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{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}▼
{{short description|Dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area}}
{{about|a community of trees}}
▲{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{broader|Plant community}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Not to be confused with|Woodland}}[[File:
A '''forest''' is an
Forests are the largest terrestrial [[
Forests account for 75% of the [[gross primary production]] of the Earth's [[biosphere]], and contain 80% of the Earth's plant [[biomass]]. [[
Forests form distinctly different [[biome]]s at different latitudes and elevations, and with different precipitation and [[evapotranspiration]] rates.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Holdridge |first=L.R. |url=http://reddcr.go.cr/sites/default/files/centro-de-documentacion/holdridge_1966_-_life_zone_ecology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005035018/http://reddcr.go.cr/sites/default/files/centro-de-documentacion/holdridge_1966_-_life_zone_ecology.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2016 |url-status=live |title=Life zone ecology |publisher=Tropical Science Center |location=San Jose, Costa Rica}}</ref> These biomes include boreal forests in subarctic climates, [[tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist forests]] and [[tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry forests]] around the [[tropics|Equator]], and [[temperate forest]]s at the [[middle latitudes]]. Forests form in areas of the Earth with high rainfall, while drier conditions produce a transition to [[savanna]]. However, in areas with intermediate rainfall levels, forest transitions to savanna rapidly when the percentage of land that is covered by trees drops below 40 to 45 percent.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Edwards |first1=Lin |title=Forest and savanna can switch quickly |url=https://phys.org/news/2011-10-forest-savanna-quickly.html |website=Phys.org}}</ref> Research conducted in the [[Amazon rainforest]] shows that trees can alter rainfall rates across a region, releasing water from their leaves in anticipation of seasonal rains to trigger the wet season early. Because of this, seasonal rainfall in the Amazon begins
[[Deforestation]] threatens many forest ecosystems. Deforestation occurs when humans remove trees from a forested area by cutting or burning, either to harvest [[timber]] or to make way for farming. Most deforestation today occurs in tropical forests. The vast majority of this deforestation is because of the production of four commodities: [[wood]], [[beef]], [[soy]], and [[palm oil]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Derouin |first1=Sarah |title=Deforestation: facts, causes & effects |url=https://www.livescience.com/27692-deforestation.html |website=Live Science|date=6 January 2022 }}</ref> Over the past 2,000 years, the area of land covered by forest in [[Europe]] has been reduced from 80% to 34%. Large areas of forest have also been cleared in [[China]] and in the eastern [[United States]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Deforestation |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/deforestation/ |publisher=National Geographic}}</ref> in which only 0.1% of land was left undisturbed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Eastern Deciduous Forest (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/im/ncrn/eastern-deciduous-forest.htm |website=nps.gov}}</ref> Almost half of Earth's forest area (49 percent) is relatively intact, while 9 percent is found in fragments with little or no connectivity. Tropical rainforests and boreal coniferous forests are the least fragmented, whereas subtropical dry forests and temperate oceanic forests are among the most fragmented. Roughly 80 percent of the world's forest area is found in patches larger than {{convert|1|e6ha|abbr=off}}. The remaining 20 percent is located in more than 34 million patches around the world – the vast majority less than {{convert|1000|ha}} in size.<ref name="auto"/>
Human society and forests can affect one another positively or negatively.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Global Societies and Forest Legacies Creating Today's Forest Landscapes |pages=30–59 |title=Forests and Society: Sustainability and Life Cycles of Forests in Human Landscapes |editor-last=Vogt |editor-first=Kristina A |year=2007 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-1-84593-098-1}}</ref> Forests provide [[ecosystem services]] to humans and serve as tourist attractions. Forests can also affect people's health.<!--Specific statements supported by refs in "Relationship to human society" section--> Human activities, including unsustainable use of forest resources, can negatively affect forest ecosystems.<!--See same section for refs--><ref>{{Cite web|date=7 February 2019 |title=Deforestation and Its Effect on the Planet |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/deforestation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210219023929/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/deforestation |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 February 2021 |access-date=21 July 2021 |website=[[National Geographic]] Environment |language=en}}</ref>
== Definitions ==
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The precise origin of Medieval Latin {{Lang|la-x-medieval|foresta}} is obscure. Some authorities claim the word derives from the [[Late Latin]] phrase ''forestam silvam'', denoting "the outer wood"; others claim the word is a latinisation of the Frankish *''forhist'', denoting "forest, wooded country", and was assimilated to ''forestam silvam'', pursuant to the common practice of Frankish scribes. The Old High German ''forst'' denoting "forest"; [[Middle Low German]] ''vorst'' denoting "forest"; [[Old English]] ''fyrhþ'' denoting "forest, woodland, game preserve, hunting ground" (English ''[[wikt:frith|frith]]''); and [[Old Norse]] ''fýri'', denoting "coniferous forest"; all of which derive from the [[Proto-Germanic]] *''furhísa-'', *''furhíþija-'', denoting "a fir-wood, ''coniferous'' forest", from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] *''perk<sup>w</sup>u-'', denoting "a ''coniferous'' or mountain forest, wooded height" all attest to the Frankish *''forhist''.
