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{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Mexican Americans
| native_name =
| pop = '''10,697,374''' (by birth, 2021)<ref name=ACS-B05006-2021>{{cite web|url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?t=Place%20of%20Birth&tid=ACSDT1Y2021.B05006&hidePreview=false&vintage=2021|title=B05006 PLACE OF BIRTH FOR THE FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES - 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates|date=July 1, 2021 |publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]] |access-date=September 15, 2022}}</ref><br>▼
| pop = '''
▲
| regions = {{hlist|
(also growing/emerging populations in {{hlist|[[Southeastern United States|Southeast]] (
| languages = {{hlist|[[Mexican Spanish]]|[[American English]]|[[Spanglish]]|[[Languages of Mexico|Indigenous Mexican languages]]|[[Spanish language in the United States|American Spanish]]|[[Chicano English]]}}
| religions = '''Majority
</ref>
| related_groups = Hispanos ([[Californios]], [[Neomexicanos]], [[Tejanos]], [[Floridanos]]),
▲| native_name = {{normal|{{lang|es|mexicano-estadounidenses}} {{no bold|{{normal|([[Spanish language|Spanish]])}}}}}}
▲| related_groups = Hispanos ([[Californios]], [[Neomexicanos]], [[Tejanos]], [[Floridanos]]), [[Chicano]]s, [[Afro-Mexicans]], [[Indigenous Mexican Americans]], [[Native Americans in the United States]], [[Hispanic and Latino Americans]]
| image = File:Americans with Mexican Ancestry by state.svg
| image_caption = Percent of population of Mexican descent in 2010<ref name="Multicultural America">{{cite book |doi=10.4135/9781452276274.n570 |chapter=Mexican Americans |title=Multicultural America: A Multimedia Encyclopedia |year=2013 |last1=García |first1=Justin |isbn=9781452216836 |s2cid=153137775 }}</ref>
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{{Hispanic and Latino Americans|state=collapsed}}
'''Mexican Americans''' ({{lang-es|link=no|'''mexicano-estadounidenses'''}}, '''''mexico-americanos''''', or '''''estadounidenses de origen mexicano''''') are [[Americans]] of
Most Mexican Americans have varying degrees of Indigenous and European ancestry, with the latter being mostly Spanish origins.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/mexican-americans|title = TSHA | Mexican Americans}}</ref> Those of indigenous ancestry descend from one or more of the over 60 [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|Indigenous groups in Mexico]] (approximately 200,000 people in California alone).<ref>{{cite web|last=Cengel|first=Katya|date=June 25, 2013|title=The Other Mexicans|url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/06/130624-mexico-mixteco-indigenous-immigration-spanish-culture/|access-date=2019-06-01|publisher=National Geographic|df=mdy-all|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710104524/https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/06/130624-mexico-mixteco-indigenous-immigration-spanish-culture/| archive-date=10 July 2018}}</ref> It is estimated that approximately 10% of the current Mexican American population are descended from early Mexican residents such as [[Hispanos of New Mexico|New Mexican Hispanos]], [[Tejanos]] and [[Californios]], who became US citizens in 1848 through the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]], which ended the [[Mexican–American War]]. Mexicans living in the United States after the treaty was signed were forced to choose between keeping their Mexican citizenship or becoming a US citizen. Few chose to leave their homes in the States.<ref name="Multicultural America"/> The majority of these [[Hispanophone]] populations eventually [[American English|adopted English]] as their first language and became [[Americanization|Americanized]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Mexican Americans – MSN Encarta |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761587500_1/Mexican_Americans.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619011021/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761587500_1/Mexican_Americans.html |archive-date=June 19, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Also called Hispanos, these descendants of independent Mexico from the early-to-middle
|url=https://nmculturenet.org/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006190603/http://www.nmculturenet.org/heritage/cuartocentenario/spanish_view.php|url-status=dead|title=김프로의 건강 관리법
The number of Mexican immigrants in the United States has sharply risen in recent decades.<ref>{{Cite report |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w11281 |title=The Evolution of the Mexican-Born Workforce in the United States |last1=Borjas |first1=George |last2=Katz |first2=Lawrence |date=April 2005 |publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research |location=Cambridge, MA|doi=10.3386/w11281 }}</ref>
==History of Mexican Americans==
{{main|History of Mexican Americans}}
[[File:All the Way to the Bay mural in Chicano Park.JPG|thumb|right|Mural in [[Chicano Park]], San Diego, stating "All the way to the Bay"]]▼
[[File:Arrival of the caravan at Santa Fe, c. 1844.jpg|thumb|''Arrival of the caravan at Santa Fe the [[Santa Fe Trail]],'' lithograph published {{circa|1844}}]]
In 1900, there were slightly more than 500,000 [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanics]] of Mexican descent living in New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Colorado, California and Texas.<ref>{{cite web |author=Population Reference Bureau |url=http://www.prb.org/Articles/2004/LatinosandtheChangingFaceofAmerica.aspx |title=Latinos and the Changing Face of America – Population Reference Bureau |publisher=Prb.org |date=2013-11-13 |access-date=2014-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120519161150/http://www.prb.org/Articles/2004/LatinosandtheChangingFaceofAmerica.aspx |archive-date=2012-05-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Most were [[Mestizo]] Mexican Americans of Spanish and Indigenous descent, Spanish settlers, other Hispanicized European settlers who settled in the Southwest during Spanish colonial times, as well as local and Mexican Amerindians.
