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{{Internet}}
The [[United Kingdom]] has been involved with the [[Internet]] throughout its origins and development. The [[Telecommunications in the United Kingdom|telecommunications infrastructure in the United Kingdom]] provides [[Internet access]] to homes and businesses mainly through [[Fiber-optic communication|fibre]], [[Cable Internet access|cable]], [[Cellular network|mobile]] and [[fixed wireless]] networks, with the UK's 140-year-old copper network, maintained by [[Openreach]], set to be withdrawn by December 2025, although this has since been extended to 31st January 2027 in some areas due to reasons including panic alarms in sheltered housing needing a persistent connection which can't be guaranteed with internet-based DECT systems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BT presses on with analogue switch off across UK |url=https://www.computerweekly.com/news/366555512/BT-presses-on-with-analogue-switch-off-across-UK |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=ComputerWeekly.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Till |first=Lucy |date=2024-05-24 |title=BT Announces Delay in BT Switch Off to 2027 |url=https://telgroup.co.uk/bt-switch-off-delay-2027/ |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=Tel Group |language=en-US}}</ref>
The share of households with Internet access in the United Kingdom grew from 9 percent in 1998 to 93 percent in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/275999/household-internet-penetration-in-great-britain/|title=Household internet penetration in the UK 1998–2018|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=2019-02-11}}</ref> In 2019, virtually all adults aged 16 to 44 years in the UK were recent internet users (99%), compared with 47% of adults aged 75 years and over; in aggregate, the third-highest in Europe.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/businessindustryandtrade/itandinternetindustry/bulletins/internetusers/2019|title=Internet users, UK – Office for National Statistics|website=www.ons.gov.uk|access-date=2020-01-27}}</ref> Internet bandwidth per Internet user was the seventh highest in the world in 2016,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Internet bandwidth by country, around the world |url=https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/rankings/Internet_bandwidth/ |access-date=2019-02-11 |website=TheGlobalEconomy.com |language=en}}</ref> and average and peak internet connection speeds were top-quartile in 2017.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Connectivity Report |url=https://www.akamai.com/us/en/multimedia/documents/state-of-the-internet/q1-2017-state-of-the-internet-connectivity-report.pdf |journal=Q1 2017 State of the Internet |publisher=Akamai}}</ref> Internet use in the United Kingdom doubled in 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-12-30 |title=UK internet use doubles in 2020 due to pandemic |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-55486157 |access-date=2020-12-30 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>
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According to the [[Office for National Statistics|Office of National Statistics]] and the [[Government of the United Kingdom]]'s [[Department for Culture, Media and Sport|Culture, Media & Sport]] and [[Department for Science, Innovation and Technology|Science, Innovation & Technology]] departments, the digital sector was worth more than £140 billion to the UK's economy per year, as of 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2023 |title=Digital Sector Economic Estimates: Regional Gross Value Added 2020 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/dcms-and-the-digital-sector-economic-estimates-regional-gva/digital-sector-economic-estimates-regional-gross-value-added-2020 |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=24 May 2023 |title=UK Digital Economic Research: 2020 |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/economicoutputandproductivity/output/articles/ukdigitaleconomicresearch/2020 |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=[[Office for National Statistics]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 April 2023 |title=Digital Sector Economic Estimates 2020: annual GVA |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/economic-estimates-gva-for-dcms-sectors-and-the-digital-sector-2020/digital-sector-economic-estimates-2020-annual-gva |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref> Research by [[Adobe Inc.|Adobe]] suggested the UK spent £110.6 billion online in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=11 November 2023 |title=Adobe Digital Economy Index: UK Consumers Spent £110.6 Billion Online in 2022, Driven by Heavy Discounting from Retailers |url=https://blog.adobe.com/en/publish/2023/11/08/adobe-digital-economy-index-holiday-forecast-data-2023 |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=[[Adobe Inc.|Adobe]]}}</ref>
The [[List of Internet top-level domains|Internet top-level domain name]] specific to the UK is [[.uk]], which is operated by [[Nominet]]. Four additional domains were introduced by [[ICANN]] for locations within the UK in 2014: [[.cymru]] and [[.wales]] for [[Wales]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=2014-09-30 |title=New .wales and .cymru domain web addresses go live |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-29418898 |access-date=2024-02-20 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> [[.scot]] for [[Scotland]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=2014-09-23 |title=New internet domain .scot goes on general release |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-business-29326327 |access-date=2024-02-20 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>
== Early years<span class="anchor" id="History"></span> ==
{{further|History of the Internet}}
The UK has been involved in the research and development of [[packet switching]], [[communication protocol]]s, and [[internetworking]] since their origins.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Campbell-Kelly |first=Martin |date=1987 |title=Data Communications at the National Physical Laboratory (1965-1975) |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4640566 |journal=Annals of the History of Computing |volume=9 |issue=3/4 |pages=221–247 |doi=10.1109/MAHC.1987.10023 |s2cid=8172150 |issn=0164-1239}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Ed |last2=Miller |first2=Chris |last3=Norton |first3=Jim |date=2017 |title=Packet Switching: The first steps on the road to the information society |url=https://www.npl.co.uk/getattachment/about-us/History/Famous-faces/Donald-Davies/UK-role-in-Packet-Switching-(1).pdf.aspx?lang=en-GB |access-date= |website=National Physical Laboratory}}</ref> The development of these technologies was international from the beginning.<ref>{{cite web |author1=by Vinton Cerf, as told to Bernard Aboba |date=1993 |title=How the Internet Came to Be |url=http://elk.informatik.hs-augsburg.de/tmp/cdrom-oss/CerfHowInternetCame2B.html |access-date=25 September 2017 |quote=We began doing concurrent implementations at Stanford, BBN, and University College London. So effort at developing the Internet protocols was international from the beginning. |archive-date=26 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926042220/http://elk.informatik.hs-augsburg.de/tmp/cdrom-oss/CerfHowInternetCame2B.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hauben |first1=Ronda |date=1 May 2004 |title=The Internet: On its International Origins and Collaborative Vision A Work In-Progress |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/misc/haubenpap.rtf |access-date=25 September 2017}}</ref> While the research and development that led to the [[Internet protocol suite]] (and the early infrastructure and governance of the Internet) was driven and funded by the United States,<ref>{{cite news |date=15 February 2016 |title=BT ad gets into a muddle about the internet's origins |work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-35579225 |access-date=25 September 2017}}</ref> it also involved and applied the work of British (and French) researchers. In particular, [[Donald Davies]] independently invented and pioneered packet switching and associated communication protocols at the [[National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)|National Physical Laboratory]] starting in 1965;<ref name=":
