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'''Gothic fiction''', sometimes called '''Gothic horror''' (primarily in the 20th century), is a loose literary aesthetic of [[fear]] and [[haunting]]. The name refers to [[Gothic architecture]] of the European [[Middle Ages]], which was characteristic of the settings of early Gothic novels.
The first work to call itself Gothic was [[Horace Walpole]]'s 1764 novel ''[[The Castle of Otranto]]'', later subtitled "A Gothic Story". Subsequent 18th-century contributors included [[Clara Reeve]], [[Ann Radcliffe]], [[William Beckford (novelist)|William Thomas Beckford]], and [[Matthew Gregory Lewis|Matthew Lewis]]. The Gothic influence continued into the early 19th century; works by the [[Romantic poetry|Romantic poets]], like [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] and [[Lord Byron]], and novelists such as [[Mary Shelley]],
The early [[Victorian literature|Victorian period]] continued the use of gothic aesthetic in novels by [[Charles Dickens]] and the [[Brontë family|Brontë sisters]], as well as works by the American writers [[Edgar Allan Poe]] and [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]]. Later well-known works were ''[[Dracula]]'' by [[Bram Stoker]], [[Richard Marsh (author)|Richard Marsh's]] ''[[The Beetle (novel)|The Beetle]]'' and [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s ''[[Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde]]''. Twentieth-century contributors include [[Daphne du Maurier]], [[Stephen King]], [[Shirley Jackson]], [[Anne Rice]], and [[Toni Morrison]].
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===The Female Gothic===
From the castles, dungeons, forests, and hidden passages of the Gothic novel genre emerged female Gothic. Guided by the works of authors such as [[Ann Radcliffe]], [[Mary Shelley]], and [[Charlotte Brontë]], the female Gothic allowed women's societal and sexual desires to be introduced. In many respects, the novel's intended reader of the time was the woman who, even as she enjoyed such novels, felt she had to "[lay] down her book with affected indifference, or momentary shame,"<ref name="Austen">"Austen's ''Northanger Abbey''", Second Edition, Broadview, 2002.</ref> according to [[Jane Austen]]. The Gothic novel shaped its form for woman readers to "turn to Gothic romances to find support for their own mixed feelings."<ref name="Ronald">Ronald, Ann, "Terror Gothic: Nightmare and Dream in Ann Radcliffe and Charlotte Bronte", in Juliann E. Fleenor (ed.) [https://resources.saylor.org/wwwresources/archived/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/The-Female-Gothic.pdf ''The Female Gothic''], Montreal: Eden Press Inc., 1983, pp. 176–186.</ref>
Female Gothic narratives focus on such topics as a persecuted heroine fleeing from a villainous father and searching for an absent mother. At the same time, male writers tend towards the masculine transgression of social taboos. The emergence of the ghost story gave women writers something to write about besides the common marriage plot, allowing them to present a more radical critique of male power, violence, and predatory sexuality.<ref name="Smith, Andrew 2004, pp. 1–7">Smith, Andrew, and Diana Wallace, "The Female Gothic: Then and Now." ''Gothic Studies'', 25 August 2004, pp. 1–7.</ref> Authors such as [[Mary Robinson (poet)|Mary Robinson]] and [[Charlotte Dacre]] however, present a counter to the naive and persecuted heroines usually featured in female Gothic of the time, and instead feature more sexually assertive heroines in their works.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://reactormag.com/the-real-life-heroines-of-the-early-gothic/| title=The Real Life Heroines of the Early Gothic
| date=May 14, 2021|last=Hirst|first=Sam| website=[[Reactor (magazine)|Reactor]]| access-date=June 22, 2024}}</ref>
When the female Gothic coincides with the explained supernatural the natural cause of terror is not the supernatural, but female disability and societal horrors: rape, incest, and the threatening control of a male antagonist. Female Gothic novels also address women's discontent with patriarchal society, their difficult and unsatisfying maternal position, and their role within that society. Women's fears of entrapment in the domestic, their bodies, marriage, childbirth, or domestic abuse commonly appear in the genre.