Uses of ''forest'' in English to denote any uninhabited and unenclosed area are presently considered archaic.<ref name="oed" /> The [[Norman conquest of England|Norman rulers of England]] introduced the word as a legal term, as seen in Latin texts such as
These hunting forests did not necessarily contain any trees. Because that often included significant areas of woodland, "forest" eventually came to connote woodland in general, regardless of tree density.{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} By the beginning of the fourteenth century, English texts used the word in all three of its senses: common, legal, and archaic.<ref name="oed">{{cite web |url=http://www.oed.com/ |title=forest, noun |website=[[Oxford English Dictionary]] online edition |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |access-date=22 May 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080111125659/http://www.oed.com/ |archive-date=11 January 2008}}</ref> Other English words used to denote "an area with a high density of trees" are ''firth'', ''frith'', ''holt'', ''weald'', ''wold'', ''wood'', and ''woodland''. Unlike ''forest'', these are all derived from Old English and were not borrowed from another language. Some present classifications reserve ''woodland'' for denoting a locale with more open space between trees, and distinguish kinds of woodlands as ''open forests'' and ''closed forests'', premised on their [[crown cover]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.daff.gov.au/brs/forest-veg/nfi/forest-info/what-is |website=Australian Government/Department of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forestry/Rural Areas |title=What is a Forest? |date=28 March 2007 |access-date=25 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091009061955/http://www.daff.gov.au/brs/forest-veg/nfi/forest-info/what-is |archive-date=9 October 2009}}</ref> Finally, ''sylva'' (plural ''sylvae'' or, less classically, ''sylvas'') is a peculiar English spelling of the Latin ''silva'', denoting a "woodland", and has precedent in English, including its plural forms. While its use as a [[synonym]] of ''forest'', and as a [[Latin]]ate word denoting a woodland, may be admitted; in a specific technical sense it is restricted to denoting the ''species'' of trees that comprise the woodlands of a region, as in its sense in the subject of [[silviculture]].<ref>Confer John Evelyn, FRS, ''[[Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber|Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber in His Majesty's Dominions]]'' (1664); and the title of and use ''passim'' in Edward Step, FLS, ''Wayside and Woodland Trees: A Pocket Guide to the British Sylva'' (Frederick Warne and Company Limited, London and New York, [many editions]).</ref> The resorting to ''sylva'' in English indicates more precisely the denotation that the use of ''forest'' intends.
== Evolutionary history ==
The first known forests on Earth arose in the [[
== Ecology<span class="anchor" id="Distribution"></span> ==
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[[File:Hellyer Gorge, Tasmania.jpg|thumb|[[Temperate rainforest]] in Tasmania's [[Hellyer Gorge]]]]
Forests account for 75% of the [[gross primary productivity]] of the Earth's [[biosphere]], and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass.<ref name="yude" /> [[Biomass (ecology)|
Forest ecosystems broadly differ based on [[climate]]; latitudes 10° north and south of the [[equator]] are mostly covered in [[tropical rainforest]], and the latitudes between [[53rd parallel north|53°N]] and [[67th parallel north|67°N]] have [[boreal forest]]. As a general rule, forests dominated by [[angiosperms]] (''broadleaf forests'') are more species-rich than those dominated by [[gymnosperms]] (''conifer'', ''montane'', or ''needleleaf forests''), although exceptions exist. The trees that form the principal structural and defining component of a forest may be of a great variety of species (as in [[tropical rainforest]]s and [[temperate deciduous forest]]s), or relatively few species over large areas (e.g., [[taiga]] and arid [[montane]] coniferous forests). The biodiversity of forests also encompasses [[shrubs]], herbaceous plants, [[moss]]es, [[fern]]s, [[lichen]]s, [[fungi]], and a variety of [[animal]]s.
Trees rising up to {{convert|35|meters|ft}} in height add a vertical dimension to the area of land that can support plant and animal species, opening up numerous [[ecological niche]]s for [[arboreal locomotion|arboreal]] animal species, [[epiphyte]]s, and various species that thrive under the regulated microclimate created under the canopy.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cannon |first1=Charles |last2=Schlesinger |first2=William H. |title=Arboreal Dimensions of Biodiversity |date=2 August 2021 |url=https://blogs.nicholas.duke.edu/citizenscientist/arboreal-dimensions-of-biodiversity/}}</ref> Forests have intricate three-dimensional structures that increase in complexity with lower levels of disturbance and greater variety of tree species.<ref>{{cite web |title=Forests of the world in 3-D: Research team analyses complexity of forest structure |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-02-forests-world-d-team-analyses.html |website=phys.org |publisher=University of Gottingen}}</ref>
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== Area ==
[[File:Forest-area-as-share-of-land-area.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Share of land that is covered by forest|330x330px]]
The annual net loss of forest area has decreased since 1990, but the world is not on track to meet the target of the United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests to increase forest area by 3 percent by 2030.<ref name=":1" />
[[File:Share Of Forest Area In Total Land Area, Top Countries (2021).svg|thumb|330x330px|Share of forest area in total land area, top countries (2021)]]
While [[deforestation]] is taking place in some areas, new forests are being established through natural expansion or deliberate efforts in other areas. As a result, the net loss of forest area is less than the rate of deforestation; and it, too, is decreasing: from {{convert|7.8|e6ha|abbr=off}} per year in the 1990s to {{convert|4.7|e6ha|abbr=off}} per year during 2010–2020.<ref name=":1" /> In absolute terms, the global forest area decreased by {{convert|178 |e6ha|e6acre sqkm sqmi|abbr=off}} between 1990 and 2020, which is an area about the size of Libya.<ref name=":1" />
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Forests provide a diversity of [[ecosystem services]] including:
* Converting [[carbon dioxide]] into [[oxygen]] and biomass. A full-grown tree produces about {{convert|100|kg}} of net oxygen per year.<ref>{{cite web|author=Luis Villazon|url=https://www.sciencefocus.com/planet-earth/how-many-trees-does-it-take-to-produce-oxygen-for-one-person/|title=How many trees does it take to produce oxygen for one person?|publisher=Science Focus|access-date=12 August 2019}}</ref>
* Acting as a [[carbon sink]]. Therefore, they are necessary to [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate climate change]].<ref
* Aiding in regulating [[climate]]. For example, research from 2017 shows that forests induce rainfall. If the forest is cut, it can lead to [[drought]],<ref name="Rainforest-initiated wet season onset over the southern Amazon">{{cite journal |last1=S. Write |first1=Jonathon |last2=Fu |first2=Rong |last3=R. Worden |first3=John |last4=Chakraborty |first4=Sudip |last5=E. Clinton |first5=Nicholas |last6=Risi |first6=Camille |last7=Sun |first7=Ying |author7-link=Ying Sun (environmental scientist)|last8=Yin |first8=Lei |title=Rainforest-initiated wet season onset over the southern Amazon |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=114 |date=20 July 2017 |issue=Forests, Rainfall |pages=8481–86 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1621516114 |pmid=28729375 |pmc=5558997 |bibcode=2017PNAS..114.8481W |doi-access=free }}</ref> and in the tropics to [[occupational heat stress]] of outdoor workers.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Quaglia |first=Sofia |title=Deforestation making outdoor work unsafe for millions, says study |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/dec/17/deforestation-making-outdoor-work-unsafe-for-millions-says-study |date=17 December 2021 |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=16 February 2022}}</ref>
* Purifying [[water]].
