:77) states that its "main function is to show that a vowel is sustained in a cry or a shout": आईऽऽऽ! āīīī!. In Magahi, which has "quite a number of verbal forms [that] end in that inherent vowel" Verma (2003:501), the avagraha is used to mark the non-elision of word-final inherent a, which otherwise is a modern orthographic convention: बइठऽ baiṭha "sit" versus *बइठ baiṭh
  • The syllabic consonants ṝ, ḷ, and ḹ are specific to Sanskrit and not included in the varṇamālā of other languages. The sound represented by ṛ has also been lost in the modern languages, and its pronunciation now ranges from [ɾɪ] (Hindi) to [ɾu] (Marathi).
  • ḹ is not an actual phoneme of Sanskrit, but rather a graphic convention included among the vowels in order to maintain the symmetry of short–long pairs of letters.[7]
  • There are non-regular formations of रु ru and रू rū.

Consonants

The consonants and their arrangement are:[15]

sparśa
(Stop) 		anunāsika
(Nasal) 		antastha
(Approximant) 		ūṣma/saṃghashrī
(Fricative)
Voicing → aghoṣa ghoṣa aghoṣa ghoṣa
Aspiration → alpaprāṇa mahāprāṇa alpaprāṇa mahāprāṇa alpaprāṇa mahāprāṇa
kaṇṭhya
(Guttural) 		क ka
/k/ 		ख kha
/kʰ/ 		ग ga
/ɡ/ 		घ gha
/ɡʱ/ 		ङ ṅa
/ŋ/ 		ह ha
/ɦ/
tālavya
(Palatal) 		च ca
/c, t͡ʃ/ 		छ cha
/cʰ, t͡ʃʰ/ 		ज ja
/ɟ, d͡ʒ/ 		झ jha
/ɟʱ, d͡ʒʱ/ 		ञ ña
/ɲ/ 		य ya
/j/ 		श śa
/ɕ, ʃ/
mūrdhanya
(Retroflex) 		ट ṭa
/ʈ/ 		ठ ṭha
/ʈʰ/ 		ड ḍa
/ɖ/ 		ढ ḍha
/ɖʱ/ 		ण ṇa
/ɳ/ 		र ra
/r/ 		ष ṣa
/ʂ/
dantya
(Dental) 		त ta
/t̪/ 		थ tha
/t̪ʰ/ 		द da
/d̪/ 		ध dha
/d̪ʱ/ 		न na
/n/ 		ल la
/l/ 		स sa
/s/
oṣṭhya
(Labial) 		प pa
/p/ 		फ pha
/pʰ/ 		ब ba
/b/ 		भ bha
/bʱ/ 		म ma
/m/ 		व va
/ʋ/
  • Rounding this out where applicable is ळ ḷa /ɭ/, which represented the intervocalic lateral flap[citation needed] allophone of the voiced retroflex stop in Vedic Sanskrit, and which is a phoneme in languages such as Marathi and Rajasthani.
  • Beyond the Sanskritic set new shapes have rarely been formulated. Masica (1991:146) offers the following, "In any case, according to some, all possible sounds had already been described and provided for in this system, as Sanskrit was the original and perfect language. Hence it was difficult to provide for or even to conceive other sounds, unknown to the phoneticians of Sanskrit." Where foreign borrowings and internal developments did inevitably accrue and arise in New Indo-Aryan languages, they have been either ignored in writing, or dealt through means such as diacritics and ligatures (ignored in recitation).
    • The most prolific diacritic has been the subscript dot (nuqtā) ़. Hindi uses it for the Persian sounds क़ qa /q/, ख़ ḫa /x/, ग़ ġa /ɣ/, ज़ za /z/, झ़ zha /ʒ/, and फ़ fa /f/, and for the allophonic developments ड़ ṛa /ɽ/ and ढ़ ṛha /ɽʱ/. (Although ऴ ḷha /ɭʱ/ could also exist but there is no use of it in Hindi.)
    • Sindhi's implosives are accommodated with underlining ॒ : ॻ [ɠə], ॼ [ʄə], ॾ [ɗə], ॿ [ɓə].
    • Aspirated sonorants may be represented as conjuncts/ligatures with ह ha: म्ह mha, न्ह nha, ण्ह ṇha, व्ह vha, ल्ह lha, ळ्ह ḷha, र्ह rha.
    • Masica (1991:147) notes Marwari as using a special symbol for ḍa [ɗə] (while ड = [ɽə]).

Schwa syncope in Hindi consonants

Although the Devanagari script is used as a standard to write modern Hindi, the schwa ('ə') implicit in each consonant of the script is "obligatorily deleted" at the end of words and in certain other contexts, unlike in Sanskrit.[16] This phenomenon has been termed the "schwa syncope rule" or the "schwa deletion rule" of Hindi.[16][17] One formalization of this rule has been summarized as ə -> ø | VC_CV. In other words, when a vowel-preceded consonant is followed by a vowel-succeeded consonant, the schwa inherent in the first consonant is deleted.[17][18] However, this formalization is inexact and incomplete (i.e. sometimes deletes a schwa when it shouldn't or, at other times, fails to delete it when it should), and can yield errors. Schwa deletion is computationally important because it is essential to building text-to-speech software for Hindi.[18][19]

As a result of schwa syncope, the Hindi pronunciation of many words differs from that expected from a literal Sanskrit-style rendering of Devanagari. For instance, राम is Rām (not Rāma), रचना is Rachnā (not Rachanā), वेद is Véd (not Véda) and नमकीन is Namkeen (not Namakeen).[18][19] The name of the script itself is pronounced Devnāgri (not Devanagāri).[20]

Correct schwa deletion is also critical because, in some cases, the same Devanagari letter-sequence is pronounced two different ways in Hindi depending on context, and failure to delete the appropriate schwas can change the sense of the word.[21] For instance, the letter sequence 'रक' is pronounced differently in हरकत (har.kat, meaning movement or activity) and सरकना (sarak.na, meaning to slide). Similarly, the sequence धड़कने in दिल धड़कने लगा (the heart started beating) and in दिल की धड़कनें (beats of the heart) is identical prior to the nasalization in the second usage. Yet, it is pronounced dhadak.ne in the first and dhad.kane in the second.[21] While native speakers correctly pronounce the sequences differently in different contexts, non-native speakers and voice-synthesis software can make them "sound very unnatural", making it "extremely difficult for the listener" to grasp the intended meaning.[21]

Allophony of 'v' and 'w' in Hindi

[v] (the voiced labiodental fricative) and [w] (the voiced labio-velar approximant) are both allophones of the single letter 'व' in Devanagari and the single phoneme /व/ in Hindi (note that /v/ and /w/ are distinct phonemes in English). More specifically, they are conditional allophones, i.e. rules apply on whether 'व' is pronounced as [v] or [w] depending on context. Native Hindi speakers pronounce 'व' as [v] in vrat ('व्रत', fast) and [w] in pakwan ('पकवान', food dish), perceiving them as a single phoneme and without being aware of the allophone distinctions they are systematically making.[22] However, this specific allophony can become obvious when speakers switch languages. Non-native speakers of Hindi might pronounce 'व' in 'व्रत' as [w], i.e. as wrat instead of the more correct vrat. This results in a minor intelligibility problem because wrat can easily be confused for aurat, which means woman, instead of the intended fast, in Hindi.[22]

Conjuncts

 
The ddhrya-ligature (द्ध्र्य) of JanaSanskritSans.[23]
You will only be able to see the ligatures if your system has a Unicode font installed that includes the required ligature glyphs (e.g. one of the TDIL[24] fonts, see "external links" below).

As mentioned, successive consonants lacking a vowel in between them may physically join together as a conjunct or ligature. The government of these clusters ranges from widely to narrowly applicable rules, with special exceptions within. While standardized for the most part, there are certain variations in clustering, of which the Unicode used on this page is just one scheme. The following are a number of rules:

  • 24 out of the 36 consonants contain a vertical right stroke (ख, घ, ण etc.). As first or middle fragments/members of a cluster, they lose that stroke. e.g. त + व = त्व, ण + ढ = ण्ढ, स + थ = स्थ. श ś(a) appears as a different, simple ribbon-shaped fragment preceding व va, न na, च ca, ल la, and र ra, causing these second members to be shifted down and reduced in size. Thus श्व śva, श्न śna, श्च śca श्ल śla, and श्र śra.
  • र r(a) as a first member takes the form of a curved upward dash above the final character or its ā-diacritic. e.g. र्व rva, र्वा rvā, र्स्प rspa, र्स्पा rspā. As a final member with ट ठ ड ढ ङ छ it is two lines below the character, pointed downwards and apart. Thus ट्र ठ्र ड्र ढ्र ङ्र छ्र. Elsewhere as a final member it is a diagonal stroke extending leftwards and down. e.g. क्र ग्र भ्र. त ta is shifted up to make त्र tra.
  • As first members, remaining characters lacking vertical strokes such as द d(a) and ह h(a) may have their second member, reduced in size and lacking its horizontal stroke, placed underneath. क k(a), छ ch(a), and फ ph(a) shorten their right hooks and join them directly to the following member.
  • The conjuncts for kṣ and jñ are not clearly derived from the letters making up their components. The conjunct for kṣ is क्ष (क् + ष)and for jñ it is ज्ञ (ज् + ञ).

The table below shows all the 1296 viable symbols for the biconsonantal clusters formed by collating the 36 fundamental symbols of Sanskrit as listed in Masica (1991:161–162). Scroll your cursor over the conjuncts to reveal their romanizations (in IAST) and IPA pronunciations.