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[[John Milton]]'s ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' (1667) was also very influential among Gothic writers, who were especially drawn to the tragic anti-hero character [[Paradise Lost#Characters|Satan]], who became a model for many charismatic Gothic villains and [[Byronic heroes]]. Milton's "version of the myth of the fall and redemption, creation and decreation, is, as ''[[Gothic aspects in Frankenstein|Frankenstein]]'' again reveals, an important model for Gothic plots."<ref>{{Cite thesis|author=Percival, Robert |url=https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10092/11870/Percival_thesis.pdf?sequence=1|title=From the Sublime to the Numinous: A Study of Gothic Qualities in the Poetry and Drama of Shelley's Italian Period |type=MA thesis |publisher=University of Canterbury |date=2013|access-date=April 29, 2022 |hdl=10092/11870 |doi=10.26021/4865 }}</ref>
[[Alexander Pope]], who had a considerable influence on Walpole, was the first significant poet of the 18th century to write a poem in an authentic Gothic manner.<ref>{{Cite thesis|author=Saraoorian, Vahe |url=https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accession=bgsu1554464085299421&disposition=inline |title=The Way To Otranto: Gothic Elements In Eighteenth-Century English Poetry |type=PhD dissertation |publisher=Bowling Green State University
Gothic literature is often described with words such as "wonder" and "terror."<ref name="Terror and Wonder">{{Cite web |url=http://www.bl.uk/events/terror-and-wonder--the-gothic-imagination |title=Terror and Wonder the Gothic Imagination |website=The British Library |publisher=British Library|access-date=26 March 2016}}</ref> This sense of wonder and terror that provides the [[suspension of disbelief]] so important to the Gothic—which, except for when it is parodied, even for all its occasional [[melodrama]], is typically played straight, in a self-serious manner—requires the imagination of the reader to be willing to accept the idea that there might be something "beyond that which is immediately in front of us." The mysterious imagination necessary for Gothic literature to have gained any traction had been growing for some time before the advent of the Gothic. The need for this came as the known world was becoming more explored, reducing the geographical mysteries of the world. The edges of the map were filling in, and no dragons were to be found. The human mind required a replacement.<ref name="Early and Pre-Gothic Literary Conventions">{{Cite web |url=http://www.spookyscarysociety.com/2015/10/31/october-2015-literary-meeting-early-and-pre-gothic-literary-conventions-examples/ |title=Early and Pre-Gothic Literary Conventions & Examples |date=31 October 2015 |website=Spooky Scary Skeletons Literary and Horror Society |publisher=Spooky Scary Society |access-date=26 March 2016}}</ref> Clive Bloom theorizes that this void in the collective imagination was critical in developing the cultural possibility for the rise of the Gothic tradition.<ref name="Gothic Histories">{{cite book|last1=Bloom|first1=Clive|title=Gothic Histories: The Taste for Terror, 1764 to Present|date=2010|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|location=London|page=2}}</ref>
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===Eighteenth-century Gothic novels===
{{main|Eighteenth-century Gothic novel}}
[[File:The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794).png|thumb|upright|left|[[Ann Radcliffe]]'s ''[[The Mysteries of Udolpho]]'' (1794), a bestselling
The first work to call itself "Gothic" was [[Horace Walpole]]'s ''[[The Castle of Otranto]]'' (1764).<ref name="Birch"/> The first edition presented the story as a translation of a sixteenth- century manuscript and was widely popular. Walpole, in the second edition, revealed himself as the author which adding the subtitle "A Gothic Story." The revelation prompted a backlash from readers, who considered it inappropriate for a modern author to write a supernatural story in a rational age.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Clery |first=E. J. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/776946868 |title=The Rise of Supernatural Fiction, 1762–1800 |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-511-51899-7 |location=Cambridge |oclc=776946868}}</ref> Walpole did not initially prompt many imitators. Beginning with [[Clara Reeve]]'s ''[[The Old English Baron]]'' (1778), the 1780s saw more writers attempting his combination of supernatural plots with emotionally realistic characters. Examples include [[Sophia Lee]]'s ''[[The Recess]]'' (1783–5) and [[William Beckford (novelist)|William Beckford]]'s ''[[Vathek]]'' (1786).<ref name="Sucur" />
[[File:Minerva Press publications notice, The Gloucester Journal, 1795.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Minerva Press]] notice from October 1795 listing new publications, including many Gothic titles.]]