* Mitigating natural hazards such as [[flood]]s.
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* Serving as a source of woodlands and trees for millions of people dependent almost entirely on forests for subsistence for their essential fuelwood, food, and fodder needs.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8642en|title=The State of the World's Forests 2020 – Forests, biodiversity and people|publisher=FAO & UNEP|year=2020|isbn=978-92-5-132419-6|location=Rome|doi=10.4060/ca8642en|s2cid=241858489}}</ref>
The main ecosystem services can be summarized in the next table:<ref>{{cite web |title=Primary Forests: Boreal, Temperate, Tropical |url=https://www.woodwellclimate.org/primary-forests-boreal-temperate-tropical/ |website=Woodwell Climate Research Center |date=17 December 2020 |publisher=Woodwell Climate Research Center, INTACT, Griffits University, GEOS institute, Frankfurt Zoological Society, Australian Rainforest Conservation Society |access-date=22 August 2023}}</ref>
Some researchers state that forests do not only provide benefits, but can in certain cases also incur costs to humans.<ref name="R Nasi, S Wunder 2002">{{cite conference|first1=R|last1=Nasi|first2=S|last2=Wunder|first3=JJ|last3=Campos A|title=Forest ecosystem services: can they pay our way out of deforestation?|book-title=UNFF II|location=Costa Rica|date=11 March 2002|url=http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/BNasi0201.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204162356/http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/BNasi0201.pdf|archive-date=4 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|first1=Lucy|last1=Emerton|year=1999|title=Mount Kenya: The Economics of Community Conservation|series=Evaluating Eden Series|issue=Discussion Paper No.4|type=Community Conservation research Working Paper|publisher=University of Manchester Institute of Development Policy and Management|url=http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/7797IIED.pdf?origin=publication_detail|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204162356/http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/7797IIED.pdf?origin=publication_detail|archive-date=4 December 2014}}</ref> Forests may impose an economic burden,<ref>{{cite report |last1=Lette |first1=Henk |last2=de Boo |first2=Henneleen |title=Economic Valuation of Forests and Nature A support tool for effective decision-making |url=http://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/fulltext/118103 |year=2002 |series=Theme Studies Series 6 Forests |location=Ede, The Netherlands |publisher=Forestry and Biodiversity Support Group, International Agricultural Centre (IAC), Wageningen National Reference Centre for Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (EC-LNV) |access-date=16 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-first=Joshua T.|editor-last=Bishop|year=1999|title=Valuing Forests A Review of Methods and Applications in Developing Countries|publisher=Environmental Economics Programme, International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED)|location=London|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEEI/214574-1153316226850/20486370/ValuingForestsAReviewOfMethodsAndApplicationsInDevelopingCountriesJuly1999.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123100829/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEEI/214574-1153316226850/20486370/ValuingForestsAReviewOfMethodsAndApplicationsInDevelopingCountriesJuly1999.pdf|archive-date=23 November 2015}}</ref> diminish the enjoyment of natural areas,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gray|first1=Emma F.|last2=Bond|first2=William J.|title=Will woody plant encroachment impact the visitor experience and economy of conservation areas?|journal=Koedoe|year=2013|volume=55|number=1|issn=0075-6458|doi=10.4102/koedoe.v55i1.1106|doi-access=free}}</ref> reduce the food-producing capacity of grazing land<ref>{{cite journal|first1=R.J.|last1=Scholes|first2=S.R.|last2=Archer|year=1997|title=Tree-Grass Interactions in Savannas|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=28|pages=517–44|url=http://cals.arizona.edu/research/archer/reprints/Scholes_Archer_1997_AnRevEcolSys.pdf|doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.517|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204185831/http://cals.arizona.edu/research/archer/reprints/Scholes_Archer_1997_AnRevEcolSys.pdf|archive-date=4 December 2014}}</ref> and cultivated land,<ref>{{cite book|first1=David|last1=Pimentel|first2=Marcia H.|last2=Pimentel|year=2007|title=Food, Energy, and Society|publisher=CRC Press}}</ref> reduce biodiversity,<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Zakary|last1=Ratajczak|first2=Jesse B.|last2=Nippert|first3=Scott L.