=== Precursors ===
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=== Packet switching and national data network proposal ===
After meeting with Licklider in 1965, Donald Davies conceived the idea of [[packet switching]] for data communications.<ref name="Roberts1978">{{cite web|url=http://www.packet.cc/files/ev-packet-sw.html|title=The Evolution of Packet Switching|last1=Roberts|first1=Dr. Lawrence G.|date=November 1978|access-date=5 September 2017|quote=Almost immediately after the 1965 meeting, Donald Davies conceived of the details of a store-and-forward packet switching system|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324033133/http://www.packet.cc/files/ev-packet-sw.html|archive-date=24 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Roberts1995">{{cite web|url=http://www.packet.cc/files/arpanet-computernet.html|title=The ARPANET & Computer Networks|last1=Roberts|first1=Dr. Lawrence G.|date=May 1995|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324032800/http://www.packet.cc/files/arpanet-computernet.html|archive-date=24 March 2016|access-date=13 April 2016}}</ref> He proposed a commercial national data network and developed plans to implement the concept in a local area network, the [[NPL network]], which operated from 1969 to 1986.<ref name=":72">{{Cite conference |last=Scantlebury |first=Roger |last2=Wilkinson |first2=Peter |last3=Barber |first3=Derek |date=2001 |title=NPL, Packet Switching and the Internet |url=http://www.topquark.co.uk/conf/IAP2001.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030807200346/http://www.topquark.co.uk/conf/IAP2001.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2003-08-07 |conference=Symposium of the Institution of Analysts & Programmers 2001 |access-date=2024-06-13 |quote=The system first went 'live' early in 1969 |website=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barber |first1=Derek |date=Spring 1993 |title=The Origins of Packet Switching |url=http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/CCS/res/res05.htm#f |journal=The Bulletin of the Computer Conservation Society |issue=5 |issn=0958-7403 |access-date=6 September 2017}}</ref> He and his team, including Derek Barber and [[Roger Scantlebury]], carried out work to analyse and simulate the performance of packet switching networks, including [[datagram]] networks.<ref name="Hempstead2005">{{cite book |author1=C. Hempstead |url=https://archive.org/details/EncyclopediaOf20thCenturyTechnologyAZMalestrom/page/n621/mode/2up?q=packet+switching |title=Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Technology |author2=W. Worthington |date=2005 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-135-45551-4 |pages=573–5}}</ref><ref name="Pelkey">{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.historyofcomputercommunications.info/Book/6/6.3-CYCLADESNetworkLouisPouzin1-72.html|title=Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications 1968–1988|last=Pelkey|first=James|chapter=6.3 CYCLADES Network and Louis Pouzin 1971–1972|access-date=3 February 2020|archive-date=17 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617093154/https://www.historyofcomputercommunications.info/Book/6/6.3-CYCLADESNetworkLouisPouzin1-72.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Their research and practice was adopted by the [[ARPANET]] in the United States, the forerunner of the Internet, and influenced other researchers in
=== The early Internet and TCP/IP ===
Donald Davies, Derek Barber and Roger Scantlebury joined the [[International Network Working Group]] (INWG) in 1972 along with researchers from the United States and France.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vinton Cerf : How the Internet Came to Be|url=http://www.netvalley.com/archives/mirrors/cerf-how-inet.html|access-date=2021-12-21|website=www.netvalley.com}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web |last=Scantlebury |first=Roger |date=25 June 2013 |title=''Internet pioneers airbrushed from history'' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jun/25/internet-pioneers-airbrushed-from-history |access-date=1 August 2015 |work=The Guardian |postscript=none}}; {{Cite web |title=How we nearly invented the internet in the UK {{!}} New Scientist |url=https://www.newscientist.com/letter/mg24532640-100-how-we-nearly-invented-the-internet-in-the-uk/ |access-date=2020-02-07 |website=www.newscientist.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McKenzie|first=Alexander|date=2011|title=INWG and the Conception of the Internet: An Eyewitness Account|journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing|volume=33|issue=1|pages=66–71|doi=10.1109/MAHC.2011.9|s2cid=206443072|issn=1934-1547}}</ref> [[Vint Cerf]] and [[Bob Kahn]] acknowledged Davies and Scantlebury in their seminal 1974 paper "''A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication''".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cerf|first1=V.|last2=Kahn|first2=R.|date=1974|title=A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication|url=https://www.cs.princeton.edu/courses/archive/fall06/cos561/papers/cerf74.pdf|journal=IEEE Transactions on Communications|volume=22|issue=5|pages=637–648|doi=10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259|issn=1558-0857|quote=The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations.}}</ref>
[[Peter T. Kirstein|Peter Kirstein]]'s research group at [[University College London]] (UCL) was one of the first two international connections on the ARPANET in 1973, alongside the Norwegian Seismic Array ([[NORSAR]]).<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Brown|editor1-first=Ian|title=Research handbook on governance of the Internet|date=2013|publisher=Edward Elgar|isbn=978-1-84980-504-9|page=7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgI1_r61JFQC&pg=PA7}}</ref> UCL thereafter provided a gateway between the ARPANET and British academic networks, the first international heterogenous network for computer [[resource sharing]]. By 1975, 40 [[JANET#History|British academic research groups]] were using the link.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Kirstein |first=P.T. |date=1999 |title=Early experiences with the Arpanet and Internet in the United Kingdom |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4773/f19792f9fce8eacba72e5f8c2a021414e52d.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=38–44 |doi=10.1109/85.759368 |issn=1934-1547 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207092443/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4773/f19792f9fce8eacba72e5f8c2a021414e52d.pdf |archive-date=2020-02-07 |s2cid=1558618}}</ref>
The specification of the [[Transmission Control Program]] was developed in the U.S. in 1974 through research funded and led by [[DARPA]] and [[Stanford University]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=1974 |title=Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program |url=https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/rfc675/}}</ref> The following year, testing began with concurrent implementations at University College London, Stanford University, and [[Bolt Beranek & Newman|BBN]].<ref name=":32">{{cite web|author1=by Vinton Cerf, as told to Bernard Aboba|date=1993|title=How the Internet Came to Be|url=http://elk.informatik.hs-augsburg.de/tmp/cdrom-oss/CerfHowInternetCame2B.html|access-date=25 September 2017|quote=We began doing concurrent implementations at Stanford, BBN, and University College London. So effort at developing the Internet protocols was international from the beginning. ... Mar '82 - Norway leaves the ARPANET and become an Internet connection via TCP/IP over SATNET. Nov '82 - UCL leaves the ARPANET and becomes an Internet connection.|archive-date=26 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926042220/http://elk.informatik.hs-augsburg.de/tmp/cdrom-oss/CerfHowInternetCame2B.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> UCL played a significant role in the very earliest experimental Internet work. [[Sylvia Wilbur]] programmed the computer used as the local [[Node (networking)|node]] for the network at UCL and was "probably one of the first people in this country ever to send an email, back in 1974".<ref name="abbate">{{citation|url=https://ethw.org/Oral-History:Silvia_Wilbur|title=Silvia Wilbur|work=IEEE History Center Interview #634|first=Janet|last=Abbate|authorlink=Janet Abbate|publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]]|date=April 2001}}</ref> Kirstein co-authored with Vint Cerf one of the most significant early technical papers on the [[internetworking]] concept in 1978.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Cerf | first1 = V. G. | last2 = Kirstein | first2 = P. T. | doi = 10.1109/PROC.1978.11147 | title = Issues in packet-network interconnection | journal = Proceedings of the IEEE | volume = 66 | issue = 11 | pages = 1386 | year = 1978 | s2cid = 27658511 }}</ref>