At the height of the Gothic novel's popularity in the 1790s, the genre was almost synonymous with [[Ann Radcliffe]], whose works were highly anticipated and widely imitated. ''[[The Romance of the Forest]]'' (1791) and ''[[The Mysteries of Udolpho]]'' (1794) were particularly popular.<ref name="Sucur">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Gothic fiction|encyclopedia=The Literary Encyclopedia.|last=Sucur|first=Slobodan|date=2007-05-06|issn=1747-678X}}</ref> In an essay on Radcliffe, [[Walter Scott]], writes of the popularity of ''Udolpho'' at the time, "The very name was fascinating, and the public, who rushed upon it with all the eagerness of curiosity, rose from it with unsated appetite. When a family was numerous, the volumes flew, and were sometimes torn from hand to hand."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/livesnovelists01scotgoog/page/n5/mode/2up |title=Lives of the Novelists |last=Scott |first=Walter |publisher=Carey & Lea|page=195| date=1825}}</ref> Radcliffe's novels were often seen as the feminine and rational opposite of a more violently horrifying male Gothic associated with [[Matthew Lewis (writer)|Matthew Lewis]]. Radcliffe's final novel, [[The Italian (Radcliffe novel)|''The Italian'']] (1797), responded to Lewis's ''[[The Monk]]'' (1796)
A Companion to the Gothic |date=2000|page=49|isbn=978-0-63123-199-8}}</ref>
The popularity and influence of ''The Mysteries of Udolpho'' and ''The Monk'' saw the rise of shorter and cheaper versions of Gothic literature in the forms of [[Gothic bluebooks]] and [[chapbooks]], which in many cases were plagiarized and abridgments of well known Gothic novels.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Thomas|first=Susan |url=https://library.unimelb.edu.au/asc/whats-on/exhibitions/dark-imaginings/gothicresearch/gothic-bluebooks-the-popular-thirst-for-fear-and-dread |title=Gothic bluebooks: The popular thirst for fear and dread|publisher=[[University of Melbourne]]}}</ref> ''The Monk'' in particular, with its immoral and sensational content, saw many plagiarized copies, and was notably drawn from in the cheaper pamphlets.<ref>{{Cite book |last=J. Potter|first=Franz J. |url=https://thedarkartsjournal.wordpress.com/2021/05/14/review-gothic-chapbooks/ |title=Gothic Chapbooks, Bluebooks and Shilling Shockers, 1797-1830 |date=2021 |publisher=University of Wales Press |isbn=978-1-78683-670-0}}</ref>
Other notable Gothic novels of the 1790s include [[William Godwin]]'s ''[[Things as They Are; or, The Adventures of Caleb Williams|Caleb Williams]]'' (1794), [[Regina Maria Roche]]'s ''[[Clermont (novel)|Clermont]]'' (1798), and [[Charles Brockden Brown]]'s [[Wieland (novel)|''Wieland'']] (1798), as well as large numbers of anonymous works published by the [[Minerva Press]].<ref name="Sucur" /> In continental Europe, Romantic literary movements led to related Gothic genres such as the German ''Schauerroman'' and the French R''oman noir''.<ref>{{Citation |last=Hale |first=Terry |title=French and German Gothic: the beginnings |date=2002 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-gothic-fiction/french-and-german-gothic/D2C9BAEC304DC0E27775DF1CE36B9DA3 |work=The Cambridge Companion to Gothic Fiction |pages=63–84 |editor-last=Hogle |editor-first=Jerrold E. |series=Cambridge Companions to Literature |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79124-3 |access-date=2020-09-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Seeger |first=Andrew Philip |date=2004 |title=Crosscurrents between the English Gothic novel and the German Schauerroman |type=PhD dissertation |publisher=University of Nebraska–Lincoln |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/dissertations/AAI3131562 |id={{ProQuest|305161832}} |pages=1–208}}</ref> Eighteenth-century Gothic novels were typically set in a distant past and (for English novels) a distant European country, but without specific dates or historical figures that characterized the later development of historical fiction.<ref name="Richter">{{Cite book|last=Richter|first=David H.|title=The Oxford Handbook of the Eighteenth-Century Novel |chapter-url=https://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199566747.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199566747-e-021|chapter=The Gothic Novel and the Lingering Appeal of Romance|date=2016-07-28|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-956674-7|editor-last=Downie|editor-first=James Alan|pages=471–488|language=en|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199566747.013.021}}</ref>
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The saturation of Gothic-inspired literature during the 1790s was referred to in a letter by [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], writing on 16 March 1797, "indeed I am almost weary of the Terrible, having been a hireling in the [[The Critical Review (newspaper)|Critical Review]] for the last six or eight months – I have been reviewing ''[[the Monk]]'', ''[[The Italian (Radcliffe novel)|the Italian]]'', ''Hubert de Sevrac'' &c &c &c – in all of which dungeons, and old castles, & solitary Houses by the Sea Side & Caverns & Woods & extraordinary characters & all the tribe of Horror & Mystery, have crowded on me – even to surfeiting."<ref>{{Cite web|author=Norton, Rictor|url=http://rictornorton.co.uk/gothic/monk.htm |title=Gothic Readings, 1764–1840 |date=2000|access-date=May 11, 2022}}</ref>