Biconsonantal conjuncts

क ख ग घ ङ च छ ज झ ञ ट ठ ड ढ ण त थ द ध न प फ ब भ म य र ल व श ष स ह ळ क्ष ज्ञ
क kka (IPA:kkə) kkha (IPA:kkʰə) kga (IPA:kɡə) kgha (IPA:kɡʱə) kṅa (IPA:kŋə) kca (IPA:kcɕə) kcha (IPA:kcɕʰə) kja (IPA:kɟʝə) kjha (IPA:kɟʝʱə) kña (IPA:kɲə) kṭa (IPA:kʈə) kṭha (IPA:kʈʰə) kḍa (IPA:kɖə) kḍha (IPA:kɖʱə) kṇa (IPA:kɳə) kta (IPA:kt̪ə) ktha (IPA:kt̪ʰə) kda (IPA:kd̪ə) kdha (IPA:kd̪ʱə) kna (IPA:kn̪ə) kpa (IPA:kpə) kpha (IPA:kpʰə) kba (IPA:kbə) kbha (IPA:kbʱə) kma (IPA:kmə) kya (IPA:kjə) kra (IPA:krə) kla (IPA:klə) kva (IPA:kvə) kśa (IPA:kʃə) kśa (IPA:kʃə) ksa (IPA:ksə) kha (IPA:khə) kḷa (IPA:kɭə) kkṣa (IPA:kkʃə) kgña (IPA:kɟʝɲə)
ख khka (IPA:kʰkə) khkha (IPA:kʰkʰə) khga (IPA:kʰɡə) khgha (IPA:kʰɡʱə) khṅa (IPA:kʰŋə) khca (IPA:kʰcɕə) khcha (IPA:kʰcɕʰə) khja (IPA:kʰɟʝə) khjha (IPA:kʰɟʝʱə) khña (IPA:kʰɲə) khṭa (IPA:kʰʈə) khṭha (IPA:kʰʈʰə) khḍa (IPA:kʰɖə) khḍha (IPA:kʰɖʱə) khṇa (IPA:kʰɳə) khta (IPA:kʰt̪ə) khtha (IPA:kʰt̪ʰə) khda (IPA:kʰd̪ə) khdha (IPA:kʰd̪ʱə) khna (IPA:kʰn̪ə) khpa (IPA:kʰpə) khpha (IPA:kʰpʰə) khba (IPA:kʰbə) khbha (IPA:kʰbʱə) khma (IPA:kʰmə) khya (IPA:kʰjə) khra (IPA:kʰrə) khla (IPA:kʰlə) khva (IPA:kʰvə) khśa (IPA:kʰʃə) khśa (IPA:kʰʃə) khsa (IPA:kʰsə) khha (IPA:kʰhə) khḷa (IPA:kʰɭə) khkṣa (IPA:kʰkʃə) khgña (IPA:kʰɟʝɲə)
ग gka (IPA:ɡkə) gkha (IPA:ɡkʰə) gga (IPA:ɡɡə) ggha (IPA:ɡɡʱə) gṅa (IPA:ɡŋə) gca (IPA:ɡcɕə) gcha (IPA:ɡcɕʰə) gja (IPA:ɡɟʝə) gjha (IPA:ɡɟʝʱə) gña (IPA:ɡɲə) gṭa (IPA:ɡʈə) gṭha (IPA:ɡʈʰə) gḍa (IPA:ɡɖə) gḍha (IPA:ɡɖʱə) gṇa (IPA:ɡɳə) gta (IPA:ɡt̪ə) gtha (IPA:ɡt̪ʰə) gda (IPA:ɡd̪ə) gdha (IPA:ɡd̪ʱə) gna (IPA:ɡn̪ə) gpa (IPA:ɡpə) gpha (IPA:ɡpʰə) gba (IPA:ɡbə) gbha (IPA:ɡbʱə) gma (IPA:ɡmə) gya (IPA:ɡjə) gra (IPA:ɡrə) gla (IPA:ɡlə) gva (IPA:ɡvə) gśa (IPA:ɡʃə) gśa (IPA:ɡʃə) gsa (IPA:ɡsə) gha (IPA:ɡhə) gḷa (IPA:ɡɭə) gkṣa (IPA:ɡkʃə) ggña (IPA:ɡɟʝɲə)
घ ghka (IPA:ɡʱkə) ghkha (IPA:ɡʱkʰə) ghga (IPA:ɡʱɡə) ghgha (IPA:ɡʱɡʱə) ghṅa (IPA:ɡʱŋə) ghca (IPA:ɡʱcɕə) ghcha (IPA:ɡʱcɕʰə) ghja (IPA:ɡʱɟʝə) ghjha (IPA:ɡʱɟʝʱə) ghña (IPA:ɡʱɲə) ghṭa (IPA:ɡʱʈə) ghṭha (IPA:ɡʱʈʰə) ghḍa (IPA:ɡʱɖə) ghḍha (IPA:ɡʱɖʱə) ghṇa (IPA:ɡʱɳə) ghta (IPA:ɡʱt̪ə) ghtha (IPA:ɡʱt̪ʰə) ghda (IPA:ɡʱd̪ə) ghdha (IPA:ɡʱd̪ʱə) ghna (IPA:ɡʱn̪ə) ghpa (IPA:ɡʱpə) ghpha (IPA:ɡʱpʰə) ghba (IPA:ɡʱbə) ghbha (IPA:ɡʱbʱə) ghma (IPA:ɡʱmə) ghya (IPA:ɡʱjə) ghra (IPA:ɡʱrə) ghla (IPA:ɡʱlə) ghva (IPA:ɡʱvə) ghśa (IPA:ɡʱʃə) ghśa (IPA:ɡʱʃə) ghsa (IPA:ɡʱsə) ghha (IPA:ɡʱhə) ghḷa (IPA:ɡʱɭə) ghkṣa (IPA:ɡʱkʃə) ghgña (IPA:ɡʱɟʝɲə)
ङ ṅka (IPA:ŋkə) ṅkha (IPA:ŋkʰə) ṅga (IPA:ŋɡə) ṅgha (IPA:ŋɡʱə) ṅṅa (IPA:ŋŋə) ṅca (IPA:ŋcɕə) ṅcha (IPA:ŋcɕʰə) ṅja (IPA:ŋɟʝə) ṅjha (IPA:ŋɟʝʱə) ṅña (IPA:ŋɲə) ṅṭa (IPA:ŋʈə) ṅṭha (IPA:ŋʈʰə) ṅḍa (IPA:ŋɖə) ṅḍha (IPA:ŋɖʱə) ṅṇa (IPA:ŋɳə) ṅta (IPA:ŋt̪ə) ṅtha (IPA:ŋt̪ʰə) ṅda (IPA:ŋd̪ə) ṅdha (IPA:ŋd̪ʱə) ṅna (IPA:ŋn̪ə) ṅpa (IPA:ŋpə) ṅpha (IPA:ŋpʰə) ṅba (IPA:ŋbə) ṅbha (IPA:ŋbʱə) ṅma (IPA:ŋmə) ṅya (IPA:ŋjə) ṅra (IPA:ŋrə) ṅla (IPA:ŋlə) ṅva (IPA:ŋvə) ṅśa (IPA:ŋʃə) ṅśa (IPA:ŋʃə) ṅsa (IPA:ŋsə) ṅha (IPA:ŋhə) ṅḷa (IPA:ŋɭə) ṅkṣa (IPA:ŋkʃə) ṅgña (IPA:ŋɟʝɲə)
च cka (IPA:cɕkə) ckha (IPA:cɕkʰə) cga (IPA:cɕɡə) cgha (IPA:cɕɡʱə) cṅa (IPA:cɕŋə) cca (IPA:cɕcɕə) ccha (IPA:cɕcɕʰə) cja (IPA:cɕɟʝə) cjha (IPA:cɕɟʝʱə) cña (IPA:cɕɲə) cṭa (IPA:cɕʈə) cṭha (IPA:cɕʈʰə) cḍa (IPA:cɕɖə) cḍha (IPA:cɕɖʱə) cṇa (IPA:cɕɳə) cta (IPA:cɕt̪ə) ctha (IPA:cɕt̪ʰə) cda (IPA:cɕd̪ə) cdha (IPA:cɕd̪ʱə) cna (IPA:cɕn̪ə) cpa (IPA:cɕpə) cpha (IPA:cɕpʰə) cba (IPA:cɕbə) cbha (IPA:cɕbʱə) cma (IPA:cɕmə) cya (IPA:cɕjə) cra (IPA:cɕrə) cla (IPA:cɕlə) cva (IPA:cɕvə) cśa (IPA:cɕʃə) cśa (IPA:cɕʃə) csa (IPA:cɕsə) cha (IPA:cɕhə) cḷa (IPA:cɕɭə) ckṣa (IPA:cɕkʃə) cgña (IPA:cɕɟʝɲə)
छ chka (IPA:cɕʰkə) chkha (IPA:cɕʰkʰə) chga (IPA:cɕʰɡə) chgha (IPA:cɕʰɡʱə) chṅa (IPA:cɕʰŋə) chca (IPA:cɕʰcɕə) chcha (IPA:cɕʰcɕʰə) chja (IPA:cɕʰɟʝə) chjha (IPA:cɕʰɟʝʱə) chña (IPA:cɕʰɲə) chṭa (IPA:cɕʰʈə) chṭha (IPA:cɕʰʈʰə) chḍa (IPA:cɕʰɖə) chḍha (IPA:cɕʰɖʱə) chṇa (IPA:cɕʰɳə) chta (IPA:cɕʰt̪ə) chtha (IPA:cɕʰt̪ʰə) chda (IPA:cɕʰd̪ə) chdha (IPA:cɕʰd̪ʱə) chna (IPA:cɕʰn̪ə) chpa (IPA:cɕʰpə) chpha (IPA:cɕʰpʰə) chba (IPA:cɕʰbə) chbha (IPA:cɕʰbʱə) chma (IPA:cɕʰmə) chya (IPA:cɕʰjə) chra (IPA:cɕʰrə) chla (IPA:cɕʰlə) chva (IPA:cɕʰvə) chśa (IPA:cɕʰʃə) chśa (IPA:cɕʰʃə) chsa (IPA:cɕʰsə) chha (IPA:cɕʰhə) chḷa (IPA:cɕʰɭə) chkṣa (IPA:cɕʰkʃə) chgña (IPA:cɕʰɟʝɲə)