The [[Royal Signals and Radar Establishment]] (RSRE) was involved in early research and testing of TCP/IP.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Postel|first=J.|date=7 November 1980|title=Internet Meeting Notes -- 7-8-9 October 1980|url=https://www.rfc-editor.org/ien/ien160.txt|access-date=9 February 2022}}</ref> The first [[email]] sent by a [[head of state]] was sent from the RSRE over the ARPANET by Queen [[Elizabeth II]] in 1976.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Metz|first=Cade|url=https://www.wired.com/2012/12/queen-and-the-internet/|title=How the Queen of England Beat Everyone to the Internet|date=2012-12-25|magazine=Wired|access-date=2020-01-09|issn=1059-1028}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Left|first=Sarah|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2002/mar/13/internetnews|title=Email timeline|date=2002-03-13|work=The Guardian|access-date=2020-01-09|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> RSRE was allocated [[Class A network|class A Internet address range]] 25 in 1979,<ref name="rfc755">{{cite web|url=https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc755|title=Assigned Numbers|last=Postel|first=J.|date=3 May 1979|publisher=USC - Information Sciences Institute|id=RFC755|access-date=6 April 2020}}</ref> which later became the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] address space, providing 16.7 million [[IPv4]] addresses.<ref name="ofcom-2014">{{cite report|url=https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0031/37795/rtfm.pdf|title=Study into UK IPv4 and IPv6 allocations|publisher=Ofcom|id=Ofcom/140701-00|access-date=6 April 2020|work=Reid Technical Facilities Management|year=2014|archive-date=6 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306013246/https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0031/37795/rtfm.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Roger Camrass, with his supervisor, [[Robert G. Gallager|Robert Gallager]], at MIT, showed packet switching to be optimal in the [[Huffman coding]] sense in 1978.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Camrass |first=R. |last2=Gallager |first2=R. |date=1978 |title=Encoding message lengths for data transmission (Corresp.) |url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1055910/ |journal=IEEE Transactions on Information Theory |language=en |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=495–496 |doi=10.1109/TIT.1978.1055910 |issn=0018-9448}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Reflections on an Internet pioneer: Roger Camrass |url=http://stories.clare.cam.ac.uk/reflections-of-an-internet-pioneer/ |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=stories.clare.cam.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref>
British researchers expressed a desire to use a country designation when American researchers [[Jon Postel]] and [[Paul Mockapetris]] were designing the [[Domain Name System]] in 1984. Postel adopted this idea for the DNS, which used the ISO standard country abbreviations except for following the "UK" convention already in use in the UK's [[JANET NRS|Name Registration Scheme]], rather than the ISO-standard "GB". The [[.uk]] Internet [[country code top-level domain]] (ccTLD) was registered in July 1985, seven months after the original [[generic top-level domain]]s such as [[.com]] and the first country code after [[.us]]. At the time, ccTLDs were delegated by Postel to a "responsible person" and Andrew McDowell at UCL managed .uk, the first country code delegation.<ref name=Mueller2002>{{citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sMKmdJq7iE0C&pg=PA79|
title=Ruling the Root: Internet Governance and the Taming of Cyberspace|author=Milton Mueller|page=79|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|year=2002|isbn=978-0-262-63298-0}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last1=
The UK's [[national research and education network]] (NREN), [[JANET]] connected with the [[National Science Foundation Network]] (NSFNET) in the United States in 1989.<ref>{{cite IETF|title=Hobbes' Internet Timeline|rfc=2235|page=9|last=Zakon|first=Robert|author-link=|date=November 1997|publisher=[[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]]|access-date=2 Dec 2020}}</ref>
[[British Telecom|British Telecom's]] research labs began, unofficially, relaying its internal email to the Internet at the end of the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jeffery |first=Simon |date=2009-10-23 |title=How we used the internet to tell the story of the internet |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2009/oct/23/arpanet-internet |access-date=2024-06-21 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |postscript=none}}; {{Cite web |title=Nigel – Titley Family |url=https://www.titley.com/index.php/about-us/nigel/ |access-date=2024-06-21 |language=en-GB |postscript=none}}; {{Cite web |title=Biographies |url=https://www.ripe.net/membership/meetings/gm/meetings/may-2007/biographies/ |access-date=2024-06-21 |website=RIPE Network Coordination Center |language=en |postscript=none}}; {{Cite web |title=Candidate Biographies |url=https://www.ripe.net/membership/meetings/gm/meetings/may-2016/candidate-biographies/ |access-date=2024-06-21 |website=RIPE Network Coordination Center |language=en}}</ref>
▲The UK's [[national research and education network]] (NREN), [[JANET]] connected with the [[National Science Foundation Network]] (NSFNET) in the United States in 1989.<ref>{{cite IETF|title=Hobbes' Internet Timeline|rfc=2235|page=9|last=Zakon|first=Robert|author-link=|date=November 1997|publisher=[[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]]|access-date=2 Dec 2020}}</ref> JANET adopted [[Internet protocol suite|Internet Protocol]] on its existing network in 1991.<ref>{{cite conference|last=Reid|first=Jim|date=3 April 2007|title=The Good Old Days: Networking in UK Academia ~25 Years Ago|url=http://www.uknof.com/uknof7/Reid-History.pdf|location=Manchester|access-date=16 April 2008|book-title=UKNOF7|archive-date=28 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528040321/http://www.uknof.com/uknof7/Reid-History.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Adoption of TCP/IP|url=http://clivemabey.me.uk/SciTech/datacomm/adoption.php#|access-date=2019-02-12|website=clivemabey.me.uk}}</ref> In the same year, Dai Davies introduced Internet technology into the pan-European NREN, [[DANTE|EuropaNet]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dai Davies|url=https://www.internethalloffame.org//inductees/dai-davies|access-date=2020-01-23|website=Internet Hall of Fame}}</ref>
[[Ivan Pope]]'s company, [[NetNames]], developed the concept of a standalone commercial [[domain name registrar]], which would sell domain registration and other associated services to the public. [[Network Solutions]] Inc. (NSI), the [[domain name registry]] for the [[.com]], [[.net]], and [[.org]] top-level domains (TLDs), assimilated this model, which ultimately led to the separation of registry and registrar functions.