The excesses, stereotypes, and frequent absurdities of the Gothic genre made it rich territory for satire.<ref>Skarda 1986.</ref> Historian [[Rictor Norton]] notes that satire of Gothic literature was common from 1796 until the 1820s, including early satirical works such as ''The New Monk'' (1798), ''More Ghosts''! (1798) and ''Rosella, or Modern Occurrences'' (1799). Gothic novels themselves, according to Norton, also possess elements of self-satire, "By having profane comic characters as well as sacred serious characters, the Gothic novelist could puncture the balloon of the supernatural while at the same time affirming the power of the imagination."<ref>{{Cite web|author=Norton, Rictor|url=http://rictornorton.co.uk/gothic/parody.htm |title=Gothic Readings, 1764–1840, Gothic Parody |date=2000}}</ref> After 1800 there was a period in which Gothic parodies outnumbered forthcoming Gothic novels.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Potter |first=Franz J. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/58807207 |title=The history of Gothic publishing, 1800–1835 : exhuming the trade |date=2005 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=1-4039-9582-6 |location=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire |oclc=58807207}}</ref> In ''[[The Heroine (novel)|The Heroine]]'' by [[Eaton Stannard Barrett]] (1813), Gothic tropes are exaggerated for comic effect.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Horner |first=Avril |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/312477942 |title=Gothic and the comic turn |date=2005 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-50307-6 |location=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire |pages=27 |oclc=312477942}}</ref> In [[Jane Austen]]'s novel ''[[Northanger Abbey]]'' (1818), the naive protagonist, a female named Catherine, conceives herself as a heroine of a Radcliffean romance and imagines murder and villainy on every side. However, the truth turns out to be much more prosaic. This novel is also noted for including a list of early Gothic works known as the [[Northanger Horrid Novels]].<ref>Wright (2007), pp. 29–32.</ref>
===Second generation or ''Jüngere Romantik''===
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[[File:Frontispiece to Frankenstein 1831.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mary Shelley]]'s ''[[Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus]]'' (1818) has come to define Gothic fiction in the Romantic period. Frontispiece to 1831 edition shown.]]
Byron was also the host of the celebrated ghost-story competition involving himself, [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]], [[Mary Shelley]], and [[John William Polidori]] at the Villa Diodati on the banks of [[Lake Geneva]] in the summer of 1816. This occasion was productive of both Mary Shelley's ''[[Frankenstein|Frankenstein, or, The Modern Prometheus]]'' (1818), and Polidori's ''[[The Vampyre]]'' (1819), featuring the Byronic [[Lord Ruthven (vampire)|Lord Ruthven]]. ''The Vampyre'' has been accounted by cultural critic Christopher Frayling as one of the most influential works of fiction ever written and spawned a craze for [[Vampire literature|vampire fiction]] and theatre (and, latterly, film) that has not ceased to this day.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frayling | first =Christopher | author-link =Christopher Frayling | title =Vampyres: Lord Byron to Count Dracula | publisher =Faber | date =1992 | orig-year=1978 |location=London |isbn=978-0-571-16792-0 |url =https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780571167920}}</ref>
[[John Keats]]' ''[[La Belle Dame sans Merci]]'' (1819) and ''[[Isabella, or the Pot of Basil]]'' (1820) feature mysteriously fey ladies.<ref name=skarda>Skarda and Jaffe (1981), pp. 33–35 and 132–133.</ref> In the latter poem, the names of the characters, the dream visions, and the macabre physical details are influenced by the novels of premiere Gothicist Ann Radcliffe.<ref name=skarda/>
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A late example of a traditional Gothic novel is ''[[Melmoth the Wanderer]]'' (1820) by [[Charles Maturin]], which combines themes of anti-Catholicism with an outcast Byronic hero.<ref>Varma 1986</ref> [[Jane C. Loudon]]'s ''[[The Mummy!]]'' (1827) features standard Gothic motifs, characters, and plot, but with one significant twist; it is set in the twenty-second century and speculates on fantastic scientific developments that might have occurred three hundred years in the future, making it and ''Frankenstein'' among the earliest examples of the science fiction genre developing from Gothic traditions.<ref name="Hopkins">[http://shura.shu.ac.uk/8710/3/Hopkins_Loudon_Mummy.pdf Lisa Hopkins, "Jane C. Loudon's The Mummy!: Mary Shelley Meets George Orwell, and They Go in a Balloon to Egypt", in Cardiff Corvey: ''Reading the Romantic Text'', 10 (June 2003)]. Cf.ac.uk (25 January 2006). Retrieved on 18 September 2018.</ref>
During two decades, the most famous author of Gothic literature in Germany was the polymath [[E. T. A. Hoffmann]]. Lewis's ''[[The Monk]]'' influenced and even mentioned it in his novel ''[[The Devil's Elixirs]]'' (1815).