ज jka (IPA:ɟʝkə) jkha (IPA:ɟʝkʰə) jga (IPA:ɟʝɡə) jgha (IPA:ɟʝɡʱə) jṅa (IPA:ɟʝŋə) jca (IPA:ɟʝcɕə) jcha (IPA:ɟʝcɕʰə) jja (IPA:ɟʝɟʝə) jjha (IPA:ɟʝɟʝʱə) jña (IPA:ɟʝɲə) jṭa (IPA:ɟʝʈə) jṭha (IPA:ɟʝʈʰə) jḍa (IPA:ɟʝɖə) jḍha (IPA:ɟʝɖʱə) jṇa (IPA:ɟʝɳə) jta (IPA:ɟʝt̪ə) jtha (IPA:ɟʝt̪ʰə) jda (IPA:ɟʝd̪ə) jdha (IPA:ɟʝd̪ʱə) jna (IPA:ɟʝn̪ə) jpa (IPA:ɟʝpə) jpha (IPA:ɟʝpʰə) jba (IPA:ɟʝbə) jbha (IPA:ɟʝbʱə) jma (IPA:ɟʝmə) jya (IPA:ɟʝjə) jra (IPA:ɟʝrə) jla (IPA:ɟʝlə) jva (IPA:ɟʝvə) jśa (IPA:ɟʝʃə) jśa (IPA:ɟʝʃə) jsa (IPA:ɟʝsə) jha (IPA:ɟʝhə) jḷa (IPA:ɟʝɭə) jkṣa (IPA:ɟʝkʃə) jgña (IPA:ɟʝɟʝɲə)
झ jhka (IPA:ɟʝʱkə) jhkha (IPA:ɟʝʱkʰə) jhga (IPA:ɟʝʱɡə) jhgha (IPA:ɟʝʱɡʱə) jhṅa (IPA:ɟʝʱŋə) jhca (IPA:ɟʝʱcɕə) jhcha (IPA:ɟʝʱcɕʰə) jhja (IPA:ɟʝʱɟʝə) jhjha (IPA:ɟʝʱɟʝʱə) jhña (IPA:ɟʝʱɲə) jhṭa (IPA:ɟʝʱʈə) jhṭha (IPA:ɟʝʱʈʰə) jhḍa (IPA:ɟʝʱɖə) jhḍha (IPA:ɟʝʱɖʱə) jhṇa (IPA:ɟʝʱɳə) jhta (IPA:ɟʝʱt̪ə) jhtha (IPA:ɟʝʱt̪ʰə) jhda (IPA:ɟʝʱd̪ə) jhdha (IPA:ɟʝʱd̪ʱə) jhna (IPA:ɟʝʱn̪ə) jhpa (IPA:ɟʝʱpə) jhpha (IPA:ɟʝʱpʰə) jhba (IPA:ɟʝʱbə) jhbha (IPA:ɟʝʱbʱə) jhma (IPA:ɟʝʱmə) jhya (IPA:ɟʝʱjə) jhra (IPA:ɟʝʱrə) jhla (IPA:ɟʝʱlə) jhva (IPA:ɟʝʱvə) jhśa (IPA:ɟʝʱʃə) jhśa (IPA:ɟʝʱʃə) jhsa (IPA:ɟʝʱsə) jhha (IPA:ɟʝʱhə) jhḷa (IPA:ɟʝʱɭə) jhkṣa (IPA:ɟʝʱkʃə) jhgña (IPA:ɟʝʱɟʝɲə)
ञ ñka (IPA:ɲkə) ñkha (IPA:ɲkʰə) ñga (IPA:ɲɡə) ñgha (IPA:ɲɡʱə) ñṅa (IPA:ɲŋə) ñca (IPA:ɲcɕə) ñcha (IPA:ɲcɕʰə) ñja (IPA:ɲɟʝə) ñjha (IPA:ɲɟʝʱə) ñña (IPA:ɲɲə) ñṭa (IPA:ɲʈə) ñṭha (IPA:ɲʈʰə) ñḍa (IPA:ɲɖə) ñḍha (IPA:ɲɖʱə) ñṇa (IPA:ɲɳə) ñta (IPA:ɲt̪ə) ñtha (IPA:ɲt̪ʰə) ñda (IPA:ɲd̪ə) ñdha (IPA:ɲd̪ʱə) ñna (IPA:ɲn̪ə) ñpa (IPA:ɲpə) ñpha (IPA:ɲpʰə) ñba (IPA:ɲbə) ñbha (IPA:ɲbʱə) ñma (IPA:ɲmə) ñya (IPA:ɲjə) ñra (IPA:ɲrə) ñla (IPA:ɲlə) ñva (IPA:ɲvə) ñśa (IPA:ɲʃə) ñśa (IPA:ɲʃə) ñsa (IPA:ɲsə) ñha (IPA:ɲhə) ñḷa (IPA:ɲɭə) ñkṣa (IPA:ɲkʃə) ñgña (IPA:ɲɟʝɲə)
ट ṭka (IPA:ʈkə) ṭkha (IPA:ʈkʰə) ṭga (IPA:ʈɡə) ṭgha (IPA:ʈɡʱə) ṭṅa (IPA:ʈŋə) ṭca (IPA:ʈcɕə) ṭcha (IPA:ʈcɕʰə) ṭja (IPA:ʈɟʝə) ṭjha (IPA:ʈɟʝʱə) ṭña (IPA:ʈɲə) ṭṭa (IPA:ʈʈə) ṭṭha (IPA:ʈʈʰə) ṭḍa (IPA:ʈɖə) ṭḍha (IPA:ʈɖʱə) ṭṇa (IPA:ʈɳə) ṭta (IPA:ʈt̪ə) ṭtha (IPA:ʈt̪ʰə) ṭda (IPA:ʈd̪ə) ṭdha (IPA:ʈd̪ʱə) ṭna (IPA:ʈn̪ə) ṭpa (IPA:ʈpə) ṭpha (IPA:ʈpʰə) ṭba (IPA:ʈbə) ṭbha (IPA:ʈbʱə) ṭma (IPA:ʈmə) ṭya (IPA:ʈjə) ṭra (IPA:ʈrə) ṭla (IPA:ʈlə) ṭva (IPA:ʈvə) ṭśa (IPA:ʈʃə) ṭśa (IPA:ʈʃə) ṭsa (IPA:ʈsə) ṭha (IPA:ʈhə) ṭḷa (IPA:ʈɭə) ṭkṣa (IPA:ʈkʃə) ṭgña (IPA:ʈɟʝɲə)
ठ ṭhka (IPA:ʈʰkə) ṭhkha (IPA:ʈʰkʰə) ṭhga (IPA:ʈʰɡə) ṭhgha (IPA:ʈʰɡʱə) ṭhṅa (IPA:ʈʰŋə) ṭhca (IPA:ʈʰcɕə) ṭhcha (IPA:ʈʰcɕʰə) ṭhja (IPA:ʈʰɟʝə) ṭhjha (IPA:ʈʰɟʝʱə) ṭhña (IPA:ʈʰɲə) ṭhṭa (IPA:ʈʰʈə) ṭhṭha (IPA:ʈʰʈʰə) ṭhḍa (IPA:ʈʰɖə) ṭhḍha (IPA:ʈʰɖʱə) ṭhṇa (IPA:ʈʰɳə) ṭhta (IPA:ʈʰt̪ə) ṭhtha (IPA:ʈʰt̪ʰə) ṭhda (IPA:ʈʰd̪ə) ṭhdha (IPA:ʈʰd̪ʱə) ṭhna (IPA:ʈʰn̪ə) ṭhpa (IPA:ʈʰpə) ṭhpha (IPA:ʈʰpʰə) ṭhba (IPA:ʈʰbə) ṭhbha (IPA:ʈʰbʱə) ṭhma (IPA:ʈʰmə) ṭhya (IPA:ʈʰjə) ṭhra (IPA:ʈʰrə) ṭhla (IPA:ʈʰlə) ṭhva (IPA:ʈʰvə) ṭhśa (IPA:ʈʰʃə) ṭhśa (IPA:ʈʰʃə) ṭhsa (IPA:ʈʰsə) ṭhha (IPA:ʈʰhə) ṭhḷa (IPA:ʈʰɭə) ṭhkṣa (IPA:ʈʰkʃə) ṭhgña (IPA:ʈʰɟʝɲə)
ड ḍka (IPA:ɖkə) ḍkha (IPA:ɖkʰə) ḍga (IPA:ɖɡə) ḍgha (IPA:ɖɡʱə) ḍṅa (IPA:ɖŋə) ḍca (IPA:ɖcɕə) ḍcha (IPA:ɖcɕʰə) ḍja (IPA:ɖɟʝə) ḍjha (IPA:ɖɟʝʱə) ḍña (IPA:ɖɲə) ḍṭa (IPA:ɖʈə) ḍṭha (IPA:ɖʈʰə) ḍḍa (IPA:ɖɖə) ḍḍha (IPA:ɖɖʱə) ḍṇa (IPA:ɖɳə) ḍta (IPA:ɖt̪ə) ḍtha (IPA:ɖt̪ʰə) ḍda (IPA:ɖd̪ə) ḍdha (IPA:ɖd̪ʱə) ḍna (IPA:ɖn̪ə) ḍpa (IPA:ɖpə) ḍpha (IPA:ɖpʰə) ḍba (IPA:ɖbə) ḍbha (IPA:ɖbʱə) ḍma (IPA:ɖmə) ḍya (IPA:ɖjə) ḍra (IPA:ɖrə) ḍla (IPA:ɖlə) ḍva (IPA:ɖvə) ḍśa (IPA:ɖʃə) ḍśa (IPA:ɖʃə) ḍsa (IPA:ɖsə) ḍha (IPA:ɖhə) ḍḷa (IPA:ɖɭə) ḍkṣa (IPA:ɖkʃə) ḍgña (IPA:ɖɟʝɲə)
ढ ḍhka (IPA:ɖʱkə) ḍhkha (IPA:ɖʱkʰə) ḍhga (IPA:ɖʱɡə) ḍhgha (IPA:ɖʱɡʱə) ḍhṅa (IPA:ɖʱŋə) ḍhca (IPA:ɖʱcɕə) ḍhcha (IPA:ɖʱcɕʰə) ḍhja (IPA:ɖʱɟʝə) ḍhjha (IPA:ɖʱɟʝʱə) ḍhña (IPA:ɖʱɲə) ḍhṭa (IPA:ɖʱʈə) ḍhṭha (IPA:ɖʱʈʰə) ḍhḍa (IPA:ɖʱɖə) ḍhḍha (IPA:ɖʱɖʱə) ḍhṇa (IPA:ɖʱɳə) ḍhta (IPA:ɖʱt̪ə) ḍhtha (IPA:ɖʱt̪ʰə) ḍhda (IPA:ɖʱd̪ə) ḍhdha (IPA:ɖʱd̪ʱə) ḍhna (IPA:ɖʱn̪ə) ḍhpa (IPA:ɖʱpə) ḍhpha (IPA:ɖʱpʰə) ḍhba (IPA:ɖʱbə) ḍhbha (IPA:ɖʱbʱə) ḍhma (IPA:ɖʱmə) ḍhya (IPA:ɖʱjə) ḍhra (IPA:ɖʱrə) ḍhla (IPA:ɖʱlə) ḍhva (IPA:ɖʱvə) ḍhśa (IPA:ɖʱʃə) ḍhśa (IPA:ɖʱʃə) ḍhsa (IPA:ɖʱsə) ḍhha (IPA:ɖʱhə) ḍhḷa (IPA:ɖʱɭə) ḍhkṣa (IPA:ɖʱkʃə) ḍhgña (IPA:ɖʱɟʝɲə)
