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The ancestors of today's [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indigenous peoples]] were the [[Paleo-Indians]]; they were [[hunter-gatherer]]s who migrated into North America. The most popular theory asserts that migrants came to the [[Americas]] via [[Beringia]], the land mass now covered by the ocean waters of the [[Bering Strait]]. Small [[lithic stage]] peoples followed [[megafauna]] like bison, mammoth (now extinct), and caribou, thus gaining the modern nickname "big-game hunters." Groups of people may also have traveled into North America on shelf or sheet ice along the northern Pacific coast.
Sedentary societies developed primarily in two regions: [[Mesoamerica]] and the [[Andean civilizations]]. Mesoamerican cultures include [[Zapotec civilization|Zapotec]], [[Toltec]], [[Olmecs|Olmec]], [[Maya civilization|Maya]], [[Aztecs|Aztec]], [[Mixtec]], [[Totonac]], [[Teotihuacan]], [[Huastec people]], [[Purépecha]], [[Izapa]] and [[Mazatec]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mesoamerican civilization {{!}} History, Olmec, & Maya {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mesoamerican-civilization |access-date=2023-07-02 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Andean cultures include [[Inca]], [[Caral-Supe civilization|Caral-Supe]], [[Wariʼ|Wari]], [[Tiwanaku]], [[Chimor]], [[Moche culture|Moche]], [[Muisca]], [[Chavín culture|Chavin]], [[Paracas culture|Paracas]], and [[Nazca]].
After the [[voyages of Christopher Columbus]] in 1492, [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] and later [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]], [[British Empire|English]], [[French colonial empire|French]] and [[Dutch colonial empire|Dutch]] colonial expeditions arrived in the New World, [[European colonization of the Americas|conquering and settling]] the discovered lands, which led to a transformation of the cultural and physical landscape in the Americas. Spain colonized most of the Americas from present-day [[Southwestern United States]], [[Florida]] and the [[Caribbean]] to the southern tip of South America. Portugal settled in what is mostly present-day [[Brazil]] while England established colonies on the [[Thirteen Colonies|Eastern coast of the United States]], as well as the [[Northwestern United States|North Pacific coast]] and in most of [[Canada]]. France settled in [[Quebec]] and other parts of Eastern [[Canada]] and claimed an area in what is today the central United States. The Netherlands settled New Netherland (administrative centre New Amsterdam – now New York), some Caribbean islands and parts of Northern South America.
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==Pre-colonization==
{{main|Pre-Columbian era}}
{{further|History of
===Migration into the continents===
{{details|Peopling of the Americas|Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas}}
The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion.<ref name="national">{{cite web|title=Atlas of the Human Journey-The Genographic Project|publisher=National Geographic Society|date=1996–2008|url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/atlas.html?era=e003|access-date=2009-10-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501094643/https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/atlas.html?era=e003|archive-date=2011-05-01}}</ref> The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the [[Beringia|Beringia land bridge]] between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska around 40,000 – 17,000 years ago, when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the [[Quaternary glaciation]].<ref name="national"/><ref name=Smithsonian>{{cite web|first1=Drs. William |last1=Fitzhugh |first2=Ives |last2=Goddard |first3=Steve |last3=Ousley |first4=Doug |last4=Owsley |first5=Dennis |last5=Stanford. |url=http://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI/nmnh/origin.htm |title=Paleoamerican |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Anthropology Outreach Office |access-date=2009-01-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105215737/http://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI//nmnh/origin.htm |archive-date=2009-01-05 }}</ref> These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct [[Pleistocene]] [[megafauna]] along ''ice-free corridors'' that stretched between the [[Laurentide Ice Sheet|Laurentide]] and [[Cordilleran ice sheet|Cordilleran]] ice sheets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.physorg.com/news169474130.html |title=The peopling of the Americas: Genetic ancestry influences health|work=Scientific American|access-date=2009-11-17}}</ref> Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using [[boat#History|primitive boats]], they migrated down the [[Pacific Northwest]] coast to South America.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Alternate Migration Corridors for Early Man in North America|journal=American Antiquity |jstor=279189|pages=55–69|last1=Fladmark|first1=K. R.|volume=44|issue=1|year=1979|doi=10.2307/279189|s2cid=162243347 }}</ref> Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a [[sea level rise]] of a hundred meters following the last ice age.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2009/01/sea-will-rise-to-levels-of-last-ice-age/|title=68 Responses to "Sea will rise 'to levels of last Ice Age'"|work=Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia University |date=26 January 2009 |access-date=2009-11-17}}</ref>▼
▲[[File:Spreading homo sapiens la.svg|thumb|320px|Map of [[early human migrations]]]]