In Spain, the priest [[Pascual Pérez Rodríguez]] was the most diligent novelist in the Gothic way, closely aligned to the supernatural explained by Ann Radcliffe.<ref>Aldana, Xavier, pp. 10–17</ref> At the same time, the poet [[José de Espronceda]] published ''[[El estudiante de Salamanca|The Student of Salamanca]]'' (1837–1840), a narrative poem that presents a horrid variation on the [[Don Juan]] legend.
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The following poems are also now considered to belong to the Gothic genre: Meshchevskiy's "Lila", Katenin's "Olga", [[Alexander Pushkin|Pushkin]]'s "The Bridegroom", [[Pyotr Pletnyov|Pletnev]]'s "The Gravedigger" and [[Mikhail Lermontov|Lermontov]]'s ''[[Demon (poem)|Demon]]'' (1829–1839).<ref>Cornwell (1999). Michael Pursglove: Does Russian gothic verse exist, pp. 83–102.</ref>
The key author of the transition from Romanticism to Realism, [[Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol]], who was also one of the most important authors of Romanticism, produced a number of works that qualify as Gothic fiction. Each of his three short story collections features a number of stories that fall within the Gothic genre or contain Gothic elements. They include "[[St. John's Eve (short story)|Saint John's Eve]]" and "[[A Terrible Vengeance]]" from ''[[Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka]]'' (1831–1832), "[[The Portrait (short story)|The Portrait]]" from ''Arabesques'' (1835), and "[[Viy (story)|Viy]]" from [[Mirgorod (short story collection)|''Mirgorod'']] (1835). While all are well known, the latter is probably the most famous, having inspired at least eight film adaptations (two now considered lost), one animated film, two documentaries, and a video game. Gogol's work differs from Western European Gothic fiction, as his cultural influences drew on [[Ukrainian folklore]], the [[Cossacks|Cossack]] lifestyle, and, as
Other relevant authors of this era include [[Vladimir Fyodorovich Odoevsky]] (''The Living Corpse'', written 1838, published 1844, ''The Ghost'', ''The Sylphide'', as well as short stories), [[Count Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy]] (''The Family of the Vourdalak'', 1839, and ''The Vampire'', 1841), [[Mikhail Zagoskin]] (''Unexpected Guests''), [[Józef Sękowski]]/[[Osip Senkovsky]] (''Antar''), and [[Yevgeny Baratynsky]] (''The Ring'').<ref name="Horner (2002), pp. 59–82" />
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[[File:Varney the Vampire or the Feast of Blood.jpg|thumb|upright|Cover of a ''[[Varney the Vampire]]'' publication, 1845]]
By the [[Victorian era]], Gothic had ceased to be the dominant genre for novels in England, partly replaced by more sedate historical fiction. However, Gothic short stories continued to be popular, published in magazines or as small [[chapbooks]] called [[penny dreadfuls]].<ref name="Birch"/> The most influential Gothic writer from this period was the American [[Edgar Allan Poe]], who wrote numerous short stories and poems reinterpreting Gothic tropes. His story "[[The Fall of the House of Usher]]" (1839) revisits classic Gothic tropes of aristocratic decay, death, and madness.<ref>(Skarda and Jaffe (1981) pp. 181–182.</ref> Poe is now considered the master of the American Gothic.<ref name="Birch"/> In England, one of the most influential penny dreadfuls is the anonymously authored ''[[Varney the Vampire]]'' (1847), which introduced the [[trope (literature)|trope]] of vampires having sharpened teeth.<ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/brian-cronin/did-vampires-not-have-fan_b_8415636.html "Did Vampires Not Have Fangs in Movies Until the 1950s?"]. ''Huffington Post''. Retrieved 27 September 2017.