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[[Jon Crowcroft]] and [[Mark Handley (computer scientist)|Mark Handley]] received multiple awards for their work on Internet technology in the 1990s and 2000s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ieee.org/about/awards/bios/internet-recipients.html|title=IEEE Internet Award Recipients|website=www.ieee.org|access-date=2020-01-28}}</ref> [[Karen Banks]] pioneered the use of the Internet to empower women around the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.internethalloffame.org/inductees/karen-banks|title=Karen Banks|website=Internet Hall of Fame|access-date=2020-01-23}}</ref>
Over the period 1980 to 2000, BT and other providers adopted TCP/IP and Internet product strategies when it became commercially advantageous.<ref>{{Cite journal |
=== Other computer networks and their protocols ===
The South West Universities Computer Network (SWUCN) was an early British academic computer network developed with the objective of resource sharing. After planning began in 1967, work was initiated in 1969 on an experimental network, becoming operational for users in 1974.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Powell |first=Kit |date=1980-07-01 |title=Evolution of networks using standard protocols |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0140-3664%2880%2990069-9 |journal=Computer Communications |language=en |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=117–122 |doi=10.1016/0140-3664(80)90069-9 |issn=0140-3664}}</ref> In the early 1970s, the [[Science Research Council]] community established SRCnet, later called SERCnet. [[JANET#Early academic networks|Other regional academic networks]] were built in the mid-late 1970s, as well as experimental networks such as the [[Cambridge Ring (computer network)|Cambridge Ring]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite thesis |last=Rutter |first=Dorian |title=From Diversity to Convergence: British Computer Networks and the Internet, 1970-1995 |date=2005 |degree=Computer Science |publisher=The University of Warwick |url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/1197/1/WRAP_THESIS_Rutter_2005.pdf}}</ref>
During the 1970s, the NPL team researched [[internetworking]] on the [[European Informatics Network]] (EIN). Based on [[datagram]]s, the network linked [[European Atomic Energy Community|Euratom]], the French research centre [[INRIA]] and the UK’s [[National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)|National Physical Laboratory]] in 1976.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Abbate|first=Janet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E2BdY6WQo4AC&pg=PA125|title=Inventing the Internet|date=2000|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-51115-5|pages=125|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Hardy|first1=Daniel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dRhHPINWo2AC&pg=PT526|title=Networks: Internet, Telephony, Multimedia: Convergences and Complementarities|last2=Malleus|first2=Guy|date=2002|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-00559-9|pages=505|language=en}}</ref> The transport protocol of the EIN
Building on the work of [[James H. Ellis]] in the late 1960s, [[Clifford Cocks]] and [[Malcolm J. Williamson|Malcolm Williamson]] invented a [[public-key cryptography]] algorithm in 1973.<ref name="zdnet">{{cite web |last=Espiner |first=Tom |date=26 October 2010 |title=GCHQ pioneers on birth of public key crypto |url=
[[Post Office Telecommunications]] developed an experimental public packet switching network, [[Packet switching#EPSS|EPSS]], in the 1970s.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Ed |last2=Miller |first2=Chris |last3=Norton |first3=Jim |title=Packet Switching: The first steps on the road to the information society |url=https://www.npl.co.uk/getattachment/about-us/History/Famous-faces/Donald-Davies/UK-role-in-Packet-Switching-(1).pdf.aspx }}</ref> This was one of the first [[public data network]]s in the world when it began operating in
British research contributed to the development of the [[X.25]] standard agreed by the [[ITU-T|CCITT]] in 1976 which was deployed on PSS and IPSS.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schwartz|first=Mischa|date=2010|title=X.25 Virtual Circuits – TRANSPAC IN France – Pre-Internet Data Networking [History of communications]|journal=IEEE Communications Magazine|volume=48|issue=11|pages=40–46|doi=10.1109/MCOM.2010.5621965|issn=1558-1896|s2cid=23639680}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rybczynski|first=Tony|date=2009|title=Commercialization of packet switching (1975–1985): A Canadian perspective [History of Communications]|journal=IEEE Communications Magazine|volume=47|issue=12|pages=26–31|doi=10.1109/MCOM.2009.5350364|issn=1558-1896|s2cid=23243636}}</ref> The UK academic community defined the [[Coloured Book protocols]], which came into use as "interim" X.25 standards. These protocols gained some acceptance internationally as the first complete X.25 standard,<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last1=Davies|first1=Howard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DN-t8MpZ0-wC&pg=PA2|title=A History of International Research Networking: The People who Made it Happen|last2=Bressan|first2=Beatrice|date=2010-04-26|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-3-527-32710-2|pages=2–3|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last1=Earnshaw|first1=Rae|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xy7LadoXUVYC&pg=PA42|title=Digital Convergence – Libraries of the Future|last2=Vince|first2=John|date=2007-09-20|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-84628-903-3|pages=42|language=en}}</ref> and gave the UK "several years lead over other countries".<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 1991|title=FLAGSHIP|url=http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/ccd/literature/ccd_newsletters/flagship/p012.htm|journal=Central Computing Department Newsletter|issue=12}}</ref>
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[[Logica]], together with the French company SESA, set up a joint venture in 1975 to undertake the [[Packet switching#Euronet|Euronet]] development, using X.25 protocols to form [[virtual circuit]]s. It established a network linking a number of European countries in 1979 before being handed over to national [[Postal, telegraph and telephone service|PTTs]] In 1984.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dunning|first1=A.J.|date=1977-12-31|title=Origins, development and future of the Euronet|journal=Program|publisher=Emeraldinsight.com|volume=11|issue=4|pages=145–155|doi=10.1108/eb046759}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kerssens|first=Niels|date=2019-12-13|title=Rethinking legacies in internet history: Euronet, lost (inter)networks, EU politics|journal=Internet Histories|volume=4|pages=32–48|doi=10.1080/24701475.2019.1701919|issn=2470-1475|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Peter Collinson brought [[Unix]] to the [[University of Kent]] (UKC/UKnet) in 1976 and set up a [[UUCP]] test service to Bell Labs in the U.S. in 1979. The first UUCP emails from the U.S. arrived in the UK later that year and email to Europe (the Netherlands and Denmark) started in 1980, becoming a regular service via [[EUnet]] in 1982.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |last=Houlder |first=Peter |date=19 January 2007 |title=Starting the Commercial Internet in the UK |url=https://www.uknof.org.uk/uknof6/Houlder-History.pdf |access-date=2020-02-12 |website=6th UK Network Operators' Forum |archive-date=13 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213100236/https://www.uknof.org.uk/uknof6/Houlder-History.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> UKC provided the first connections to non-academic users in the early 1980s.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Reid |first=Jim |date=3 April 2007 |title=Networking in UK Academia ~25 Years Ago |url=https://www.uknof.org.uk/uknof7/Reid-History.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20170507114646/https://www.uknof.org.uk/uknof7/Reid-History.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 May 2017 |access-date=2020-02-12 |website=7th UK Network Operators' Forum }}</ref> Several companies established electronic mail services in Britain during the 1970s and early 1980s, enabling subscribers to send email either internally within a company network or over telephone connections or data networks such as [[Packet Switch Stream]].<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JMLisXAYl5kC&pg=RA1-PA61|title=New Scientist|date=1985-10-17|publisher=Reed Business Information|pages=61–4|language=en}}</ref>
In the early 1980s, British academic networks started a standardisation and interconnection effort based on X.25 and the Coloured Book protocols. Known as the United Kingdom Education and Research Networking Association (UK ERNA), and later JNT Association, this became [[JANET]], the UK's [[national research and education network]] (NREN). JANET linked all universities, higher education establishments, and publicly funded research laboratories. It began operation in 1984, two years ahead of the [[NSFNET]] in the United States and was the fastest X.25 network in the world.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last=Wells |first=Mike |date=1988-11-01 |title=JANET-the United Kingdom Joint Academic Network |journal=Serials |language=en |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=28–36 |doi=10.1629/010328 |issn=1475-3308 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=1984-2014: 30 years of the Janet network|url=https://www.jisc.ac.uk/sites/default/files/janet-news-24-pull-out-april-2014.pdf|publisher=Disc|access-date=23 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=National Research Council (U.S.). National Research Network Review Committee, Leonard Kleinrock|display-authors=etal|title=Toward a National Research Network|date=1988|publisher=National Academies|page=40|isbn=9780309581257|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gGYrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA40}}</ref>
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In 1989, [[Tim Berners-Lee]], working at [[CERN]] in Switzerland, wrote a proposal for "a large hypertext database with typed links".<ref name="information-management">{{cite web|url=http://www.w3.org/History/1989/proposal.html|title=Information Management: A Proposal|last=Berners-Lee|first=Tim|author-link=Tim Berners-Lee|date=March 1989|publisher=[[World Wide Web Consortium]]|access-date=24 August 2010}}</ref> The following year, he specified [[HTML]], the hypertext language, and [[HTTP]], the protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/FAQ.html|title=Frequently asked questions|publisher=Tim Berners-Lee|access-date=3 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Internaut day: The world's first public website went online 25 years ago today|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2016/08/06/the-worlds-first-website-went-online-25-years-ago-today/|access-date=25 September 2017|work=The Telegraph|date=23 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Smith|first1=Chris|title=20 things you probably didn't know about the World Wide Web|url=http://home.bt.com/tech-gadgets/internet/world-wide-web-facts-11363883795975#disqus_thread|publisher=BT|access-date=25 September 2017|date=22 September 2017}}</ref> These concepts became a world-wide information system known as the [[World Wide Web]] (WWW). Operating on the Internet, it allows documents to be created for reading or accessing services with connections to other documents or services, accessed by clicking on hypertext links, enabling the user to navigate from one document or service to another. [[Nicola Pellow]] worked with Berners-Lee and [[Robert Cailliau]] on the WWW project at CERN.