ण ṇka (IPA:ɳkə) ṇkha (IPA:ɳkʰə) ṇga (IPA:ɳɡə) ṇgha (IPA:ɳɡʱə) ṇṅa (IPA:ɳŋə) ṇca (IPA:ɳcɕə) ṇcha (IPA:ɳcɕʰə) ṇja (IPA:ɳɟʝə) ṇjha (IPA:ɳɟʝʱə) ṇña (IPA:ɳɲə) ṇṭa (IPA:ɳʈə) ṇṭha (IPA:ɳʈʰə) ṇḍa (IPA:ɳɖə) ṇḍha (IPA:ɳɖʱə) ṇṇa (IPA:ɳɳə) ṇta (IPA:ɳt̪ə) ṇtha (IPA:ɳt̪ʰə) ṇda (IPA:ɳd̪ə) ṇdha (IPA:ɳd̪ʱə) ṇna (IPA:ɳn̪ə) ṇpa (IPA:ɳpə) ṇpha (IPA:ɳpʰə) ṇba (IPA:ɳbə) ṇbha (IPA:ɳbʱə) ṇma (IPA:ɳmə) ṇya (IPA:ɳjə) ṇra (IPA:ɳrə) ṇla (IPA:ɳlə) ṇva (IPA:ɳvə) ṇśa (IPA:ɳʃə) ṇśa (IPA:ɳʃə) ṇsa (IPA:ɳsə) ṇha (IPA:ɳhə) ṇḷa (IPA:ɳɭə) ṇkṣa (IPA:ɳkʃə) ṇgña (IPA:ɳɟʝɲə)
त tka (IPA:t̪kə) tkha (IPA:t̪kʰə) tga (IPA:t̪ɡə) tgha (IPA:t̪ɡʱə) tṅa (IPA:t̪ŋə) tca (IPA:t̪cɕə) tcha (IPA:t̪cɕʰə) tja (IPA:t̪ɟʝə) tjha (IPA:t̪ɟʝʱə) tña (IPA:t̪ɲə) tṭa (IPA:t̪ʈə) tṭha (IPA:t̪ʈʰə) tḍa (IPA:t̪ɖə) tḍha (IPA:t̪ɖʱə) tṇa (IPA:t̪ɳə) tta (IPA:t̪t̪ə) ttha (IPA:t̪t̪ʰə) tda (IPA:t̪d̪ə) tdha (IPA:t̪d̪ʱə) tna (IPA:t̪n̪ə) tpa (IPA:t̪pə) tpha (IPA:t̪pʰə) tba (IPA:t̪bə) tbha (IPA:t̪bʱə) tma (IPA:t̪mə) tya (IPA:t̪jə) tra (IPA:t̪rə) tla (IPA:t̪lə) tva (IPA:t̪və) tśa (IPA:t̪ʃə) tśa (IPA:t̪ʃə) tsa (IPA:t̪sə) tha (IPA:t̪hə) tḷa (IPA:t̪ɭə) tkṣa (IPA:t̪kʃə) tgña (IPA:t̪ɟʝɲə)
थ thka (IPA:t̪ʰkə) thkha (IPA:t̪ʰkʰə) thga (IPA:t̪ʰɡə) thgha (IPA:t̪ʰɡʱə) thṅa (IPA:t̪ʰŋə) thca (IPA:t̪ʰcɕə) thcha (IPA:t̪ʰcɕʰə) thja (IPA:t̪ʰɟʝə) thjha (IPA:t̪ʰɟʝʱə) thña (IPA:t̪ʰɲə) thṭa (IPA:t̪ʰʈə) thṭha (IPA:t̪ʰʈʰə) thḍa (IPA:t̪ʰɖə) thḍha (IPA:t̪ʰɖʱə) thṇa (IPA:t̪ʰɳə) thta (IPA:t̪ʰt̪ə) ththa (IPA:t̪ʰt̪ʰə) thda (IPA:t̪ʰd̪ə) thdha (IPA:t̪ʰd̪ʱə) thna (IPA:t̪ʰn̪ə) thpa (IPA:t̪ʰpə) thpha (IPA:t̪ʰpʰə) thba (IPA:t̪ʰbə) thbha (IPA:t̪ʰbʱə) thma (IPA:t̪ʰmə) thya (IPA:t̪ʰjə) thra (IPA:t̪ʰrə) thla (IPA:t̪ʰlə) thva (IPA:t̪ʰvə) thśa (IPA:t̪ʰʃə) thśa (IPA:t̪ʰʃə) thsa (IPA:t̪ʰsə) thha (IPA:t̪ʰhə) thḷa (IPA:t̪ʰɭə) thkṣa (IPA:t̪ʰkʃə) thgña (IPA:t̪ʰɟʝɲə)
द dka (IPA:d̪kə) dkha (IPA:d̪kʰə) dga (IPA:d̪ɡə) dgha (IPA:d̪ɡʱə) dṅa (IPA:d̪ŋə) dca (IPA:d̪cɕə) dcha (IPA:d̪cɕʰə) dja (IPA:d̪ɟʝə) djha (IPA:d̪ɟʝʱə) dña (IPA:d̪ɲə) dṭa (IPA:d̪ʈə) dṭha (IPA:d̪ʈʰə) dḍa (IPA:d̪ɖə) dḍha (IPA:d̪ɖʱə) dṇa (IPA:d̪ɳə) dta (IPA:d̪t̪ə) dtha (IPA:d̪t̪ʰə) dda (IPA:d̪d̪ə) ddha (IPA:d̪d̪ʱə) dna (IPA:d̪n̪ə) dpa (IPA:d̪pə) dpha (IPA:d̪pʰə) dba (IPA:d̪bə) dbha (IPA:d̪bʱə) dma (IPA:d̪mə) dya (IPA:d̪jə) dra (IPA:d̪rə) dla (IPA:d̪lə) dva (IPA:d̪və) dśa (IPA:d̪ʃə) dśa (IPA:d̪ʃə) dsa (IPA:d̪sə) dha (IPA:d̪hə) dḷa (IPA:d̪ɭə) dkṣa (IPA:d̪kʃə) dgña (IPA:d̪ɟʝɲə)
ध dhka (IPA:d̪ʱkə) dhkha (IPA:d̪ʱkʰə) dhga (IPA:d̪ʱɡə) dhgha (IPA:d̪ʱɡʱə) dhṅa (IPA:d̪ʱŋə) dhca (IPA:d̪ʱcɕə) dhcha (IPA:d̪ʱcɕʰə) dhja (IPA:d̪ʱɟʝə) dhjha (IPA:d̪ʱɟʝʱə) dhña (IPA:d̪ʱɲə) dhṭa (IPA:d̪ʱʈə) dhṭha (IPA:d̪ʱʈʰə) dhḍa (IPA:d̪ʱɖə) dhḍha (IPA:d̪ʱɖʱə) dhṇa (IPA:d̪ʱɳə) dhta (IPA:d̪ʱt̪ə) dhtha (IPA:d̪ʱt̪ʰə) dhda (IPA:d̪ʱd̪ə) dhdha (IPA:d̪ʱd̪ʱə) dhna (IPA:d̪ʱn̪ə) dhpa (IPA:d̪ʱpə) dhpha (IPA:d̪ʱpʰə) dhba (IPA:d̪ʱbə) dhbha (IPA:d̪ʱbʱə) dhma (IPA:d̪ʱmə) dhya (IPA:d̪ʱjə) dhra (IPA:d̪ʱrə) dhla (IPA:d̪ʱlə) dhva (IPA:d̪ʱvə) dhśa (IPA:d̪ʱʃə) dhśa (IPA:d̪ʱʃə) dhsa (IPA:d̪ʱsə) dhha (IPA:d̪ʱhə) dhḷa (IPA:d̪ʱɭə) dhkṣa (IPA:d̪ʱkʃə) dhgña (IPA:d̪ʱɟʝɲə)
न nka (IPA:n̪kə) nkha (IPA:n̪kʰə) nga (IPA:n̪ɡə) ngha (IPA:n̪ɡʱə) nṅa (IPA:n̪ŋə) nca (IPA:n̪cɕə) ncha (IPA:n̪cɕʰə) nja (IPA:n̪ɟʝə) njha (IPA:n̪ɟʝʱə) nña (IPA:n̪ɲə) nṭa (IPA:n̪ʈə) nṭha (IPA:n̪ʈʰə) nḍa (IPA:n̪ɖə) nḍha (IPA:n̪ɖʱə) nṇa (IPA:n̪ɳə) nta (IPA:n̪t̪ə) ntha (IPA:n̪t̪ʰə) nda (IPA:n̪d̪ə) ndha (IPA:n̪d̪ʱə) nna (IPA:n̪n̪ə) npa (IPA:n̪pə) npha (IPA:n̪pʰə) nba (IPA:n̪bə) nbha (IPA:n̪bʱə) nma (IPA:n̪mə) nya (IPA:n̪jə) nra (IPA:n̪rə) nla (IPA:n̪lə) nva (IPA:n̪və) nśa (IPA:n̪ʃə) nśa (IPA:n̪ʃə) nsa (IPA:n̪sə) nha (IPA:n̪hə) nḷa (IPA:n̪ɭə) nkṣa (IPA:n̪kʃə) ngña (IPA:n̪ɟʝɲə)
प pka (IPA:pkə) pkha (IPA:pkʰə) pga (IPA:pɡə) pgha (IPA:pɡʱə) pṅa (IPA:pŋə) pca (IPA:pcɕə) pcha (IPA:pcɕʰə) pja (IPA:pɟʝə) pjha (IPA:pɟʝʱə) pña (IPA:pɲə) pṭa (IPA:pʈə) pṭha (IPA:pʈʰə) pḍa (IPA:pɖə) pḍha (IPA:pɖʱə) pṇa (IPA:pɳə) pta (IPA:pt̪ə) ptha (IPA:pt̪ʰə) pda (IPA:pd̪ə) pdha (IPA:pd̪ʱə) pna (IPA:pn̪ə) ppa (IPA:ppə) ppha (IPA:ppʰə) pba (IPA:pbə) pbha (IPA:pbʱə) pma (IPA:pmə) pya (IPA:pjə) pra (IPA:prə) pla (IPA:plə) pva (IPA:pvə) pśa (IPA:pʃə) pśa (IPA:pʃə) psa (IPA:psə) pha (IPA:phə) pḷa (IPA:pɭə) pkṣa (IPA:pkʃə) pgña (IPA:pɟʝɲə)