▲</ref> The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the [[Beringia|Beringia land bridge]] between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska around 40,000 – 17,000 years ago, when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the [[Quaternary glaciation]].<ref name="national"/><ref name=Smithsonian>{{cite web|first1=Drs. William |last1=Fitzhugh |first2=Ives |last2=Goddard |first3=Steve |last3=Ousley |first4=Doug |last4=Owsley |first5=Dennis |last5=Stanford. |url=http://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI/nmnh/origin.htm |title=Paleoamerican |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Anthropology Outreach Office |access-date=2009-01-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105215737/http://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI//nmnh/origin.htm |archive-date=2009-01-05 }}</ref> These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct [[Pleistocene]] [[megafauna]] along ''ice-free corridors'' that stretched between the [[Laurentide Ice Sheet|Laurentide]] and [[Cordilleran ice sheet|Cordilleran]] ice sheets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.physorg.com/news169474130.html |title=The peopling of the Americas: Genetic ancestry influences health|work=Scientific American|access-date=2009-11-17}}</ref> Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using [[boat#History|primitive boats]], they migrated down the [[Pacific Northwest]] coast to South America.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Alternate Migration Corridors for Early Man in North America|journal=American Antiquity |jstor=279189|pages=55–69|last1=Fladmark|first1=K. R.|volume=44|issue=1|year=1979|doi=10.2307/279189|s2cid=162243347 }}</ref> Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a [[sea level rise]] of a hundred meters following the last ice age.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2009/01/sea-will-rise-to-levels-of-last-ice-age/|title=68 Responses to "Sea will rise 'to levels of last Ice Age'"|work=Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia University |date=26 January 2009 |access-date=2009-11-17}}</ref>
Archaeologists contend that the Paleo-Indian migration out of Beringia ([[Geography of Alaska|eastern Alaska]]), ranges from 40,000 to around 16,500 years ago.<ref>{{cite web|title=Introduction |work=Government of Canada |publisher=Parks Canada |url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/docs/r/pfa-fap/sec1.aspx |year=2009 |access-date=2010-01-09 |quote=Canada's oldest known home is a cave in Yukon occupied not 12,000 years ago like the U.S. sites, but at least 20,000 years ago |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424103401/http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/docs/r/pfa-fap/sec1.aspx |archive-date=2011-04-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Pleistocene Archaeology of the Old Crow Flats |publisher=Vuntut National Park of Canada |url=http://yukon.taiga.net/vuntutrda/archaeol/info.htm |year=2008 |access-date=2010-01-10 |quote=However, despite the lack of this conclusive and widespread evidence, there are suggestions of human occupation in the northern Yukon about 24,000 years ago, and hints of the presence of humans in the Old Crow Basin as far back as about 40,000 years ago. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022085345/http://yukon.taiga.net/vuntutrda/archaeol/info.htm |archive-date=2008-10-22 }}</ref><ref name="kind">{{cite web |url=http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/|title=Journey of mankind|work=Brad Shaw Foundation|access-date=2009-11-17}}</ref> This time range is a hot source of debate. The few agreements achieved to date are the origin from [[Central Asia]], with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the [[Last Glacial Period|last glacial period]], or more specifically what is known as the [[Late Glacial Maximum#North America|late glacial maximum]], around 16,000 – 13,000 years before present.<ref name="kind"/><ref>{{cite journal |title=A single and early migration for the peopling of the Americas supported by mitochondrial DNA sequence data |pmc=20009 |year=1997 |volume=94 |issue=5 |pmid=9050871 |last1=Bonatto |first1=SL |last2=Salzano |first2=FM |pages=1866–71 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |doi=10.1073/pnas.94.5.1866|bibcode=1997PNAS...94.1866B |doi-access=free }}</ref>
The [[American Journal of Human Genetics]] released an article in 2007 stating "Here we show, by using 86 complete [[Mitochondrion|mitochondrial]] [[Genome|genomes]], that all Indigenous American [[Haplogroup|haplogroups]], including [[Haplogroup X (mtDNA)]], were part of a single founding population."<ref name="dnaa">{{cite book |url=http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/10794.php |title= First Americans