[[
The [[BBC]] registered with the [[DDN NIC|DDN-NIC]] in 1989, establishing Internet access via [[Brunel University London|Brunel University]] where [[BBC Online|bbc.co.uk]] was registered through [[JANET NRS]] and the BBC's first website went online in 1994.<ref>{{Cite web|title=BBC Internet Services – History|url=https://support.bbc.co.uk/support/history.html|website=support.bbc.co.uk|access-date=2019-09-19}}</ref> Other [[List of websites founded before 1995|early websites]] which went online in 1993 hosted in the UK included [[JumpStation]], which was the first [[Web search engine|WWW search engine]] hosted at the [[University of Stirling]] in Scotland;<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|date=2013-09-03|title=Jonathon Fletcher: forgotten father of the search engine|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-23945326|access-date=2021-05-01}}</ref> [[The Internet Movie Database]], hosted by the computer science department of [[Cardiff University]] in Wales; and Kent Anthropology, one of the first social science sites (one of the first 200 web servers).<ref name=":2" /> The Web brought many social and commercial uses to the Internet which was previously a network for academic institutions.<ref>{{Cite book|last=In|first=Lee|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wKyeBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|title=Electronic Commerce Management for Business Activities and Global Enterprises: Competitive Advantages: Competitive Advantages|date=2012-06-30|publisher=IGI Global|isbn=978-1-4666-1801-5|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Misiroglu|first=Gina|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j4KsBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA398|title=American Countercultures: An Encyclopedia of Nonconformists, Alternative Lifestyles, and Radical Ideas in US History: An Encyclopedia of Nonconformists, Alternative Lifestyles, and Radical Ideas in US History|date=2015-03-26|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-47729-7|language=en}}</ref> It began to enter everyday use in 1993-4.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Couldry|first1=Nick|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AcHvP9trbkAC&pg=PA2|title=Media, Society, World: Social Theory and Digital Media Practice|date=2012|publisher=Polity Press|isbn=9780745639208|location=London|page=2}}</ref>
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An early attempt to provide access to the Web on television was being developed in 1995.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PDgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA50|title=Couch potatoes armed with Viewcall can surf the Web through the tube|date=18 December 1995|access-date=28 November 2016|magazine=InfoWorld}}</ref>
=== Dial-up Internet access ===
{{Further|List of United Kingdom ISPs by age}}
[[Pipex]] was established in 1990 and began providing [[dial-up Internet access]] in March 1992, the UK's first commercial [[Internet service provider]] (ISP).<ref name="How the UK got connected">{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/connecting-britain/timeline-how-uk-got-connected/|title=How the UK got connected|date=2016-10-27|work=The Telegraph|access-date=2019-09-17|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gtnet.gov.uk/corporate/about/ |title=About PIPEX |publisher=GTNet |access-date=2012-06-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101022035/http://www.gtnet.gov.uk/corporate/about/ |archive-date=2012-11-01 |url-status=dead
This narrowband service has been almost entirely replaced by the new broadband technologies, and is now generally only used as a backup.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/internet/10278732/Dial-up-internet-services-shut-down.html|title=Dial-up internet services shut down|last=Carter|first=Claire|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=2013-09-01|access-date=2019-02-11|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}</ref> BT trialled its first [[ISDN]] 'broadband' connection in 1992.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/features/providers-race-for-prize-as-uk-users-get-demanding-2146963.html|title=Providers race for prize as UK users get demanding|date=30 November 2010|work=The Independent|access-date=17 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://home.bt.com/tech-gadgets/internet/broadband/who-invented-broadband-11364284589900|title=Who invented broadband? How copper telephone lines became high-speed internet connections|date=25 July 2018|website=BT|access-date=19 September 2019}}</ref> The first commercial service was available from [[Telewest]] in 2000.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/broadband-the-first-decade-1929515.html|title=Broadband: The First Decade|date=28 March 2010|work=The Independent|access-date=19 September 2019}}</ref><ref name="How the UK got connected"/>
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[[Broadband]] allowed the signal in one line to be split between telephone and Internet data, meaning users could be online and make phone calls at the same time. It also enabled faster connections, making it easier to browse the Internet and download files.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uswitch.com/broadband/guides/broadband-history/|title=The history of broadband from the '80s to today|website=uSwitch|language=en|access-date=2019-09-19}}</ref> Broadband [[Internet access]] in the UK was, initially, provided by a number of regional [[cable internet access|cable television]] and telephone companies which gradually merged into larger groups. The development of [[digital subscriber line]] (DSL) technology has allowed broadband to be delivered via traditional copper telephone cables. Also, [[WiMAX|Wireless Broadband]] is now available in some areas. These three technologies (cable, DSL and wireless) now compete with each other.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/considerthis/supplements/broadbandsupp.pdf |title= |website=www.newstatesman.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061108030007/http://www.newstatesman.com/considerthis/supplements/broadbandsupp.pdf |archive-date=8 November 2006}}</ref>
More than half of UK homes had broadband in 2007, with an average connection speed of 4.6
In 2006 the UK market was dominated by six companies, with the top two taking 51%, these being [[Virgin Media]] with a 28% share, and [[BT Group|BT]] at 23%.<ref>{{cite web|author=Kitz |url=http://www.kitz.co.uk/adsl/ISP_marketshare.htm |title=UK ISP Market Share .:: |publisher=. Kitz |date=2005-12-07 |access-date=2012-06-30}}</ref>
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=== Cable ===
[[Cable Internet access]] uses [[coaxial cable]]s or [[optical fibre]] cables. The main cable service provider in the UK is [[Virgin Media]] and the current{{When|date=April 2024}} maximum speed available to their customers is 1.