फ phka (IPA:pʰkə) phkha (IPA:pʰkʰə) phga (IPA:pʰɡə) phgha (IPA:pʰɡʱə) phṅa (IPA:pʰŋə) phca (IPA:pʰcɕə) phcha (IPA:pʰcɕʰə) phja (IPA:pʰɟʝə) phjha (IPA:pʰɟʝʱə) phña (IPA:pʰɲə) phṭa (IPA:pʰʈə) phṭha (IPA:pʰʈʰə) phḍa (IPA:pʰɖə) phḍha (IPA:pʰɖʱə) phṇa (IPA:pʰɳə) phta (IPA:pʰt̪ə) phtha (IPA:pʰt̪ʰə) phda (IPA:pʰd̪ə) phdha (IPA:pʰd̪ʱə) phna (IPA:pʰn̪ə) phpa (IPA:pʰpə) phpha (IPA:pʰpʰə) phba (IPA:pʰbə) phbha (IPA:pʰbʱə) phma (IPA:pʰmə) phya (IPA:pʰjə) phra (IPA:pʰrə) phla (IPA:pʰlə) phva (IPA:pʰvə) phśa (IPA:pʰʃə) phśa (IPA:pʰʃə) phsa (IPA:pʰsə) phha (IPA:pʰhə) phḷa (IPA:pʰɭə) phkṣa (IPA:pʰkʃə) phgña (IPA:pʰɟʝɲə)
ब bka (IPA:bkə) bkha (IPA:bkʰə) bga (IPA:bɡə) bgha (IPA:bɡʱə) bṅa (IPA:bŋə) bca (IPA:bcɕə) bcha (IPA:bcɕʰə) bja (IPA:bɟʝə) bjha (IPA:bɟʝʱə) bña (IPA:bɲə) bṭa (IPA:bʈə) bṭha (IPA:bʈʰə) bḍa (IPA:bɖə) bḍha (IPA:bɖʱə) bṇa (IPA:bɳə) bta (IPA:bt̪ə) btha (IPA:bt̪ʰə) bda (IPA:bd̪ə) bdha (IPA:bd̪ʱə) bna (IPA:bn̪ə) bpa (IPA:bpə) bpha (IPA:bpʰə) bba (IPA:bbə) bbha (IPA:bbʱə) bma (IPA:bmə) bya (IPA:bjə) bra (IPA:brə) bla (IPA:blə) bva (IPA:bvə) bśa (IPA:bʃə) bśa (IPA:bʃə) bsa (IPA:bsə) bha (IPA:bhə) bḷa (IPA:bɭə) bkṣa (IPA:bkʃə) bgña (IPA:bɟʝɲə)
भ bhka (IPA:bʱkə) bhkha (IPA:bʱkʰə) bhga (IPA:bʱɡə) bhgha (IPA:bʱɡʱə) bhṅa (IPA:bʱŋə) bhca (IPA:bʱcɕə) bhcha (IPA:bʱcɕʰə) bhja (IPA:bʱɟʝə) bhjha (IPA:bʱɟʝʱə) bhña (IPA:bʱɲə) bhṭa (IPA:bʱʈə) bhṭha (IPA:bʱʈʰə) bhḍa (IPA:bʱɖə) bhḍha (IPA:bʱɖʱə) bhṇa (IPA:bʱɳə) bhta (IPA:bʱt̪ə) bhtha (IPA:bʱt̪ʰə) bhda (IPA:bʱd̪ə) bhdha (IPA:bʱd̪ʱə) bhna (IPA:bʱn̪ə) bhpa (IPA:bʱpə) bhpha (IPA:bʱpʰə) bhba (IPA:bʱbə) bhbha (IPA:bʱbʱə) bhma (IPA:bʱmə) bhya (IPA:bʱjə) bhra (IPA:bʱrə) bhla (IPA:bʱlə) bhva (IPA:bʱvə) bhśa (IPA:bʱʃə) bhśa (IPA:bʱʃə) bhsa (IPA:bʱsə) bhha (IPA:bʱhə) bhḷa (IPA:bʱɭə) bhkṣa (IPA:bʱkʃə) bhgña (IPA:bʱɟʝɲə)
म mka (IPA:mkə) mkha (IPA:mkʰə) mga (IPA:mɡə) mgha (IPA:mɡʱə) mṅa (IPA:mŋə) mca (IPA:mcɕə) mcha (IPA:mcɕʰə) mja (IPA:mɟʝə) mjha (IPA:mɟʝʱə) mña (IPA:mɲə) mṭa (IPA:mʈə) mṭha (IPA:mʈʰə) mḍa (IPA:mɖə) mḍha (IPA:mɖʱə) mṇa (IPA:mɳə) mta (IPA:mt̪ə) mtha (IPA:mt̪ʰə) mda (IPA:md̪ə) mdha (IPA:md̪ʱə) mna (IPA:mn̪ə) mpa (IPA:mpə) mpha (IPA:mpʰə) mba (IPA:mbə) mbha (IPA:mbʱə) mma (IPA:mmə) mya (IPA:mjə) mra (IPA:mrə) mla (IPA:mlə) mva (IPA:mvə) mśa (IPA:mʃə) mśa (IPA:mʃə) msa (IPA:msə) mha (IPA:mhə) mḷa (IPA:mɭə) mkṣa (IPA:mkʃə) mgña (IPA:mɟʝɲə)
य yka (IPA:jkə) ykha (IPA:jkʰə) yga (IPA:jɡə) ygha (IPA:jɡʱə) yṅa (IPA:jŋə) yca (IPA:jcɕə) ycha (IPA:jcɕʰə) yja (IPA:jɟʝə) yjha (IPA:jɟʝʱə) yña (IPA:jɲə) yṭa (IPA:jʈə) yṭha (IPA:jʈʰə) yḍa (IPA:jɖə) yḍha (IPA:jɖʱə) yṇa (IPA:jɳə) yta (IPA:jt̪ə) ytha (IPA:jt̪ʰə) yda (IPA:jd̪ə) ydha (IPA:jd̪ʱə) yna (IPA:jn̪ə) ypa (IPA:jpə) ypha (IPA:jpʰə) yba (IPA:jbə) ybha (IPA:jbʱə) yma (IPA:jmə) yya (IPA:jjə) yra (IPA:jrə) yla (IPA:jlə) yva (IPA:jvə) yśa (IPA:jʃə) yśa (IPA:jʃə) ysa (IPA:jsə) yha (IPA:jhə) yḷa (IPA:jɭə) ykṣa (IPA:jkʃə) ygña (IPA:jɟʝɲə)
र rka (IPA:rkə) rkha (IPA:rkʰə) rga (IPA:rɡə) rgha (IPA:rɡʱə) rṅa (IPA:rŋə) rca (IPA:rcɕə) rcha (IPA:rcɕʰə) rja (IPA:rɟʝə) rjha (IPA:rɟʝʱə) rña (IPA:rɲə) rṭa (IPA:rʈə) rṭha (IPA:rʈʰə) rḍa (IPA:rɖə) rḍha (IPA:rɖʱə) rṇa (IPA:rɳə) rta (IPA:rt̪ə) rtha (IPA:rt̪ʰə) rda (IPA:rd̪ə) rdha (IPA:rd̪ʱə) rna (IPA:rn̪ə) rpa (IPA:rpə) rpha (IPA:rpʰə) rba (IPA:rbə) rbha (IPA:rbʱə) rma (IPA:rmə) rya (IPA:rjə) rra (IPA:rrə) rla (IPA:rlə) rva (IPA:rvə) rśa (IPA:rʃə) rśa (IPA:rʃə) rsa (IPA:rsə) rha (IPA:rhə) rḷa (IPA:rɭə) rkṣa (IPA:rkʃə) rgña (IPA:rɟʝɲə)
ल lka (IPA:lkə) lkha (IPA:lkʰə) lga (IPA:lɡə) lgha (IPA:lɡʱə) lṅa (IPA:lŋə) lca (IPA:lcɕə) lcha (IPA:lcɕʰə) lja (IPA:lɟʝə) ljha (IPA:lɟʝʱə) lña (IPA:lɲə) lṭa (IPA:lʈə) lṭha (IPA:lʈʰə) lḍa (IPA:lɖə) lḍha (IPA:lɖʱə) lṇa (IPA:lɳə) lta (IPA:lt̪ə) ltha (IPA:lt̪ʰə) lda (IPA:ld̪ə) ldha (IPA:ld̪ʱə) lna (IPA:ln̪ə) lpa (IPA:lpə) lpha (IPA:lpʰə) lba (IPA:lbə) lbha (IPA:lbʱə) lma (IPA:lmə) lya (IPA:ljə) lra (IPA:lrə) lla (IPA:llə) lva (IPA:lvə) lśa (IPA:lʃə) lśa (IPA:lʃə) lsa (IPA:lsə) lha (IPA:lhə) lḷa (IPA:lɭə) lkṣa (IPA:lkʃə) lgña (IPA:lɟʝɲə)
व vka (IPA:vkə) vkha (IPA:vkʰə) vga (IPA:vɡə) vgha (IPA:vɡʱə) vṅa (IPA:vŋə) vca (IPA:vcɕə) vcha (IPA:vcɕʰə) vja (IPA:vɟʝə) vjha (IPA:vɟʝʱə) vña (IPA:vɲə) vṭa (IPA:vʈə) vṭha (IPA:vʈʰə) vḍa (IPA:vɖə) vḍha (IPA:vɖʱə) vṇa (IPA:vɳə) vta (IPA:vt̪ə) vtha (IPA:vt̪ʰə) vda (IPA:vd̪ə) vdha (IPA:vd̪ʱə) vna (IPA:vn̪ə) vpa (IPA:vpə) vpha (IPA:vpʰə) vba (IPA:vbə) vbha (IPA:vbʱə) vma (IPA:vmə) vya (IPA:vjə) vra (IPA:vrə) vla (IPA:vlə) vva (IPA:vvə) vśa (IPA:vʃə) vśa (IPA:vʃə) vsa (IPA:vsə) vha (IPA:vhə) vḷa (IPA:vɭə) vkṣa (IPA:vkʃə) vgña (IPA:vɟʝɲə)