New Mexico [[Hispanos of New Mexico|Hispanos]] were a notably large majority of the southwest US population. The vast majority of Hispanos are genetically Mestizo with varying degrees of Spanish ancestry, as well as ancestry from [[Puebloans|Pueblos]] and various North American Indigenous tribes.
As early as 1813, some of the [[Tejano]]s who colonized Texas in the Spanish Colonial Period established a government in Texas that desired independence from Spanish-ruled Mexico. In those days, there was no concept of identity as Mexican. Many Mexicans were more loyal to their states/provinces than to their country as a whole, which was a colony of Spain. This was particularly true in frontier regions such as [[Zacatecas]], [[Coahuila y Tejas|Texas]], [[Yucatan peninsula|Yucatán]], [[Oaxaca]], [[Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico|New Mexico]], etc.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/war/borderlands_on_the_eve.html |title=The U.S.-Mexican War: War (
As shown by the writings of colonial Tejanos such as [[Antonio Menchaca]], the [[Texas Revolution]] was initially a colonial Tejano cause. Mexico encouraged immigration from the United States to settle east Texas and, by 1831, [[Anglo-Americans|English-speaking]] settlers outnumbered Tejanos ten to one in the region. Both groups were settled mostly in the eastern part of the territory.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/alamo/timeline/timeline2.html |title=American Experience | Remember the Alamo | Timeline |publisher=PBS |date=2004-01-30 |access-date=2014-01-06}}</ref> The Mexican government became concerned about the increasing volume of Anglo-American immigration and restricted the number of settlers from the United States allowed to enter Texas. Consistent with its abolition of slavery, the Mexican government banned slavery within the state, which angered American slave owners.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dissidentvoice.org/April2004/Felux0408.htm |title=(DV) Felux: Remember the Alamo? |publisher=Dissidentvoice.org |access-date=2014-01-06}}</ref> The American settlers, along with many of the Tejano, rebelled against the centralized authority of [[Mexico City]] and the [[General Santa Anna|Santa Anna]] regime, while other Tejano remained loyal to Mexico, and still others were neutral.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ENPUSvf4Z3EC&pg=PA41 |title=Las Tejanas: 300 Years of History
Author John P. Schmal wrote of the effect Texas independence had on the Tejano community:
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Although the events of 1836 led to independence for the people of Texas, the Latino population of the state was very quickly disenfranchised, to the extent that their political representation in the Texas State Legislature disappeared entirely for several decades.</blockquote>
▲[[File:All the Way to the Bay mural in Chicano Park.JPG|thumb|right|Mural in [[Chicano Park]], San Diego, stating "All the way to the Bay"]]
As a Spanish colony, the territory of California also had an established population of colonial settlers. [[Californios]] is the term for the Spanish-speaking residents of modern-day California; they were the original Mexicans (regardless of race) and local Hispanicized Amerindians in the region ([[Alta California]]) before the United States acquired it as a territory. In the mid-19th century, more settlers from the United States began to enter the territory.
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===19th-century and Early 20th-century Mexican migration===
[[File:TMP D155 Residences of peons.jpg|thumb|left|The first Mexican ''[[bracero]]s'' arrived in California in 1917.]]
[[File:Adobe house in the Sonora Town neighborhood of Los Angeles, ca. 1920s.jpg|thumb|Deteriorating [[adobe]] homes in [[Sonoratown]], 1920s.]]