=== Digital subscriber line (DSL) ===
{{More citations needed
[[Asymmetric digital subscriber line]] (ADSL) was introduced to the UK in trial stages in 1998 and a commercial product was launched in 2000. In the [[United Kingdom]], most [[telephone exchange|exchanges]], [[local loop]]s and [[backhaul (telecommunications)|backhauls]] are owned and managed by [[BT Wholesale]], who then [[wholesale]] connectivity via [[Internet service providers]], who generally provide the connectivity to the Internet, support, billing and value added services (such as web hosting and email). A customer typically expects a [[British telephone socket]] to connect their modem to the broadband.▼
▲[[Asymmetric digital subscriber line]] (ADSL) was introduced to the UK in trial stages in 1998 and a commercial product was launched in 2000. In the
As of October 2021, BT operate 5630 exchanges<ref name=SKBTUKExchanges>{{cite web | url=http://www.samknows.com/broadband/statistics/regional | title=SamKnows – Regional Broadband Statistics | publisher=SamKnows | date=2012-10-16 | access-date=2012-10-16 | author=SamKnows}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2006/jun/15/guardianweeklytechnologysection.insideit | work=The Guardian | location=London | title=Broadband for all – not! | date=2006-06-15 | access-date=2010-05-05 | first=Andrew | last=Ferguson}}</ref> across the UK with the vast majority being enabled for ADSL. Only a relative handful have not been upgraded to support ADSL products – in fact it is under 100 of the smallest and most rural exchanges. Some exchanges, numbering under 1000, have been upgraded to support [[Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line|SDSL]] products. However, these exchanges are often the larger exchanges based in major towns and cities so they still cover a large proportion of the population. SDSL products are aimed more at business customers and are priced higher than ADSL services.▼
▲As of October 2021, BT operate 5630 exchanges<ref name=SKBTUKExchanges>{{cite web | url=http://www.samknows.com/broadband/statistics/regional | title=SamKnows – Regional Broadband Statistics | publisher=SamKnows | date=2012-10-16 | access-date=2012-10-16 | author=SamKnows}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2006/jun/15/guardianweeklytechnologysection.insideit | work=The Guardian | location=London | title=Broadband for all – not! | date=2006-06-15 | access-date=2010-05-05 | first=Andrew | last=Ferguson}}</ref> across the UK, with the vast majority
==== Unbundled local loop ====
{{Refimprove|section|date=March 2024|reason=much unreferenced text suggests that it is describing the current situation, although it may be out of date; dated references woulod help, though the text also needs rewording to remove the "present" viewpoint}}
{{Main|Local loop unbundling#United Kingdom}}
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In November 2010, having purchased Easynet in the preceding months, [[BSkyB|Sky]] closed the business-centric [[UK Online]] with little more than a month's notice.<ref name="ElRegUKOClosureNov10" /><ref name="PCInnerCircleUKOClosure" /><ref name=TBBUKOClosure /> Although Easynet continued to offer business-grade broadband connectivity products, UKO customers could not migrate to an equivalent Easynet service, only being offered either a [[Migration Authorisation Code|MAC]] to migrate provider or the option of becoming a customer of the residential-only [[Sky Broadband]] ISP with an introductory discounted period. Also, some previously available service features like [[fastpath]] (useful for time-critical protocols like [[Session Initiation Protocol|SIP]]) were not made available on Sky Broadband, leaving business users with a difficult choice particularly where UK Online were the only LLU provider. Since then, Sky Broadband has become a significant player in the [[Quadruple play|quad play]] telecoms market, offering ADSL line rental and call packages to customers (who have to pay a supplement if they are not also Sky television subscribers).
Whilst Virgin Media is the nearest direct competitor, their quad play product is available to fewer homes given the fixed nature of their cable infrastructure. [[TalkTalk Group|TalkTalk]] is the next DSL-based ISP with a mature quad play product portfolio ([[EE (telecommunications
Market consolidation and expansion has permitted service providers to offer faster and less expensives services with typical speeds of up to 24 Mbit/s downstream (subject to ISP and line length). They can offer products at sometimes considerably lower prices, due to not necessarily having to conform to the same regulatory requirements as BT Wholesale: for example, 8 unbundled LLU pairs can deliver 10 Mbit/s over 3775 m for half the price of a similar fibre connection.<ref name="MLL Telecom">[http://www.mlltelecom.com/news-views/blog/19/Local-Loop-Unbundling LLU VS Fibre.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317074957/http://www.mlltelecom.com/news-views/blog/19/Local-Loop-Unbundling |date=2012-03-17 }} Infographic, MLL Telecom 2011</ref>
In 2005, another company, [[Be Un Limited|Be]], started offering speeds of up to 24 Mbit/s downstream and 2.5 Mbit/sec upstream using [[ITU G.992.5|ADSL2+]] with [[ITU G.992.5 Annex M|Annex M]], eventually from over 1,250 UK exchanges. Be were taken over by O2's parent company [[Telefónica Europe|Telefónica]] in 2007. On 1 March 2013 O2 Telefónica sold Be to Sky,
[[TalkTalk Group|TalkTalk]] offered customers
Exchanges continue to be upgraded, subject to demand, across the country, although at a somewhat slower pace since BT's commencement of [[FTTC#FTTN and FTTC|FTTC]] rollout plans and near-saturation in key geographical areas.
==== IPstream ====
Up until the launch of "Max" services, the only ADSL packages available via BT Wholesale were known as [[IPstream]] Home 250, Home 500, Home 1000 and Home 2000 ([[contention ratio]] of 50:1); and Office 500, Office 1000, and Office 2000 (contention ratio of 20:1). The number in the product name indicates the downstream data rate in [[kilobit per second|kilobits per second]]. The upstream data rate is up to 250
For BT Wholesale ADSL products, users initially had to live within 3.5 kilometres of the local telephone exchange to receive ADSL, but this limit was increased thanks to [[rate-adaptive digital subscriber line]] (RADSL), although users with RADSL possibly had a reduced upstream rate, depending on the quality of their line. There are still areas that cannot receive ADSL because of technical limitations, not least of which networks in housing areas built with aluminium cable rather than copper in the 1980s and 1990s, and areas served by optical fibre (TPON), though these are slowly being serviced with copper.
In September 2004, BT Wholesale removed the line-length/loss limits for 500
In the past, the majority of home users used packages with 500
==== Max and Max Premium ====
{{No sources|section|date=April 2024}}
Following successful trials, BT announced the availability of higher speed services known as BT [[ADSL Max]] and BT [[ADSL Max#Max 'Premium'|ADSL Max Premium]] in March 2006. BT made the "Max" product available to more than 5300 exchanges, serving around 99% of UK households and businesses.▼
▲Following successful trials, BT announced the availability of higher speed services known as BT [[ADSL Max]] and BT [[ADSL Max#Max 'Premium'|ADSL Max Premium]] in March 2006. BT made the "Max" product available to more than
The maximum download [[Bandwidth (computing)|bandwidth]] for both tiers was 7.15 Mbit/s, with the regular tier having an upload bandwidth of 400 kbit/s and the premium tier having an upload bandwidth of 750 kbit/s. As internet bandwidth depended on the capabilities of local lines, BT's '20CN' system negotiated stable ADSL synchronisation rate limits ranging from 160 kbit/s to 7.15 Mbit/s.