श śka (IPA:ʃkə) śkha (IPA:ʃkʰə) śga (IPA:ʃɡə) śgha (IPA:ʃɡʱə) śṅa (IPA:ʃŋə) śca (IPA:ʃcɕə) ścha (IPA:ʃcɕʰə) śja (IPA:ʃɟʝə) śjha (IPA:ʃɟʝʱə) śña (IPA:ʃɲə) śṭa (IPA:ʃʈə) śṭha (IPA:ʃʈʰə) śḍa (IPA:ʃɖə) śḍha (IPA:ʃɖʱə) śṇa (IPA:ʃɳə) śta (IPA:ʃt̪ə) śtha (IPA:ʃt̪ʰə) śda (IPA:ʃd̪ə) śdha (IPA:ʃd̪ʱə) śna (IPA:ʃn̪ə) śpa (IPA:ʃpə) śpha (IPA:ʃpʰə) śba (IPA:ʃbə) śbha (IPA:ʃbʱə) śma (IPA:ʃmə) śya (IPA:ʃjə) śra (IPA:ʃrə) śla (IPA:ʃlə) śva (IPA:ʃvə) śśa (IPA:ʃʃə) śśa (IPA:ʃʃə) śsa (IPA:ʃsə) śha (IPA:ʃhə) śḷa (IPA:ʃɭə) śkṣa (IPA:ʃkʃə) śgña (IPA:ʃɟʝɲə)
ष śka (IPA:ʃkə) śkha (IPA:ʃkʰə) śga (IPA:ʃɡə) śgha (IPA:ʃɡʱə) śṅa (IPA:ʃŋə) śca (IPA:ʃcɕə) ścha (IPA:ʃcɕʰə) śja (IPA:ʃɟʝə) śjha (IPA:ʃɟʝʱə) śña (IPA:ʃɲə) śṭa (IPA:ʃʈə) śṭha (IPA:ʃʈʰə) śḍa (IPA:ʃɖə) śḍha (IPA:ʃɖʱə) śṇa (IPA:ʃɳə) śta (IPA:ʃt̪ə) śtha (IPA:ʃt̪ʰə) śda (IPA:ʃd̪ə) śdha (IPA:ʃd̪ʱə) śna (IPA:ʃn̪ə) śpa (IPA:ʃpə) śpha (IPA:ʃpʰə) śba (IPA:ʃbə) śbha (IPA:ʃbʱə) śma (IPA:ʃmə) śya (IPA:ʃjə) śra (IPA:ʃrə) śla (IPA:ʃlə) śva (IPA:ʃvə) śśa (IPA:ʃʃə) śśa (IPA:ʃʃə) śsa (IPA:ʃsə) śha (IPA:ʃhə) śḷa (IPA:ʃɭə) śkṣa (IPA:ʃkʃə) śgña (IPA:ʃɟʝɲə)
स ska (IPA:skə) skha (IPA:skʰə) sga (IPA:sɡə) sgha (IPA:sɡʱə) sṅa (IPA:sŋə) sca (IPA:scɕə) scha (IPA:scɕʰə) sja (IPA:sɟʝə) sjha (IPA:sɟʝʱə) sña (IPA:sɲə) sṭa (IPA:sʈə) sṭha (IPA:sʈʰə) sḍa (IPA:sɖə) sḍha (IPA:sɖʱə) sṇa (IPA:sɳə) sta (IPA:st̪ə) stha (IPA:st̪ʰə) sda (IPA:sd̪ə) sdha (IPA:sd̪ʱə) sna (IPA:sn̪ə) spa (IPA:spə) spha (IPA:spʰə) sba (IPA:sbə) sbha (IPA:sbʱə) sma (IPA:smə) sya (IPA:sjə) sra (IPA:srə) sla (IPA:slə) sva (IPA:svə) sśa (IPA:sʃə) sśa (IPA:sʃə) ssa (IPA:ssə) sha (IPA:shə) sḷa (IPA:sɭə) skṣa (IPA:skʃə) sgña (IPA:sɟʝɲə)
ह hka (IPA:hkə) hkha (IPA:hkʰə) hga (IPA:hɡə) hgha (IPA:hɡʱə) hṅa (IPA:hŋə) hca (IPA:hcɕə) hcha (IPA:hcɕʰə) hja (IPA:hɟʝə) hjha (IPA:hɟʝʱə) hña (IPA:hɲə) hṭa (IPA:hʈə) hṭha (IPA:hʈʰə) hḍa (IPA:hɖə) hḍha (IPA:hɖʱə) hṇa (IPA:hɳə) hta (IPA:ht̪ə) htha (IPA:ht̪ʰə) hda (IPA:hd̪ə) hdha (IPA:hd̪ʱə) hna (IPA:hn̪ə) hpa (IPA:hpə) hpha (IPA:hpʰə) hba (IPA:hbə) hbha (IPA:hbʱə) hma (IPA:hmə) hya (IPA:hjə) hra (IPA:hrə) hla (IPA:hlə) hva (IPA:hvə) hśa (IPA:hʃə) hśa (IPA:hʃə) hsa (IPA:hsə) hha (IPA:hhə) hḷa (IPA:hɭə) hkṣa (IPA:hkʃə) hgña (IPA:hɟʝɲə)
ळ ḷka (IPA:ɭkə) ḷkha (IPA:ɭkʰə) ḷga (IPA:ɭɡə) ḷgha (IPA:ɭɡʱə) ḷṅa (IPA:ɭŋə) ḷca (IPA:ɭcɕə) ḷcha (IPA:ɭcɕʰə) ḷja (IPA:ɭɟʝə) ḷjha (IPA:ɭɟʝʱə) ḷña (IPA:ɭɲə) ḷṭa (IPA:ɭʈə) ḷṭha (IPA:ɭʈʰə) ḷḍa (IPA:ɭɖə) ḷḍha (IPA:ɭɖʱə) ḷṇa (IPA:ɭɳə) ḷta (IPA:ɭt̪ə) ḷtha (IPA:ɭt̪ʰə) ḷda (IPA:ɭd̪ə) ḷdha (IPA:ɭd̪ʱə) ḷna (IPA:ɭn̪ə) ḷpa (IPA:ɭpə) ḷpha (IPA:ɭpʰə) ḷba (IPA:ɭbə) ḷbha (IPA:ɭbʱə) ḷma (IPA:ɭmə) ḷya (IPA:ɭjə) ḷra (IPA:ɭrə) ḷla (IPA:ɭlə) ḷva (IPA:ɭvə) ḷśa (IPA:ɭʃə) ḷśa (IPA:ɭʃə) ḷsa (IPA:ɭsə) ḷha (IPA:ɭhə) ḷḷa (IPA:ɭɭə) ḷkṣa (IPA:ɭkʃə) ḷgña (IPA:ɭɟʝɲə)
क्ष kṣka (IPA:kʃkə) kṣkha (IPA:kʃkʰə) kṣga (IPA:kʃɡə) kṣgha (IPA:kʃɡʱə) kṣṅa (IPA:kʃŋə) kṣca (IPA:kʃcɕə) kṣcha (IPA:kʃcɕʰə) kṣja (IPA:kʃɟʝə) kṣjha (IPA:kʃɟʝʱə) kṣña (IPA:kʃɲə) kṣṭa (IPA:kʃʈə) kṣṭha (IPA:kʃʈʰə) kṣḍa (IPA:kʃɖə) kṣḍha (IPA:kʃɖʱə) kṣṇa (IPA:kʃɳə) kṣta (IPA:kʃt̪ə) kṣtha (IPA:kʃt̪ʰə) kṣda (IPA:kʃd̪ə) kṣdha (IPA:kʃd̪ʱə) kṣna (IPA:kʃn̪ə) kṣpa (IPA:kʃpə) kṣpha (IPA:kʃpʰə) kṣba (IPA:kʃbə) kṣbha (IPA:kʃbʱə) kṣma (IPA:kʃmə) kṣya (IPA:kʃjə) kṣra (IPA:kʃrə) kṣla (IPA:kʃlə) kṣva (IPA:kʃvə) kṣśa (IPA:kʃʃə) kṣśa (IPA:kʃʃə) kṣsa (IPA:kʃsə) kṣha (IPA:kʃhə) kṣḷa (IPA:kʃɭə) kṣkṣa (IPA:kʃkʃə) kṣgña (IPA:kʃɟʝɲə)
ज्ञ gñka (IPA:ɟʝɲkə) gñkha (IPA:ɟʝɲkʰə) gñga (IPA:ɟʝɲɡə) gñgha (IPA:ɟʝɲɡʱə) gñṅa (IPA:ɟʝɲŋə) gñca (IPA:ɟʝɲcɕə) gñcha (IPA:ɟʝɲcɕʰə) gñja (IPA:ɟʝɲɟʝə) gñjha (IPA:ɟʝɲɟʝʱə) gñña (IPA:ɟʝɲɲə) gñṭa (IPA:ɟʝɲʈə) gñṭha (IPA:ɟʝɲʈʰə) gñḍa (IPA:ɟʝɲɖə) gñḍha (IPA:ɟʝɲɖʱə) gñṇa (IPA:ɟʝɲɳə) gñta (IPA:ɟʝɲt̪ə) gñtha (IPA:ɟʝɲt̪ʰə) gñda (IPA:ɟʝɲd̪ə) gñdha (IPA:ɟʝɲd̪ʱə) gñna (IPA:ɟʝɲn̪ə) gñpa (IPA:ɟʝɲpə) gñpha (IPA:ɟʝɲpʰə) gñba (IPA:ɟʝɲbə) gñbha (IPA:ɟʝɲbʱə) gñma (IPA:ɟʝɲmə) gñya (IPA:ɟʝɲjə) gñra (IPA:ɟʝɲrə) gñla (IPA:ɟʝɲlə) gñva (IPA:ɟʝɲvə) gñśa (IPA:ɟʝɲʃə) gñśa (IPA:ɟʝɲʃə) gñsa (IPA:ɟʝɲsə) gñha (IPA:ɟʝɲhə) gñḷa (IPA:ɟʝɲɭə) gñkṣa (IPA:ɟʝɲkʃə) gñgña (IPA:ɟʝɲɟʝɲə)