</ref> Another notable English author of penny dreadfuls is [[George W. M. Reynolds]], known for ''[[The Mysteries of London]]'' (1844), ''Faust'' (1846), ''Wagner the Wehr-wolf'' (1847), and ''The Necromancer'' (1857).<ref>Baddeley (2002) pp. 143–144.)</ref> [[Elizabeth Gaskell]]'s tales "The Doom of the Griffiths" (1858), "Lois the Witch", and "The Grey Woman" all employ one of the most common themes of Gothic fiction: the power of ancestral sins to curse future generations, or the fear that they will. [[M. R. James]], an English medievalist whose stories are still popular today, is known as the originator of the "antiquarian ghost story." In Spain, [[Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer]] stood out with his romantic poems and short tales, some depicting supernatural events. Today some consider him the most-read
[[File:Jane Eyre.jpg|left|upright|thumb|Jane Eyre's trial through the moors in [[Charlotte Brontë]]'s ''[[Jane Eyre]]'' (1847)]]
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===Twentienth-century Gothic fiction===
{{See also|Pulp magazine}}
[[File:Mrs. Danvers.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mrs. Danvers]] in the [[Rebecca (1940 film)|1940 film adaptation]] of [[Daphne du Maurier]]'s ''[[Rebecca (novel)|Rebecca]]''. The success of ''Rebecca'' inspired a revival of interest in Gothic romance in the 20th century<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://patch.com/connecticut/groton/bp--more-classic-riffs|last=Clark-Greene|first=Barbara|date=2012 |title=More Classic Riffs |website=[[Patch Media]]}}</ref>]]
Gothic fiction and [[Modernism]] influenced each other. This is often evident in detective fiction, horror fiction, and science fiction, but the influence of the Gothic can also be seen in the high literary Modernism of the 20th century. [[Oscar Wilde]]'s ''[[The Picture of Dorian Gray]]'' (1890) initiated a re-working of older literary forms and myths that became common in the work of [[W. B. Yeats]], [[T. S. Eliot]], [[James Joyce]], [[Virginia Woolf]], [[Shirley Jackson]], and [[Angela Carter]], among others.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hansen |first=Jim |date=2011 |title=A Nightmare on the Brain: Gothic Suspicion and Literary Modernism |journal=Literature Compass |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=635–644 |doi=10.1111/j.1741-4113.2010.00763.x}}</ref> In Joyce's [[Ulysses (novel)|''Ulysses'']] (1922), the living are transformed into ghosts, which points to an Ireland in stasis at the time and a history of cyclical trauma from the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]] in the 1840s through to the current moment in the text.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wurtz |first=James F. |date=2005 |title=Scarce More a Corpse: Famine Memory and Representations of the Gothic in Ulysses |journal=Journal of Modern Literature |volume=29 |pages=102–117 |doi=10.2979/JML.2005.29.1.102 |s2cid=161368941 |id={{ProQuest|201671206}}}}</ref> The way ''Ulysses'' uses Gothic tropes such as ghosts and hauntings while removing the supernatural elements of 19th-century Gothic fiction indicates a general form of modernist Gothic writing in the first half of the 20th century.
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==References==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{Cite book |last=Aldana Reyes |first=Xavier |title=Spanish Gothic: National Identity, Collaboration and Cultural Adaptation
*{{Cite book |last=Baddeley |first=Gavin |author-link= Gavin Baddeley |title=Goth Chic |year=2002 |publisher=Plexus |location=London |isbn=978-0-85965-382-4|ref=none}}
*Baldick, Chris (1993), ''Introduction,'' in ''The Oxford Book of Gothic Tales'', Oxford: Oxford University Press
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