In the late nineteenth century, liberal Mexican President [[Porfirio Díaz]] embarked on a program of economic modernization that triggered not only a wave of internal migration in Mexico from rural areas to cities, but also Mexican emigration to the United States. A railway network was constructed that connected central Mexico to the US border and also opened up previously isolated regions. The second factor was the shift in land tenure that left Mexican peasants without title or access to land for farming on their own account.<ref>Martín Valadez, "Migration: To the United States", in ''Encyclopedia of Mexico'', vol. 2, p. 890. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997.</ref> For the first time, Mexicans in increasing numbers migrated north into the United States for better economic opportunities. In the early 20th century, the first main period of migration to the United States happened between the 1910s to the 1920s, referred to as the Great Migration.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Garip |first1=Filiz |title=On the Move: Changing Mechanisms of Mexico-US Migration |date=2017 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |pages=Introduction & Chapter 1}}</ref> During this time period the [[Mexican Revolution]] was taking place, creating turmoil within and against the Mexican government causing civilians to seek out economic and political stability in the United States. Over 1.3 million Mexicans relocated to the United States from 1910 well into the 1930s, with significant increases each decade.<ref name="auto"/> Many of these immigrants found agricultural work, being contracted under private laborers.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Zong |first1=Jie |title=Mexican Immigrants in the United States |url=https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/mexican-immigrants-united-states |website=Migration Policy Institute |date=March 17, 2016}}</ref>
During the [[
The second period of increased migration is known as the Bracero Era from 1942 to 1964, referring to the [[Bracero program]] implemented by the United States, contracting agricultural labor from Mexico due to labor shortages from the [[World War II]] draft. An estimated 4.6
=== Late 20th century to early 21st century ===
[[File:2013,_A_Walk_in_Old_Town_Albuquerque_-_panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|A Walk in [[Old Town Albuquerque]] in New Mexico]]
[[File:Mariachi Plaza (5399467849).jpg|thumb|left|alt=Mariachi Plaza|[[Mariachi]] bands, who are available for hire, wait at the [[Mariachi Plaza]] in Los Angeles.]]▼
While Mexican Americans are concentrated in the [[Southwestern United States|Southwest]]: California,
[[File:LA_Plaza_de_Cultura_y_Artes,_Los_Angeles,_California_(14523832122).jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[LA Plaza de Cultura y Artes]] ]]
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The 1965 [[Delano grape strike]], sparked by mostly [[Filipino Americans|Filipino American]] farmworkers, became an [[intersectionality|intersectional]] struggle when labor leaders and [[voting rights]] and [[civil rights]] activists [[Dolores Huerta]], founder of the National Farm Workers Association and her co-leader [[César Chávez]] united with the strikers to form the [[United Farm Workers]]. Huerta's slogan "[[Sí, se puede]]" (Spanish for "Yes we can"), was popularized by Chávez's fast and became a rallying cry for the [[Chicano Movement]] or Mexican American civil rights movement. The Chicano movement aimed for a variety of [[civil rights in the United States|civil rights]] reforms and was inspired by the [[civil rights movement]]; demands ranged from the restoration of land grants to farm workers' rights, to enhanced education, to voting and political rights, as well as emerging awareness of collective history. The [[East L.A. walkouts|Chicano walkouts]] of [[Vietnam War|antiwar students]] is traditionally seen as the start of the more radical phase of the Chicano movement.<ref name="makers_hof">{{cite web|date=October 5, 2015|title=Meet the 20 MAKERS Inducted Into the National Women's Hall of Fame|url=http://www.makers.com/blog/makers-inducted-national-womens-hall-fame|access-date=31 May 2017|publisher=Makers|archive-date=26 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326153357/http://www.makers.com/blog/makers-inducted-national-womens-hall-fame|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="adelante">{{cite web|title=Dolores Huerta|url=http://action.theadelantemovement.com/legends/Dolores_Huerta/|access-date=31 May 2017|publisher=The Adelante Movement|archive-date=20 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320105851/http://action.theadelantemovement.com/legends/Dolores_Huerta/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Mexican Americans were found to place more importance on social and economical issues than they do on immigration. Those who are not citizens care considerably more about social issues. Both citizens and noncitizens identify ethnic issues as the key problem that Mexican Americans