New Indo-Aryan languages may use the above forms for their Sanskrit loanwords (or otherwise).

Accent marks

Main article: Vedic accent

The pitch accent of Vedic Sanskrit is written with various symbols depending on shakha. In the Rigveda, anudātta is written with a bar below the line (॒), svarita with a stroke above the line (॑) while udātta is unmarked.

Punctuation

The end of a sentence or half-verse may be marked with a vertical line known as a pūrṇa virām or a danda: ।. The end of a full verse may be marked with a two vertical lines: ॥. A comma, or alpa virām, is used to denote a natural pause in speech.

Numerals

See also: Indian numerals, Brahmi numerals, and Hindu-Arabic numeral system
Devanāgarī numerals
० १ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Transliteration

Main article: Devanagari transliteration

There are several methods of transliteration from Devanāgarī into Roman scripts. The most widely used transliteration method is IAST. However, there are other transliteration options.

The following are the major transliteration methods for Devanāgarī:

ISO 15919

Main article: ISO 15919

A standard transliteration convention was codified in the ISO 15919 standard of 2001. It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brahmic graphemes to the Latin script. See also: Transliteration of Indic scripts: how to use ISO 15919.[25] The Devanāgarī-specific portion is nearly identical to the academic standard for Sanskrit, IAST.

IAST

The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is the academic standard for the romanization of Sanskrit. IAST is the de-facto standard used in printed publications, like books and magazines, and with the wider availability of Unicode fonts, it is also increasingly used for electronic texts. It is based on a standard established by the Congress of Orientalists at Athens in 1912.

The National Library at Kolkata romanization, intended for the romanization of all Indic scripts, is an extension of IAST.

Harvard-Kyoto

Compared to IAST, Harvard-Kyoto looks much simpler. It does not contain all the diacritic marks that IAST contains. This makes typing in Harvard-Kyoto much easier than IAST. Harvard-Kyoto uses capital letters that can be difficult to read in the middle of words.

ITRANS

ITRANS is a lossless transliteration scheme of Devanāgarī into ASCII that is widely used on Usenet. It is an extension of the Harvard-Kyoto scheme. In ITRANS, the word Devanāgarī is written as "Devanaagarii". ITRANS is associated with an application of the same name that enables typesetting in Indic scripts. The user inputs in Roman letters and the ITRANS pre-processor displays the Roman letters into Devanāgarī (or other Indic languages). The latest version of ITRANS is version 5.30 released in July, 2001.

ALA-LC Romanization

ALA-LC[26] romanization is a transliteration scheme approved by the Library of Congress and the American Library Association, and widely used in North American libraries. Transliteration tables are based on languages, so there is a table for Hindi,[27] one for Sanskrit and Prakrit,[28] etc.

Encodings

ISCII

ISCII is a fixed-length 8-bit encoding. The lower 128 codepoints are plain ASCII, the upper 128 codepoints are ISCII-specific.

It has been designed for representing not only Devanāgarī, but also various other Indic scripts as well as a Latin-based script with diacritic marks used for transliteration of the Indic scripts.

ISCII has largely been superseded by Unicode, which has however attempted to preserve the ISCII layout for its Indic language blocks.

Devanāgarī in Unicode

The Unicode ranges for Devanāgarī are available in the three blocks U+0900 .. U+097F, U+1CD0 .. U+1CFF and U+A8E0 .. U+A8FF. Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points.