|last3=Collins|year=2012|title=Woody encroachment decreases diversity across North American grasslands and savannas|journal=Ecology|volume=93|issue=4|pages=697–703|pmid=22690619|url=http://www.k-state.edu/ecophyslab/pdf%27s/Ratajczak,%20Nippert,%20and%20Collins.%202012.%20Ecology.pdf|doi=10.1890/11-1199.1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307025203/http://www.k-state.edu/ecophyslab/pdf's/Ratajczak,%20Nippert,%20and%20Collins.%202012.%20Ecology.pdf|archive-date=7 March 2015|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Catherine L.|last1=Parr|first2=Emma F.|last2=Gray|first3=William J.|last3=Bond|year=2012|title=Cascading biodiversity and functional consequences of a global change–induced biome switch|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=18|issue=5|pages=493–503|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259397524|doi=10.1111/j.1472-4642.2012.00882.x|s2cid=84089636|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131191537/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Emma_Gray5/publication/259397524_Cascading_biodiversity_and_functional_consequences_of_a_global_change-induced_biome_switch/links/0046352b6eb15ccff5000000.pdf|archive-date=31 January 2017|doi-access=free}}</ref> reduce available water for humans and wildlife,<ref>{{cite conference|last1=Wilcox|first1=B.P.|last2=Kreuter|first2=U.P.|year=2003|title=Woody plant: streamflow interactions as a basis for land management decisions in drylands|conference=Proceedings VIIth International Rangelands Congress|pages=989–96}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Scott|first=D.F.|year=1999|title=Managing riparian vegetation to sustain streamflow: results of paired catchment experiments in South Africa|journal=Canadian Journal of Forest Research|volume=29|issue=7|pages=1149–51|url=http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/bitstream/10204/2110/3/scott_1999.pdf|doi=10.1139/x99-042|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205151715/http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/bitstream/10204/2110/3/scott_1999.pdf|archive-date=5 December 2014}}</ref> harbour dangerous or destructive wildlife,<ref name="R Nasi, S Wunder 2002"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Davidson|first1=A|last2=Elliston|first2=L|last3=Kokic|first3=P|last4=Lawson|first4=K|year=2005|title=Native vegetation: cost of preservation in Australia|journal=Australian Commodities|volume=12|issue=3|pages=543–48|url=http://data.daff.gov.au/data/warehouse/pe_abare99001738/ac05_sept.pdf#page=101|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201164407/http://data.daff.gov.au/data/warehouse/pe_abare99001738/ac05_sept.pdf#page=101|archive-date=1 February 2018}}</ref> and act as reservoirs of human and livestock disease.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0789e/a0789e03.html | title = Forests and emerging infectious diseases of humans | first1 = B.A. | last1 = Wilcox | first2 = B. | last2 = Ellis | publisher = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations | access-date = 16 November 2014 | url-status=live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141129213641/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0789e/a0789e03.html | archive-date = 29 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Small rodents in the forest ecosystem as infectious disease reservoirs|journal=Acta Med Croatica|year=2003|volume=57|issue=5|pages=421–26|pmid=15011471|first=J|last=Margaletic|language=hr}}</ref>▼
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Main ecosystem services of the 3 main types of forest
|-
! Type of forest !! Carbon stored !! Biodiversity !! Other
|-
| Primary [[Boreal forests|Boreal Forests]] || 1,042 billion tonnes of carbon, more than currently found in the atmosphere, 2 times more than all [[Greenhouse gas emissions|human caused emissions]] since the year 1870. || Biodiversity services given by Canada forest alone are estimated as 703 billion dollars per year. Important for almost half of the [[bird]]s in North America. || Contain 60% of world [[Fresh water|surface freshwater]].
|-
| Primary [[Temperate forest|Temperate Forests]] || 119 billion tonnes (like all CO2 emitted by humans in 2005–2017) || [[Old-growth forest|Old growth forest]] has very high biodiversity. Some species link [[terrestrial ecosystem]]s to [[marine ecosystem|marine]]. || Some trees can live 1,000 years providing many services to humans. Help to protect people from [[flood]]s and [[drought]]s.
|-
| Primary [[Tropical forest|Tropical Forests]] || 471 billion tonnes (more than all CO2 emissions from fossil fuel industry from the year 1750) || Contain about two thirds of all [[species]] of terrestrial [[animal]]s and [[plant]]s. || Creates clouds, [[rainfall]].