New studies shed light on the founding population of indigenous Americans, suggesting that their ancestry traced to both east Asian and western Eurasians who migrated to North America directly from Siberia. A 2013 study in the journal [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] reported that DNA found in the 24,000-year-old remains of a young boy in Mal’ta Siberia suggest that up to one-third of the indigenous Americans may have ancestry that can be traced back to western Eurasians, who may have "had a more north-easterly distribution 24,000 years ago than commonly thought"<ref name=Raghavan>{{cite journal |doi= 10.1038/nature12736 |author1=Maanasa Raghavan |author2=Pontus Skoglund |author3=Kelly E. Graf |author4=Mait Metspalu |author5=Anders Albrechtsen |author6=Ida Moltke |author7=Simon Rasmussen |author8=Thomas W. Stafford Jr |author9=Ludovic Orlando |author10=Ene Metspalu |author11=Monika Karmin |author12=Kristiina Tambets |author13=Siiri Rootsi |author14=Reedik Mägi |author15=Paula F. Campos |author16=Elena Balanovska |author17=Oleg Balanovsky |author18=Elza Khusnutdinova |author19=Sergey Litvinov |author20=Ludmila P. Osipova |author21=Sardana A. Fedorova |author22=Mikhail I. Voevoda |author23=Michael DeGiorgio |author24=Thomas Sicheritz-Ponten |author25=Søren Brunak |author26=Svetlana Demeshchenko |author27=Toomas Kivisild |author28=Richard Villems |author29=Rasmus Nielsen |author30=Mattias Jakobsson |author31=Eske Willerslev |title=Upper Palaeolithic Siberian genome reveals dual ancestry of Native Americans |journal= Nature |volume=505 |issue= 7481|year=2013 |pages=87–91|pmid=24256729 |pmc=4105016 |bibcode=2014Natur.505...87R}}</ref> Professor Kelly Graf said that "Our findings are significant at two levels. First, it shows that Upper Paleolithic Siberians came from a cosmopolitan population of early modern humans that spread out of Africa to Europe and Central and South Asia. Second, Paleoindian skeletons with phenotypic traits atypical of modern-day Native Americans can be explained as having a direct historical connection to Upper Paleolithic Siberia." A route through Beringia is seen as more likely than the [[Solutrean hypothesis]].<ref name=Ancient>{{cite web|title=Ancient Siberian genome reveals genetic origins of Native Americans|url=http://www.scienceworldreport.com/articles/11062/20131121/dna-study-reveals-first-native-americans-may-have-come-from-siberia.htm|publisher=PHYSORG|access-date=23 November 2013|date=Nov 20, 2013}}</ref>
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===Lithic stage (before 8000 BCE)===
[[File:StemmedFlutedPoint-Surface.jpg|thumb|alt="Fishtail" point found in Belize.|Stemmed fluted "Fishtail" point found in Belize]]
{{see also|Paleo-Indians|Aboriginal peoples in Canada#Paleo-Indians period|Archaeology of the Americas}}
The [[Lithic stage]] or ''[[Paleo-Indians|Paleo-Indian period]]'', is the earliest classification term referring to the first stage of human habitation in the Americas, covering the [[Late Pleistocene]] epoch. The time period derives its name from the appearance of "[[Lithic flake]]d" stone tools. [[Stone tool]]s, particularly [[projectile point]]s and [[Scraper (archaeology)|scrapers]], are the primary evidence of the earliest well known human activity in the [[Americas]]. [[Lithic reduction]] stone tools are used by [[Archaeology|archaeologists]] and [[anthropologist]]s to classify cultural periods.
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===Mesoamerica, the Woodland Period, and Mississippian culture (2000 BCE – 500 CE)===
{{see also|Indigenous peoples of the Americas|List of pre-Columbian cultures}}
[[File:Ameicas 1000 BCE crop.png|thumb {{legend|#FEFE00|[[hunter-gatherers]]}}
{{legend|#00FE00|[[Agriculture|simple farming societies]]}}
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{{Main|Oasisamerica}}
;Pueblo people
<gallery
Chaco Canyon Chetro Ketl great kiva plaza NPS.jpg|The Great Kiva of [[Chetro Ketl]] at the [[Chaco Culture National Historical Park]], [[
mesaverde cliffpalace 20030914.752.jpg|Cliff Palace, [[Mesa Verde National Park]], a
NMtrip-05-047.jpg|[[Taos Pueblo]], a
Canyon de Chelly1.jpg|White House Ruins, [[Canyon de Chelly National Monument]]
</gallery>
The [[Puebloans|Pueblo people]] of what is now occupied by the [[Southwestern United States]] and northern [[Mexico]], living conditions were that of large stone apartment like [[adobe]] structures. They live in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, and possibly surrounding areas.
[[File:ChanBahlumCatherwood.jpg|thumb|
====Aridoamerica====
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;Olmec
The [[Olmecs|Olmec]] civilization emerged around 1200 BCE in
;Purepecha
The [[Purépecha|Purepecha]] civilization emerged around 1000 CE in
;Maya
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[[File:Inca Quipu.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Inca Quipu. [[Larco Museum|Larco Museum Collection.]]]]
{{main|Pre-Columbian South America}}
;Valdivia culture
[[Valdivia culture|The Valdivia culture]] is one of the oldest settled cultures recorded in the Americas. It emerged from the earlier [[Las Vegas culture (archaeology)|Las Vegas culture]] and thrived along the coast of [[Santa Elena Peninsula|Santa Elena peninsula]] in [[Santa Elena Province]] of [[Ecuador]] between 3500 BCE and 1500 BCE.{{cn|date=July 2024}}
;Norte Chico
;Chavín
The [[Chavín culture|Chavín]] established a trade network and developed agriculture by as early as (or late compared to the Old World) 900 BCE according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín in modern [[Peru]] at an elevation of 3,177 meters. Chavín civilization spanned from 900 BCE to 300 BCE.{{cn|date=July 2024}}
'''Upano Valley'''
The [[Upano Valley sites]] in present-day eastern Ecuador predate all known complex Amazonian societies, spanning from approximately 500 BCE to 300-600 CE.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yuhas |first=Alan |last2=Jiménez |first2=Jesus |date=2024-01-23 |title=Remnants of Sprawling Ancient Cities Are Found in the Amazon |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/23/science/ecuador-amazon-cities-discovery.html |access-date=2024-07-06 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
;Inca
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[[Category:History of the Americas| ]]
[[Category:World history|Americas the]]
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