Since there weren't many job opportunities in their country, Mexicans moved to the United States to help them receive a job. However, when they came to the United States their wages were extremely low.<ref name="gale encyclopedia"/>
[[File:Trends of Mexican Migration to United States 1900-2016.png|thumb|Trend of Mexican migration to the United States. Here the term immigrant refers to those who were not born in the United States but are now currently residing in the United States. This can include naturalized US citizens, legal permanent residents, employees and students on visas, and the undocumented.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|title=Mexican-Born Population Over Time,
During this period, civil rights groups such as the [[National Mexican-American Anti-Defamation Committee]] were founded. By the early 21st century, the states with the largest percentages and populations of Mexican Americans are California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas,
In terms of religion, Mexican Americans are primarily [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2014/05/27/mexicans-and-dominicans-more-catholic-than-most-hispanics/|title=Mexicans, Dominicans are more Catholic than most other Hispanics|first=Jens Manuel|last=Krogstad|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref> A large minority are [[Protestantism|Evangelical Protestants]]. Notably, according to a Pew Hispanic Center report in 2006 and the Pew Religious Landscape Survey in 2008, Mexican Americans are significantly less likely than other Latino groups to abandon Catholicism for Protestant churches.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewhispanic.org/2007/04/25/changing-faiths-latinos-and-the-transformation-of-american-religion-2006-hispanic-religion-survey/ |title=Changing Faiths: Latinos and the Transformation of American Religion (2006 Hispanic Religion Survey) | Pew Hispanic Center |publisher=Pewhispanic.org |access-date=2014-01-06|date=2007-04-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report-religious-landscape-study-full.pdf |title=U.S. Religious Landscape Survey: Religious Affiliation, Diverse and Dynamic, February 2008 | Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life |publisher=Pewforum.org |access-date=2014-10-16}}</ref>
In 2008, "Yes We Can" (in Spanish: ''"[[Sí, se puede]]"'') was adopted as the 2008 [[:Yes We Can (slogan)|campaign slogan]] of [[Barack Obama]], whose [[2008 United States presidential election|election]] and [[2012 United States presidential election|reelection]] as the first [[African Americans|African American]] president underlined the growing importance of the Mexican American vote.<ref name="Villarreal-2014">{{cite journal |last=Villarreal |first=Andrés |date=December 2014 |title=Explaining the Decline in Mexico-U.S. Migration: The Effect of the Great Recession |journal=Demography |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=2203–2228 |doi=10.1007/s13524-014-0351-4 |pmc=4252712 |pmid=25407844}}</ref> The failure of
Most Mexican [[Romani people|Roma]] came to the United States from Argentina.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Carey |first1=Lydia |title=Romani Heritage: A Glimpse Into Mexico's Misunderstood Gypsy Community |url=https://theculturetrip.com/north-america/mexico/articles/romani-heritage-a-glimpse-into-mexicos-misunderstood-gypsy-community/ |website=Culture Trip |date=February 21, 2018}}</ref> In 2015, the United States admitted 157,227 Mexican immigrants,<ref>[https://www.dhs.gov/immigration-statistics/yearbook/2015/table2 Department of Homeland Security: "2015 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics"] 2015</ref> and as of November 2016, 1.31
A 2014 survey showed that 34% of Mexicans would immigrate to the United States if given the opportunity, with 17% saying they would do it illegally.<ref>{{cite web|first=Rafael|last=Romo|date=2014-08-27|title=Third of Mexicans would migrate to U.S., survey finds|url=https://www.cnn.com/2014/08/27/world/americas/mexico-immigration-survey/index.html|access-date=2021-01-23|website=CNN Digital|language=en}}</ref>
==Race and ethnicity==
{{main|Mexicans}}
▲[[File:Mariachi Plaza (5399467849).jpg|thumb|left|alt=Mariachi Plaza|[[Mariachi]] bands, who are available for hire, wait at the [[Mariachi Plaza]] in Los Angeles.]]