|}
▲Some researchers state that forests do not only provide benefits, but can in certain cases also incur costs to humans.<ref name="R Nasi, S Wunder 2002">{{cite conference|first1=R|last1=Nasi|first2=S|last2=Wunder|first3=JJ|last3=Campos A|title=Forest ecosystem services: can they pay our way out of deforestation?|book-title=UNFF II|location=Costa Rica|date=11 March 2002|url=http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/BNasi0201.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204162356/http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/BNasi0201.pdf|archive-date=4 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|first1=Lucy|last1=Emerton|year=1999|title=Mount Kenya: The Economics of Community Conservation|series=Evaluating Eden Series|issue=Discussion Paper No.4|type=Community Conservation research Working Paper|publisher=University of Manchester Institute of Development Policy and Management|url=http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/7797IIED.pdf?origin=publication_detail|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204162356/http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/7797IIED.pdf?origin=publication_detail|archive-date=4 December 2014}}</ref> Forests may impose an economic burden,<ref>{{cite report |last1=Lette |first1=Henk |last2=de Boo |first2=Henneleen |title=Economic Valuation of Forests and Nature A support tool for effective decision-making |url=http://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/fulltext/118103 |year=2002 |series=Theme Studies Series 6 Forests |location=Ede, The Netherlands |publisher=Forestry and Biodiversity Support Group, International Agricultural Centre (IAC), Wageningen National Reference Centre for Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (EC-LNV) |access-date=16 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-first=Joshua T.|editor-last=Bishop|year=1999|title=Valuing Forests A Review of Methods and Applications in Developing Countries|publisher=Environmental Economics Programme, International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED)|location=London|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEEI/214574-1153316226850/20486370/ValuingForestsAReviewOfMethodsAndApplicationsInDevelopingCountriesJuly1999.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123100829/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEEI/214574-1153316226850/20486370/ValuingForestsAReviewOfMethodsAndApplicationsInDevelopingCountriesJuly1999.pdf|archive-date=23 November 2015}}</ref> diminish the enjoyment of natural areas,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gray|first1=Emma F.|last2=Bond|first2=William J.|title=Will woody plant encroachment impact the visitor experience and economy of conservation areas?|journal=Koedoe|year=2013|volume=55|number=1|issn=0075-6458|doi=10.4102/koedoe.v55i1.1106|doi-access=free|hdl=11427/24844|hdl-access=free}}</ref> reduce the food-producing capacity of grazing land<ref>{{cite journal|first1=R.J.|last1=Scholes|first2=S.R.|last2=Archer|year=1997|title=Tree-Grass Interactions in Savannas|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=28|pages=517–44|url=http://cals.arizona.edu/research/archer/reprints/Scholes_Archer_1997_AnRevEcolSys.pdf|doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.517|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204185831/http://cals.arizona.edu/research/archer/reprints/Scholes_Archer_1997_AnRevEcolSys.pdf|archive-date=4 December 2014}}</ref> and cultivated land,<ref>{{cite book|first1=David|last1=Pimentel|first2=Marcia H.|last2=Pimentel|year=2007|title=Food, Energy, and Society|publisher=CRC Press}}</ref> reduce biodiversity,<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Zakary|last1=Ratajczak|first2=Jesse B.|last2=Nippert|first3=Scott L.|last3=Collins|year=2012|title=Woody encroachment decreases diversity across North American grasslands and savannas|journal=Ecology|volume=93|issue=4|pages=697–703|pmid=22690619|url=http://www.k-state.edu/ecophyslab/pdf%27s/Ratajczak,%20Nippert,%20and%20Collins.%202012.%20Ecology.pdf|doi=10.1890/11-1199.1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307025203/http://www.k-state.edu/ecophyslab/pdf's/Ratajczak,%20Nippert,%20and%20Collins.%202012.%20Ecology.pdf|archive-date=7 March 2015|doi-access=free|bibcode=2012Ecol...93..697R }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Catherine L.|last1=Parr|first2=Emma F.|last2=Gray|first3=William J.|last3=Bond|year=2012|title=Cascading biodiversity and functional consequences of a global change–induced biome switch|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=18|issue=5|pages=493–503|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259397524|doi=10.1111/j.1472-4642.2012.00882.x|s2cid=84089636|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131191537/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Emma_Gray5/publication/259397524_Cascading_biodiversity_and_functional_consequences_of_a_global_change-induced_biome_switch/links/0046352b6eb15ccff5000000.pdf|archive-date=31 January 2017|doi-access=free|bibcode=2012DivDi..18..493P }}</ref> reduce available water for humans and wildlife,<ref>{{cite conference|last1=Wilcox|first1=B.P.|last2=Kreuter|first2=U.P.|year=2003|title=Woody plant: streamflow interactions as a basis for land management decisions in drylands|conference=Proceedings VIIth International Rangelands Congress|pages=989–96}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Scott|first=D.F.|year=1999|title=Managing riparian vegetation to sustain streamflow: results of paired catchment experiments in South Africa|journal=Canadian Journal of Forest Research|volume=29|issue=7|pages=1149–51|url=http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/bitstream/10204/2110/3/scott_1999.pdf|doi=10.1139/x99-042|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205151715/http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/bitstream/10204/2110/3/scott_1999.pdf|archive-date=5 December 2014}}</ref> harbour dangerous or destructive wildlife,<ref name="R Nasi, S Wunder 2002"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Davidson|first1=A|last2=Elliston|first2=L|last3=Kokic|first3=P|last4=Lawson|first4=K|year=2005|title=Native vegetation: cost of preservation in Australia|journal=Australian Commodities|volume=12|issue=3|pages=543–48|url=http://data.daff.gov.au/data/warehouse/pe_abare99001738/ac05_sept.pdf#page=101|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201164407/http://data.daff.gov.au/data/warehouse/pe_abare99001738/ac05_sept.pdf#page=101|archive-date=1 February 2018}}</ref> and act as reservoirs of human and livestock disease.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0789e/a0789e03.html | title = Forests and emerging infectious diseases of humans | first1 = B.A. | last1 = Wilcox | first2 = B. | last2 = Ellis | publisher = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations | access-date = 16 November 2014 | url-status=live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141129213641/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0789e/a0789e03.html | archive-date = 29 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Small rodents in the forest ecosystem as infectious disease reservoirs|journal=Acta Med Croatica|year=2003|volume=57|issue=5|pages=421–26|pmid=15011471|first=J|last=Margaletic|language=hr}}</ref>