=== Fibre ===
==== FTTC & G.Fast ====
In 2015, BT unveiled universal 5
In 2015, BT began the roll out of [[G.992.4|G.INP]] on their [[Fiber to the x|FTTC]] network,<ref name="ispreview.co.uk">{{Cite web |date=20 January 2015 |title=UPDATE BT Enable Physical Retransmission G.INP on FTTC Broadband Lines - ISPreview UK |url=https://www.ispreview.co.uk/index.php/2015/01/bt-enables-physical-retransmission-g-inp-fttc-broadband-lines.html |access-date=2020-05-02 |website=www.ispreview.co.uk}}</ref> the use of G.INP is to help improve line stability and reduce overheads and latency.<ref>{{Cite web |title=::. Kitz - G.INP Retransmission .:: |url=https://kitz.co.uk/adsl/retransmission.htm |access-date=2020-05-02 |website=kitz.co.uk}}</ref> The roll-out was paused on [[ECI Telecom|ECI]] broadband cabinet equipment due to the lack of support for upstream re-transmission which caused network slowdowns and higher latency.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 April 2016 |title=BT Partly Suspends G.INP Roll-out to ECI Fibre Broadband Cabinets - ISPreview UK |url=https://www.ispreview.co.uk/index.php/2016/04/bt-briefly-start-stop-g-inp-roll-eci-fibre-broadband-cabinets.html |access-date=2020-05-02 |website=www.ispreview.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=24 April 2015 |title=UPDATE BT Openreach Brief UK FTTC Fibre Broadband ISPs on G.INP Issues - ISPreview UK |url=https://www.ispreview.co.uk/index.php/2015/04/bt-openreach-briefs-uk-fttc-fibre-broadband-isps-on-g-inp-issues.html |access-date=2020-05-02 |website=www.ispreview.co.uk}}</ref> The rollout of G.INP on [[Huawei]] broadband cabinets was completed in 2015<ref name="ispreview.co.uk" /> while G.INP on ECI equipment has reentered the trial stage as of May 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 February 2020 |title=Openreach UK Trial Finally Brings G.INP to ECI FTTC Broadband - ISPreview UK |url=https://www.ispreview.co.uk/index.php/2020/02/openreach-uk-trial-finally-brings-g-inp-to-eci-fttc-broadband.html |access-date=2020-05-02 |website=www.ispreview.co.uk}}</ref>
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In September 2016, [[Sky Broadband|Sky]] "completed" their roll-out of [[IPv6]] with 95% of their customers getting IPv6 access.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 September 2016 |title=UK ISP Sky Broadband Officially "Completes" the Roll-Out of IPv6 - ISPreview UK |url=https://www.ispreview.co.uk/index.php/2016/09/uk-isp-sky-broadband-officially-finish-roll-ipv6.html |access-date=2020-05-02 |website=www.ispreview.co.uk}}</ref> BT rolled out IPv6 support for "all BT Broadband lines" two months later in November 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 November 2016 |title=UPDATE All BT Broadband Lines Now Support IPv6 Internet Addresses - ISPreview UK |url=https://www.ispreview.co.uk/index.php/2016/11/bt-broadband-lines-now-support-ipv6-internet-addresses.html |access-date=2020-05-02 |website=www.ispreview.co.uk}}</ref>
====
In March 2011, Openreach began the development of an [[Fiber to the premises|FTTP]] network in [[Milton Keynes]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fiveash |first=Kelly |title=BT fibre-to-the-premises trial takes 7 hours per install |url=https://www.theregister.com/2011/03/03/bt_milton_keynes_fibre_to_the_premises_trial/ |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=www.theregister.com |language=en}}</ref> As a result, BT began offering eligible customers packages with download speeds of up to 100
In October 2011, British operator [[Hyperoptic]] launched a 1
In October 2012, British operator Gigler UK launched a 1
Virgin Media stated that 13 million UK homes are covered by their optical fibre broadband network, and that by the end of 2012 would be able to offer 100
| title =Virgin Media offers 100Mb broadband to over 4 million homes
| publisher =BroadbandIN.co.uk
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}}</ref>
During the [[2019 United Kingdom general election|2019 General Election]], [[Boris Johnson]] pledged full fibre for all of the UK by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ispreview.co.uk/index.php/2019/06/boris-johnson-pledges-full-fibre-for-all-uk-by-2025-doesnt-say-how.html|title=Boris Johnson Pledges Full Fibre for All UK by 2025 - Doesn't Say How UPDATE - ISPreview UK|website=www.ispreview.co.uk|date=17 June 2019 |access-date=2020-04-07}}</ref> This was later rolled back to "gigabit-capable" broadband.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kelion|first=Leo|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-50042720|title=Ministers dodge 'full fibre for all by 2025' pledge|date=2019-10-14|work=BBC News|access-date=2020-04-07|language=en-GB}}</ref> This means that mixed technologies are allowed, for example [[Virgin Media]] can continue to use their cable infrastructure since the [[DOCSIS|DOCSIS 3.1]] is "gigabit-capable" and other ISPs can also sell [[5G]] broadband. [[Vorboss]] initiated the construction of a full-fibre network in London's business district in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Padoan |first=Harry |date=2023-11-21 |title=London's Vorboss breaks B2B fibre price-performance barrier for retailers |url=https://www.telcotitans.com/infrawatch/londons-vorboss-breaks-b2b-fibre-price-performance-barrier-for-retailers/7460.article |access-date=2024-04-10 |website=TelcoTitans.com |language=en}}</ref> The company deployed 500 km of 800 fiber optic cables<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jackson |first=Mark |date=2023-09-12 |title=UK ISP Vorboss Discount 10Gbps Price for Small London Businesses |url=https://www.ispreview.co.uk/index.php/2023/09/uk-isp-vorboss-discount-10gbps-price-for-small-london-businesses.html |access-date=2024-04-10 |website=ISPreview UK |language=en}}</ref> in London with 10 to 100 Gbit/s speeds connected directly to premises ([[Fiber to the x|FTTP]]) without a copper-and-cabinet middleman.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Maistre |first=Ray Le |date=2022-09-08 |title=FTTP altnet targets London's business broadband market with £250m plan |url=https://www.telecomtv.com/content/access-evolution/fttp-altnet-targets-london-s-business-broadband-market-with-250m-plan-45361/ |access-date=2024-04-10 |website=TelecomTV |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sawers |first=Paul |date=2022-09-09 |title=Vorboss brings minimum 10 Gbps enterprise fibre network to London businesses |url=https://techcrunch.com/2022/09/09/vorboss-brings-minimum-10-gbps-enterprise-fibre-network-to-london-businesses/ |access-date=2024-04-10 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref>
In January 2020, [[Openreach]] announced that they will deploy FTTP technology in 200 rural locations by March 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.openreach.com/news-and-opinion/articles/rural-communities-joining-the-race-for-better-broadband|title=Rural communities joining the race for better broadband|website=www.openreach.com|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-04-07}}</ref> Two months later, in March, the UK government set the
Openreach reported that on 29 April they saw a record peak of 10 petabytes of data going through their network in one hour. This increase of internet traffic is the result of the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom|lock-down in the UK]] caused by [[Coronavirus disease 2019|COVID-19]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Openreach Records 10 PetaByte Peak in UK Internet Traffic - ISPreview UK|url=https://www.ispreview.co.uk/index.php/2020/05/openreach-records-10-petabyte-peak-in-uk-internet-traffic.html|website=www.ispreview.co.uk|date=May 2020 |access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> The following month, Openreach reported that they had passed 2.5 million premises with its FTTP network.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Openreach's FTTP Broadband Covers 2.5 Million UK Premises - ISPreview UK|url=https://www.ispreview.co.uk/index.php/2020/05/openreachs-fttp-broadband-covers-2-5-million-uk-premises.html|website=www.ispreview.co.uk|date=2 May 2020 |access-date=2020-05-03}}</ref>
On
The [[Telecommunications in the United Kingdom#Fixed phone lines|UK landline network]] is due to be terminated in 2025. The [[voice over IP]] replacement is branded as "Digital Voice" in the UK. "Digital Voice" handsets must be connected to a broadband router, rather than the old telephone sockets.<ref name="Which">{{cite web |last1=Fletcher |first1=Yvette |title=Digital Voice and the landline phone switch-off: what it means for you |url=https://www.which.co.uk/reviews/broadband/article/digital-voice-and-the-landline-phone-switch-off-what-it-means-for-you-aPSOH8k1i6Vv |website=Which? |access-date=19 July 2023 |language=en |date=20 January 2023}}</ref>
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Mobile broadband is high-speed Internet access provided by [[mobile phone operators]] using a device that requires a [[SIM card]] to access the service.