Ethnically, Mexican Americans are a diverse population made up primarily of [[White Mexicans|European]] ancestry and [[Indigenous peoples in Mexico|Indigenous]] ancestry, along with [[Afro-Mexicans|African]]. Also on a smaller scale East Asian, Middle Eastern descent (mainly Lebanese). The majority of the Mexican population identifies as mestizo. In colonial times, Mestizo was meant to be a person of mixed heritage, particularly European and Native American. Nonetheless, the meaning of the word has changed through time, currently being used to refer to the segment of the Mexican population who is of at least partial Indigenous ancestry, but does not speak [[Languages of Mexico|Indigenous languages]].<ref name="EL MESTIZAJE Y LAS CULTURAS REGIONALES">{{cite web |last1=Navarrete |first1=Federico |title=El Mestizaje Y Las Culturas Regionales |url=http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html |publisher=Programa Universitario México Nacion |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823015618/http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html |archive-date=August 23, 2013 |language=es |date=2004 |url-status=dead|quote= en el censo de 1930 el gobierno mexicano dejó de clasificar a la población del país en tres categorías raciales, blanco, mestizo e indígena, y adoptó una nueva clasificación étnica que distinguía a los hablantes de lenguas indígenas del resto de la población, es decir de los hablantes de español}}</ref> Thus in Mexico, the term "Mestizo", while still mostly applying to people who are of mixed European and Indigenous descent, to various degrees, the term has become more of a cultural label rather than a racial one. It is vaguely defined and includes people who do not have Indigenous ancestry, people who do not have European ancestry as well as people of mixed descent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lizcano Fernandez |first1=Francisco |title=Composición étnica de las tres áreas culturales del continente americano al comienzo del siglo XXI |journal=Convergencia |volume=12 |issue=38 |date=August 2005 |hdl=20.500.11799/38330 }}</ref>
Such transformation of the word is not a coincidence but the result of a concept known as "mestizaje", which was promoted by the post-revolutionary Mexican government in an effort to create a united Mexican ethno-cultural identity with no racial distinctions.<ref>Knight, Alan. 1990. "Racism, Revolution and ''indigenismo'': Mexico 1910–1940". Chapter 4 in ''The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870–1940''. Richard Graham (ed.) pp. 78–85
Per the [[United States Census, 2010|2010 US Census]], the majority (52.8%) of Mexican Americans identified as being [[White Hispanic and Latino Americans|white]].<ref name="US Census 2010"/> The remainder identified themselves as being of [[Race and ethnicity in the United States Census|"some other race"]] (39.5%), "two or more races" (5.0%),
{{bar box
|title= 2010 US Census<ref name="US Census 2010">{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf |title=The Hispanic Population: 2010 Census Brief |access-date=November 16, 2012}}</ref>
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Genetic studies made in the Mexican population have found their common ancestry at 58.96% European, 31.05% Amerindian and 10.03% African. There is genetic asymmetry, with the direct paternal line predominately European and the maternal line predominately Amerindian. Younger Mexican Americans tend to have more Indigenous ancestry; in those studied born between the 1940s and 1990s, there was an average increase in ancestry of 0.4% per year. Though there is no simple explanation, it is possibly some combination of [[assortative mating]], changes in migration patterns over time (with more recent immigrants having higher levels of Indigenous ancestry), population growth and other unexamined factors.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Spear|first1=Melissa L|last2=Diaz-Papkovich|first2=Alex|last3=Ziv|first3=Elad|last4=Yracheta|first4=Joseph M|last5=Gravel|first5=Simon|last6=Torgerson|first6=Dara G|last7=Hernandez|first7=Ryan D|date=2020-12-29|editor-last=Sohail|editor-first=Mashaal|editor2-last=Wittkopp|editor2-first=Patricia J|editor3-last=Sohail|editor3-first=Mashaal|editor4-last=Wojcik|editor4-first=Genevieve L|title=Recent shifts in the genomic ancestry of Mexican Americans may alter the genetic architecture of biomedical traits|journal=eLife|volume=9|pages=e56029|doi=10.7554/eLife.56029|pmid=33372659|pmc=7771964|issn=2050-084X|doi-access=free}}</ref>
[[File:Family_eating_meal.jpg|thumb|250px|Mexican American family eating a meal]]