An important consideration regarding carbon sequestration is that forests can turn from a carbon sink to a carbon source if plant diversity, density or forest area decreases, as has been observed in different tropical forests<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baccini |first1=A. |last2=Walker |first2=W. |last3=Carvalho |first3=L. |last4=Farina |first4=M. |last5=Sulla-Menashe |first5=D. |last6=Houghton |first6=R. A. |date=2017-10-13 |title=Tropical forests are a net carbon source based on aboveground measurements of gain and loss |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aam5962 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=358 |issue=6360 |pages=230–234 |doi=10.1126/science.aam5962 |pmid=28971966 |bibcode=2017Sci...358..230B |issn=0036-8075}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Spawn |first1=Seth A. |last2=Sullivan |first2=Clare C. |last3=Lark |first3=Tyler J. |last4=Gibbs |first4=Holly K. |date=2020-04-06 |title=Harmonized global maps of above and belowground biomass carbon density in the year 2010 |journal=Scientific Data |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=112 |doi=10.1038/s41597-020-0444-4 |pmid=32249772 |issn=2052-4463|pmc=7136222 |bibcode=2020NatSD...7..112S }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-09-28 |title=Tropical forests have flipped from sponges to sources of carbon dioxide |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/tropical-forests-have-flipped-sponges-sources-carbon-dioxide |access-date=2024-01-05 |language=en-US}}</ref> The typical tropical forest may become a carbon source by the 2060s.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Harvey |first1=Fiona |last2=correspondent |first2=Fiona Harvey Environment |date=2020-03-04 |title=Tropical forests losing their ability to absorb carbon, study finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/mar/04/tropical-forests-losing-their-ability-to-absorb-carbon-study-finds |access-date=2024-01-05 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> An assessment of European forests found early signs of carbon sink saturation, after decades of increasing strength.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nabuurs |first1=Gert-Jan |last2=Lindner |first2=Marcus |last3=Verkerk |first3=Pieter J. |last4=Gunia |first4=Katja |last5=Deda |first5=Paola |last6=Michalak |first6=Roman |last7=Grassi |first7=Giacomo |date=September 2013 |title=First signs of carbon sink saturation in European forest biomass |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate1853 |journal=Nature Climate Change |language=en |volume=3 |issue=9 |pages=792–796 |doi=10.1038/nclimate1853 |bibcode=2013NatCC...3..792N |issn=1758-6798}}</ref> The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)]] concluded that a combination of measures aimed at increasing forest carbon stocks, andsustainable timber offtake will generate the largest carbon sequestration benefit.<ref>{{Citation |title=Forestry |date=2007 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/climate-change-2007-mitigation-of-climate-change/forestry/252A8A6E2DAE291C4769FD9385DA26C4 |work=Climate Change 2007 - Mitigation of Climate Change: Working Group III contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC |pages=541–584 |editor-last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |access-date=2024-01-05 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511546013.013 |isbn=978-1-107-79970-7}}</ref>
===Forest-dependent people===
The term forest-dependent people is used to describe any of a wide variety of livelihoods that are dependent on access to forests, products harvested from forests, or ecosystem services provided by forests, including those of Indigenous peoples dependent on forests.<ref name="auto1">{{cite journal |last1=Newton |first1=Peter |last2=Miller |first2=Daniel C. |last3=Byenkya |first3=Mugabi Augustine Ateenyi |last4=Agrawal |first4=Arun |title=Who are forest-dependent people? A taxo nomy to aid livelihood and land use decision-making in forested regions |journal=Land Use Policy |date=2016 |volume=57 |pages=388–395|doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.05.032 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In [[India]], approximately 22 percent of the population belongs to forest-dependent communities, which live in close proximity to forests and practice [[agroforestry]] as a principal part of their livelihood.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Prateek |first1=Gautam |last2=Punia |first2=Sumendera |title=India's forest-dependent communities will benefit from policies recognising their integrated agri-forestry livelihood |url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/forests/india-s-forest-dependent-communities-will-benefit-from-policies-recognising-their-integrated-agri-forestry-livelihood-86929 |website=DownToEarth}}</ref> People of [[Ghana]] who rely on [[timber]] and [[bushmeat]] harvested from forests and Indigenous peoples of the Amazon rainforest are also examples of forest-dependent people.<ref name="auto1"/> Though forest-dependence by more common definitions is statistically associated with poverty and [[rural]] livelihoods, elements of forest-dependence exist in communities with a wide range of characteristics. Generally, richer households derive more cash value from forest resources, whereas among poorer households, forest resources are more important for home consumption and increase community resilience.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/news/forests/201611/understanding-human-dependence-forests-overview-iucn%E2%80%99s-efforts-and-findings-and-their-implications|title=Understanding human dependence on forests: An overview of IUCN's efforts and findings, and their implications|date=2 November 2016|website=IUCN}}</ref>