Devanagari[1]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
U+090x ऀ ँ ं ः ऄ अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ऋ ऌ ऍ ऎ ए
U+091x ऐ ऑ ऒ ओ औ क ख ग घ ङ च छ ज झ ञ ट
U+092x ठ ड ढ ण त थ द ध न ऩ प फ ब भ म य
U+093x र ऱ ल ळ ऴ व श ष स ह ऺ ऻ ़ ऽ ा ि
U+094x ी ु ू ृ ॄ ॅ ॆ े ै ॉ ॊ ो ौ ् ॎ ॏ
U+095x ॐ ॑ ॒ ॓ ॔ ॕ ॖ ॗ क़ ख़ ग़ ज़ ड़ ढ़ फ़ य़
U+096x ॠ ॡ ॢ ॣ । ॥ ० १ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९
U+097x ॰ ॱ ॲ ॳ ॴ ॵ ॶ ॷ ॸ ॹ ॺ ॻ ॼ ॽ ॾ ॿ
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 15.1
Devanagari Extended[1]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
U+A8Ex ꣠ ꣡ ꣢ ꣣ ꣤ ꣥ ꣦ ꣧ ꣨ ꣩ ꣪ ꣫ ꣬ ꣭ ꣮ ꣯
U+A8Fx ꣰ ꣱ ꣲ ꣳ ꣴ ꣵ ꣶ ꣷ ꣸ ꣹ ꣺ ꣻ ꣼ ꣽ ꣾ ꣿ
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 15.1
Vedic Extensions[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
U+1CDx ᳐ ᳑ ᳒ ᳓ ᳔ ᳕ ᳖ ᳗ ᳘ ᳙ ᳚ ᳛ ᳜ ᳝ ᳞ ᳟
U+1CEx ᳠ ᳡ ᳢ ᳣ ᳤ ᳥ ᳦ ᳧ ᳨ ᳩ ᳪ ᳫ ᳬ ᳭ ᳮ ᳯ
U+1CFx ᳰ ᳱ ᳲ ᳳ ᳴  ᳵ   ᳶ  ᳷ ᳸ ᳹ ᳺ
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 15.1
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

Devanāgarī keyboard layouts

InScript is the standard keyboard layout for Devanagari. It is inbuilt in all modern major operating systems. Microsoft Windows supports the InScript layout (using the Mangal font), which can be used to input unicode Devanāgarī characters. InScript is also available in some touchscreen mobile phones.

InScript layout

 
Devanagari INSCRIPT bilingual keyboard layout

A Devanāgarī INSCRIPT bilingual keyboard. See Devanagari Keyboards, below. Half Consonants

Typewriter

This layout was used on manual typewriters when computers were not available or were uncommon. For backward comapatibility some typing tools like Indic IME still provide this layout.

 
Standard typewriter keyboard layout used in India

Phonetic

Such tools work on phonetic transliteration. The user writes in roman and the IME automatically converts it into Devanagari. Some popular phonetic typing tools are BarahaIME and Google IME.

 
Bolnagri phonetic keyboard layout for Linux/GNOME

The Mac OS X operating system supports convenient editing for the Devanāgarī script by insertion of appropriate Unicode characters with two different keyboard layouts available for use. The layout is the same as for INSCRIPT/KDE Linux.

See also

Software

Notes

  1. ^ Andrew Dalby (2004:139) Dictionary of Languages
  2. ^ a b c d Steven Roger Fischer (2004), A history of writing, Reaktion Books, ISBN 9781861891679, ... an early branch of this, as of the fourth century AD, was the Gupta script, Brahmi's first main daughter ... the Gupta alphabet became the ancestor of most Indic scripts (usually through later Devanagari) ... Nagari, of India's north-west, first appeared around AD 633 ... in the eleventh century, Nagari had become Devanagari, or 'heavenly Nagari', since it was now the main vehicle, out of several, for Sanskrit literature ...
  3. ^ Isaac Taylor (2003), History of the Alphabet: Aryan Alphabets, Part 2, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 9780766158474, ... In the Kutila this develops into a short horizontal bar, which, in the Devanagari, becomes a continuous horizontal line ... three cardinal inscriptions of this epoch, namely, the Kutila or Bareli inscription of 992, the Chalukya or Kistna inscription of 945, and a Kawi inscription of 919 ... the Kutila inscription is of great importance in Indian epigraphy, not only from its precise date, but from its offering a definite early form of the standard Indian alphabet, the Devanagari ...
  4. ^ Salomon (2003:70)
  5. ^ Archives.conlang.info
  6. ^ Salomon (2003:71)
  7. ^ a b Salomon (2003:75)
  8. ^ Wikner (1996:13, 14)
  9. ^ Wikner (1996:6)
  10. ^ Snell (2000:44–45)
  11. ^ Snell (2000:64)
  12. ^ Snell (2000:45)
  13. ^ Snell (2000:46)
  14. ^ Salomon (2003:77)
  15. ^ Wikner (1996:73)
  16. ^ a b Larry M. Hyman, Victoria Fromkin, Charles N. Li (1988 (Volume 1988, Part 2)), Language, speech, and mind, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 0415003113, ... The implicit /a/ is not read when the symbol appears in word-final position or in certain other contexts where it is obligatorily deleted (via the so-called schwa-deletion rule which plays a crucial role in Hindi word phonology ... {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ a b Tej K. Bhatia (1987), A history of the Hindi grammatical tradition: Hindi-Hindustani grammar, grammarians, history and problems, BRILL, ISBN 9004079246, ... Hindi literature fails as a reliable indicator of the actual pronunciation because it is written in the Devanagari script ... the schwa syncope rule which operates in Hindi ...
  18. ^ a b c Monojit Choudhury, Anupam Basu and Sudeshna Sarkar (July 2004), "A Diachronic Approach for Schwa Deletion in Indo Aryan Languages" (PDF), Proceedings of the Workshop of the ACL Special Interest Group on Computational Phonology (SIGPHON), Association for Computations Linguistics, ... schwa deletion is an important issue for grapheme-to-phoneme conversion of IAL, which in turn is required for a good Text-to-Speech synthesizer ...
  19. ^ a b Naim R. Tyson, Ila Nagar (2009 (12:15–25)), "Prosodic rules for schwa-deletion in hindi text-to-speech synthesis" (PDF), International Journal of Speech Technology, ... Without the appropriate deletion of schwas, any speech output would sound unnatural. Since the orthographical representation of Devanagari gives little indication of deletion sites, modern TTS systems for Hindi implemented schwa deletion rules based on the segmental context where schwa appears ... {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  20. ^ Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy, The rāgs of North Indian music: their structure and evolution, Popular Prakashan, 1995, ISBN 9788171543953, ... The Devnagri (Devanagari) script is syllabic and all consonants carry the inherent vowel a unless otherwise indicated. The principal difference between modern Hindi and the classical Sanskrit forms is the omission in Hindi ...
  21. ^ a b c Monojit Choudhury and Anupam Basu (July 2004), "A Rule Based Schwa Deletion Algorithm for Hindi" (PDF), Proceedings of the International Conference On Knowledge-Based Computer Systems, ... Without any schwa deletion, not only the two words will sound very unnatural, but it will also be extremely difficult for the listener to distinguish between the two, the only difference being nasalization of the e at the end of the former. However, a native speaker would pronounce the former as dha.D-kan-eM and the later as dha.Dak-ne, which are clearly distinguishable ...
  22. ^ a b Janet Pierrehumbert, Rami Nair, Volume Editor: Bernard Laks, Implications of Hindi Prosodic Structure (Current Trends in Phonology: Models and Methods), European Studies Research Institute, University of Salford Press, 1996, ISBN 9781901471021, ... showed extremely regular patterns. As is not uncommon in a study of subphonemic detail, the objective data patterned much more cleanly than intuitive judgments ... [w] occurs when /व/ is in onglide position ... [v] occurs otherwise ... {{citation}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ TDIL.mit.gov.in
  24. ^ TDIL.mit.gov.in
  25. ^ Homepage.ntlword.com
  26. ^ LOC.gov
  27. ^ LOC.gov
  28. ^ LOC.gov

References

 
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Devanagari

Information about Devanagari

Software

  • Omkarananda-ashram.org, Itranslator Free program to convert Itrans to Devanagari. Uses 16-bit Unicode-compatible fonts. Works only on Windows 2000 / XP / Server 2003.
  • DMJoshi.org, To write Devanagari or Gujarati Script Devised by Dayashankar Joshi
  • Merosoft.webs.com, Nepali Font Converter/Deconverter 0.3—Java Based Nepali Font Converter/Deconveter. Supports Preeti, Kantipur & Jaga—FontConverter 0.3 is the software based on java language and is used to convert non-Unicode to Unicode. This software is basically focused on Devanagari non-Unicode fonts (only for Nepali language). It works well on Preeti, Kantipur and Jaga HImali.
  • Bhashaindia.com—Indic script IMEs (keyboard layouts) and other Indic-language software by Microsoft Windows.
  • Devendraparakh.port5.com, HindiWriter—The Phonetic Hindi Writer with AutoWord lookup and Spellcheck for MS Word and OpenOffice.org for Windows.
  • Baraha.com—Devanāgarī Input using English Keyboard
  • Lipikaar.com—The indic script typing tool with support for Devanāgarī through a Windows desktop executable or Firefox Extension.
  • [1]—Devawriter, comprehensive Devanagari input for Windows and Macintosh.

Fonts

Tools and applications

Main page: Help:Multilingual support (Indic)

General resources

Input methods

Devanagari keyboard

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