[[4G]] internet replaced the old [[3G]] technology and allowed download speeds up to
[[5G]] was first deployed in the UK in May 2019 by [[EE (telecommunications
=== Satellite ===
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== Speeds ==
=== 2000s ===
Since 2003, BT has been introducing [[Symmetric digital subscriber line|SDSL]] to exchanges in many of the major cities. Services are currently offered at upload/download speeds of 256
On 9 April 2003, the [[Advertising Standards Authority (United Kingdom)|Advertising Standards Authority]] ruled against ISP ''[[NTL Incorporated|NTL]]'', saying that NTL's 128
With the merger of [[NTL Incorporated|NTL]] and [[Telewest]] in March 2006, the resulting NTL:Telewest company created the largest market share of broadband users in the UK. It also brought increases in bandwidth allocations for cable customers, with minimum speeds increasing from the industry norm of 512
Also in March, BT Wholesale launched its "up to 8 Mbit/s" ADSL services, known as [[ADSL Max]].<ref>{{cite web |title=BT Wholesale confirms launch of the Max services |url=http://www.thinkbroadband.com/news/2572-bt-wholesale-confirms-launch-of-the-max-services.html |access-date=2012-06-30 |publisher=thinkbroadband}}</ref> Max-based packages were made available to end users on any broadband-enabled BT exchange in the UK.
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=== 2010s ===
Still in the year 2015 it was common in highly developed areas like the London Aldgate region for consumers to be limited to speeds of up to 8
===
In March 2020, the UK government set the Universal Service Obligation (USO) to 10
In September, the UK dropped 13 places in the 2020 Worldwide Broadband Speed League, making it amongst the slowest in Europe with an average download speed of 37.82
In 2022, the UK's average download speed of 72
== Children's access to the Internet ==
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== Regulation ==
In 2015 Prime Minister [[David Cameron]] proposed a [[Encryption ban proposal in the United Kingdom|ban on end-to-end encryption]] in the United Kingdom.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}▼
In June 2018 [[Tom Winsor]], HM Chief Inspector of Constabulary, argued that technologies like [[encryption]] should be breakable if law enforcers have a warrant. Winsor said the public was running out of patience with organisations like [[Facebook]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]] and [[WhatsApp]].
▲In 2015 Prime Minister [[David Cameron]] proposed a [[Encryption ban proposal in the United Kingdom|ban on end-to-end encryption]] in the United Kingdom.
The UK government has "for years" continued to press for control of encryption, citing worries about child abuse.<ref name="Register encryption">{{cite news |last1=Clark |first1=Lindsay |title=Proposed UK moves to break encryption draw anger of IT world |url=https://www.theregister.com/2023/04/18/wrong_time_to_weaken_encryption/ |work=www.theregister.com |language=en}}</ref> The proposed [[Online Safety Act 2023|Online Safety Bill]] was criticised by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Meta Platforms|Meta]] and [[Signal (
▲In June 2018 [[Tom Winsor]], HM Chief Inspector of Constabulary, argued that technologies like [[encryption]] should be breakable if law enforcers have a warrant. Winsor said the public was running out of patience with organisations like [[Facebook]], [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]] and [[WhatsApp]]. Winsor opined, "There is a handful of very large companies with a highly dominant influence over how the internet is used. In too many respects, their record is poor and their reputation tarnished. The steps they take to make sure their services cannot be abused by terrorists, paedophiles and organised criminals are inadequate; the commitment they show and their willingness to be held to account are questionable."<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/jun/12/police-watchdog-criticises-failings-in-england-and-wales "Growing case for forcing internet firms to cooperate, says police watchdog"], Vikram Dodd, 12 June 2018,''The Guardian''.</ref>
▲The UK government has "for years" continued to press for control of encryption, citing worries about child abuse.<ref name="Register encryption">{{cite news |last1=Clark |first1=Lindsay |title=Proposed UK moves to break encryption draw anger of IT world |url=https://www.theregister.com/2023/04/18/wrong_time_to_weaken_encryption/ |work=www.theregister.com |language=en}}</ref> The proposed [[Online Safety Act 2023|Online Safety Bill]] was criticised by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Meta Platforms|Meta]] and [[Signal (software)|Signal]].<ref name="BBC Apple">{{cite news |title=Apple joins opposition to encrypted message app scanning |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-66028773 |access-date=19 July 2023 |work=BBC News |date=27 June 2023}}</ref><ref name="Guardian Signal">{{cite news |last1=Hern |first1=Alex |title=WhatsApp and Signal unite against online safety bill amid privacy concerns |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/apr/18/whatsapp-signal-unite-against-online-safety-bill-privacy-messaging-apps-safety-security-uk |work=The Guardian |date=18 April 2023}}</ref>
== See also ==
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* [[Media in the United Kingdom]]
* [[Open Rights Group]]
== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
{{reflist |refs=
<ref name=ElRegUKOClosureNov10>{{cite web |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2010/11/12/sku_uk_online_bye/ | title=Sky confirms UK Online closure | website=The Register |date=12 November 2010 | access-date=14 October 2012 | author=Williams, Christopher}}</ref>
<ref name=PCInnerCircleUKOClosure>{{cite web | url=http://www.pcinnercircle.co.uk/index.php/2010/11/ukonline-closing/ | title=Tim Wakeling's PC Inner Circle: UKonline closing | publisher=Tim Wakeling | date=16 November 2010 | access-date=16 October 2012 | author=Wakeling, Tim}}</ref>
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