===Indigenous peoples===
Forests are fundamental to the culture and livelihood of indigenous people groups that live in and depend on forests,<ref>{{cite web |title=Interview: Deforestation Threatens Indonesia's Indigenous Peoples |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/09/22/interview-deforestation-threatens-indonesias-indigenous-peoples |website=Human Rights Watch|date=22 September 2019 }}</ref> many of which have been removed from and denied access to the lands on which they lived as part of global [[colonialism]]. Indigenous lands contain 36% or more of intact forest worldwide, host more biodiversity, and experience less deforestation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cannon |first1=John |title=Indigenous lands hold 36% or more of remaining intact forest landscapes |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2020/01/indigenous-lands-hold-36-or-more-of-remaining-intact-forest-landscapes/ |website=Mongabay|date=16 January 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |title=Indigenous peoples by far the best guardians of forests – UN report |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/25/indigenous-peoples-by-far-the-best-guardians-of-forests-un-report |newspaper=The Guardian|date=25 March 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chemnick |first1=Jean |title=Amazon Deforestation Falls Where Land Is under Indigenous Control |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/amazon-deforestation-falls-where-land-is-under-indigenous-control/ |website=Scientific American}}</ref> Indigenous activists have argued that degradation of forests and indigenous peoples' marginalization and land dispossession are interconnected.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indigenous Peoples Excluded from Political Power, Ejected from Lands, Faced Corporations Bent on Destroying Life-Giving Forests, Permanent Forum Told |url=https://press.un.org/en/2010/hr5021.doc.htm |website=United Nations Meetings Coverage and Press Releases}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Doolittle |first1=Amy |title=The Politics of Indigeneity: Indigenous Strategies for Inclusion in Climate Change Negotiations |journal=Conservation & Society |date=2010 |volume=8 |issue=4|page=256 |doi=10.4103/0972-4923.78142 |hdl=10535/8315 |hdl-access=free |doi-access=free }}</ref> Other concerns among indigenous peoples include lack of Indigenous involvement in forest management and loss of knowledge related for the forest ecosystem.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carson |first1=Savanna L. |last2=Kentatchime |first2=Fabrice |last3=Nana |first3=Eric Djomo |last4=Njabo |first4=Kevin Y. |last5=Cole |first5=Brian L. |last6=Godwin |first6=Hilary A. |title=Indigenous Peoples' Concerns About Loss of Forest Knowledge: Implications for Forest Management |journal=Conservation & Society |date=2018 |volume=16 |issue=4}}</ref> Since 2002, the amount of land that is legally owned by or designated for indigenous peoples has broadly increased, but land acquisition in lower-income countries by multinational corporations, often with little or no consultation of indigenous peoples, has also increased.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Indigenous peoples and tropical forests |journal=Competing or Complementary Strategies?: Protecting Indigenous Rights and Paying to Conserve Forests |date=2018 |pages=4–10 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep29743.4|last1=Savedoff |first1=William }}</ref> Research in the Amazon rainforest suggests that indigenous methods of agroforestry form reservoirs of biodiversity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sanabria |first1=Catalina |last2=Achury |first2=Rafael |title=Amazonian indigenous territories as reservoirs of biodiversity - Territorios indígenas amazónicos como reservorio de biodiversidad: The army ants of Santa Sofia (Amazonas – Colombia) |journal=Caldasia |date=2022 |volume=44 |issue=2|doi=10.15446/caldasia.v44n2.92330 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In the U.S. state of [[Wisconsin]], forests managed by indigenous people have more plant diversity, fewer invasive species, higher tree regeneration rates, and higher volume of trees.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Waller |first1=Donald M. |last2=Reo |first2=Nicholas J. |title=First stewards: ecological outcomes of forest and wildlife stewardship by indigenous peoples of Wisconsin, USA |journal=Ecology and Society |date=2018 |volume=23 |issue=1|doi=10.5751/ES-09865-230145 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
==Management==
{{main|Forest management|
[[File:World Production Of Selected Forest Products.svg|thumb|World production of selected forest products]]
[[File:Checkerboard forest in Idaho.jpg|alt=Priest River winds through mountains with a checkerboard design of trees to its east|thumb|[[Priest River (Idaho)|Priest River]] winding through Whitetail Butte with lots of [[forestry]] to the east—these lot patterns have existed since the mid-19th century. The white patches reflect areas with younger, smaller trees, where winter snow cover shows up brightly to the astronauts. Dark green-brown squares are parcels]]
Humans have generally decreased the amount of forest worldwide. Anthropogenic factors that can affect forests include logging, [[urban sprawl]], human-caused [[forest fire]]s, [[acid rain]], [[invasive species]], and the [[slash and burn]] practices of swidden agriculture or [[shifting cultivation]]. The loss and re-growth of forests lead to a distinction between two broad types of forest: primary or [[old-growth forest]] and [[secondary forest]]. There are also many natural factors that can cause changes in forests over time, including [[forest fires]], [[Forest pathology#Animals|insects]], [[Forest pathology|diseases]], weather, competition between species, etc. In 1997, the [[World Resources Institute]] recorded that only 20% of the world's original forests remained in large intact tracts of undisturbed forest.<ref>World Resources Institute (1997). [http://www.intactforests.org/pdf.publications/Last.Frontier.Forests.1997.pdf The Last Frontier Forests: Ecosystems and Economies on the Edge] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813235644/http://www.intactforests.org/pdf.publications/Last.Frontier.Forests.1997.pdf |date=13 August 2017 }}.</ref> More than 75% of these intact forests lie in three countries: the boreal forests of Russia and Canada, and the rainforest of Brazil.
According to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]'s (FAO) ''Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020'', an estimated {{convert|420|e6ha|e9acre|abbr=off}} of forest have been lost worldwide through deforestation since 1990, but the rate of [[forest loss]] has declined substantially. In the most recent five-year period (2015–2020), the annual rate of deforestation was estimated at {{convert|10|e6ha|abbr=off}}, down from {{convert|12|e6ha|abbr=off}} annually in 2010–2015.<ref name=":0" />
===The forest transition===
The transition of a region from forest loss to net gain in forested land is referred to as the forest transition. This change occurs through a few main pathways, including increase in commercial tree plantations, adoption of [[agroforestry]] techniques by small farmers, or spontaneous regeneration when former agricultural land is abandoned. It can be motivated by the economic benefits of forests, the ecosystem services forests provide, or cultural changes where people increasingly appreciate forests for their spiritual, aesthetic, or otherwise intrinsic value.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=Sarah Jane |last2=Schelhas |first2=John |last3=Grau |first3=Ricardo |last4=Nanni |first4=A Sofia |last5=Sloan |first5=Sean |title=Forest ecosystem-service transitions: the ecological dimensions of the forest transition |journal=Ecology and Society |date=2017 |volume=22 |issue=4|doi=10.5751/ES-09615-220438 |hdl=11336/67453 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> According to the [[Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C]] of the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]], to avoid temperature rise by more than 1.5 degrees above pre-industrial levels, there will need to be an increase in global forest cover equal to the land area of Canada ({{convert|10|e6sqkm|e6sqmi|abbr=off}}) by 2050.<ref name=IPCC/>
China instituted a ban on logging, beginning in 1998, due to the erosion and flooding that it caused.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ban on Logging Saves Forests |url=http://english.people.com.cn/english/200110/25/eng20011025_83160.html |date=25 October 2001 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629191535/http://english.people.com.cn/english/200110/25/eng20011025_83160.html |archive-date=29 June 2011 |newspaper=[[People's Daily]] |access-date=16 February 2022}}</ref> In addition, ambitious tree-planting programmes in countries such as China, India, the United States, and Vietnam – combined with natural expansion of forests in some regions – have added more than {{convert|7|e6ha|abbr=off}} of new forests annually. As a result, the net loss of forest area was reduced to {{convert|5.2|e6ha|abbr=off}} per year between 2000 and 2010, down from {{convert|8.3|e6ha|abbr=off}} annually in the 1990s. In 2015, a study for ''[[Nature Climate Change]]'' showed that the trend has recently been reversed, leading to an "overall gain" in global biomass and forests. This gain is due especially to [[reforestation]] in China and Russia.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Yi Y.|last1=Liu|first2=Albert I.J.M.|last2=van Dijk|first3=Richard A.M.|last3=de Jeu|first4=Josep G.|last4=Canadell|first5=Matthew F.|last5=McCabe|first6=Jason P.|last6=Evans|first7=Guojie|last7=Wang|title=Recent reversal in loss of global terrestrial biomass|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=5|issue=5|page=470|date=30 March 2015|doi=10.1038/nclimate2581|bibcode=2015NatCC...5..470L}}</ref> New forests are not equivalent to old growth forests in terms of species diversity, resilience, and carbon capture. On 7 September 2015, the FAO released a new study stating that over the last 25 years the global [[deforestation]] rate has decreased by 50% due to improved [[forest management|management of forests]] and greater government protection.<ref>{{cite web|title=World deforestation slows down as more forests are better managed|url=http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/326911/icode/|website=fao.org|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation|access-date=2 October 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151012010007/http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/326911/icode/|archive-date=12 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=MacDicken|first1=K.|last2=Jonsson|first2=Ö.|last3=Piña|first3=L.|last4=Maulo|first4=S.|last5=Adikari|first5=Y.|last6=Garzuglia|first6=M.|last7=Lindquist|first7=E.|last8=Reams|first8=G.|last9=D’Annunzio|first9=R.|title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015|url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4793e.pdf|website=fao.org|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|date=2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003140455/http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4793e.pdf|archive-date=3 October 2015}}</ref>
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===United States===
In the United States, most forests have historically been affected by humans to some degree, though in recent years improved [[forestry]] practices have helped regulate or moderate large-scale impacts. The [[United States Forest Service]] estimated a net loss of about {{convert|2|e6ha|abbr=off}} between 1997 and 2020; this estimate includes conversion of forest land to other uses, including urban and suburban development, as well as afforestation and natural reversion of abandoned crop and pasture land to forest. In many areas of the United States, the area of forest is stable or increasing, particularly in many northern states. The opposite problem from flooding has plagued national forests, with loggers complaining that a lack of thinning and proper forest management has resulted in large forest fires.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildrockiesalliance.org/issues/wildfire/enn.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509225620/http://www.wildrockiesalliance.org/issues/wildfire/enn.html|archive-date=9 May 2013 |title=Wildfires Ignite Forest Management Debate |publisher=Wildrockiesalliance.org |access-date=3 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Emily K.|last=Brock|title=Money Trees: The Douglas Fir and American Forestry, 1900–1944|publisher=Oregon State University Press|year=2015}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Ecology|Environment|Trees}}
{{Columns-list|colwidth=15em|
* [[Bioproducts]]
* [[Close to nature forestry]]
* [[Cloud forest]]
* [[Dendrology]]
* [[Dendrometry]]
* [[Forest dynamics]]
* [[Forest migration]]
* [[Forest pathology]]
* [[Kelp forest]] (A forest made mostly if not entirely of [[Kelp]]; an underwater forest)
* [[List of countries by forest area]]
* [[List of old-growth forests]]
*[[Mangrove forest]]
* [[Permaforestry]]
* [[REDD-plus]]
* [[Urban forest]]
* [[Wilderness]]
* [[Woodland management]]
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