For instance, a 2006 study conducted by Mexico's [[National Institute of Genomic Medicine INMEGEN|National Institute of Genomic Medicine (INMEGEN)]], which genotyped 104 samples, reported that Mestizo Mexicans are 58.96% European, 35.05% Amerindian, and 5.03% African.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.ashg.org/genetics/abstracts/abs06/f1065.htm|title=Evaluation of Ancestry and Linkage Disequilibrium Sharing in Admixed Population in Mexico|author1=J.K. Estrada|author2=A. Hidalgo-Miranda|author3=I. Silva-Zolezzi|author4=G. Jimenez-Sanchez|publisher=ASHG|access-date=July 18, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913031830/http://www.ashg.org/genetics/abstracts/abs06/f1065.htm|archive-date=September 13, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to a 2009 report by the Mexican Genome Project, which sampled 300 Mestizos from six Mexican states and one Indigenous group, the gene pool of the Mexican mestizo population was calculated to be 55.2% percent Indigenous, 41.8% European, 5% African, and 0.5% Asian.<ref name="Silva-Zolezzi et al 2009"/> A 2012 study published by the ''[[Journal of Human Genetics]]'' found the deep paternal ancestry of the Mexican Mestizo population to be predominately European (64.9%) followed by Amerindian (30.8%) and African (5%).<ref>{{cite journal|title=Admixture and population structure in Mexican-Mestizos based on paternal lineages - |publisher=Journal of Human Genetics |quote=In the total population sample, paternal ancestry was predominately European (64.9%), followed by Native American (30.8%) and African (4.2%).|pmid=22832385|doi=10.1038/jhg.2012.67|volume=57|issue=9 |year=2012|journal=J. Hum. Genet.|pages=568–74 | last1 = Martínez-Cortés | first1 = G | last2 = Salazar-Flores | first2 = J | last3 = Fernández-Rodríguez | first3 = LG | last4 = Rubi-Castellanos | first4 = R | last5 = Rodríguez-Loya | first5 = C | last6 = Velarde-Félix | first6 = JS | last7 = Muñoz-Valle | first7 = JF | last8 = Parra-Rojas | first8 = I | last9 = Rangel-Villalobos | first9 = H| doi-access = free }}</ref> An autosomal ancestry study performed on Mexico City reported that the European ancestry of Mexicans was 52% with the rest being Amerindian and with alongside African contribution, additionally maternal ancestry was analyzed, with 47% being of European origin. Unlike previous studies which only included Mexicans who self-identified as Mestizos, the only criteria for sample selection in this study was that the volunteers self-identified as Mexicans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Price |first1=Alkes L. |last2=Patterson |first2=Nick |last3=Yu |first3=Fuli |last4=Cox |first4=David R. |last5=Waliszewska |first5=Alicja |last6=McDonald |first6=Gavin J. |last7=Tandon |first7=Arti |last8=Schirmer |first8=Christine |last9=Neubauer |first9=Julie |last10=Bedoya |first10=Gabriel |last11=Duque |first11=Constanza |last12=Villegas |first12=Alberto |last13=Bortolini |first13=Maria Catira |last14=Salzano |first14=Francisco M. |last15=Gallo |first15=Carla |last16=Mazzotti |first16=Guido |last17=Tello-Ruiz |first17=Marcela |last18=Riba |first18=Laura |last19=Aguilar-Salinas |first19=Carlos A. |last20=Canizales-Quinteros |first20=Samuel |last21=Menjivar |first21=Marta |last22=Klitz |first22=William |last23=Henderson |first23=Brian |last24=Haiman |first24=Christopher A. |last25=Winkler |first25=Cheryl |last26=Tusie-Luna |first26=Teresa |last27=Ruiz-Linares |first27=Andrés |last28=Reich |first28=David |title=A Genomewide Admixture Map for Latino Populations |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=June 2007 |volume=80 |issue=6 |pages=1024–1036 |doi=10.1086/518313 |pmid=17503322 |pmc=1867092 }}</ref>▼
▲For instance, a 2006 study conducted by Mexico's [[National Institute of Genomic Medicine INMEGEN|National Institute of Genomic Medicine (INMEGEN)]], which genotyped 104 samples, reported that Mestizo Mexicans are 58.96% European, 35.05% Amerindian, and 5.03% African.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.ashg.org/genetics/abstracts/abs06/f1065.htm|title=Evaluation of Ancestry and Linkage Disequilibrium Sharing in Admixed Population in Mexico|author1=J.K. Estrada|author2=A. Hidalgo-Miranda|author3=I. Silva-Zolezzi|author4=G. Jimenez-Sanchez|publisher=ASHG|access-date=July 18, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913031830/http://www.ashg.org/genetics/abstracts/abs06/f1065.htm|archive-date=September 13, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to a 2009 report by the Mexican Genome Project, which sampled 300 Mestizos from six Mexican states and one Indigenous group, the gene pool of the Mexican mestizo population was calculated to be 55.2% percent Indigenous, 41.8% European, 5% African, and 0.5% Asian.<ref name="Silva-Zolezzi et al 2009"/> A 2012 study published by the ''[[Journal of Human Genetics]]'' found the deep paternal ancestry of the Mexican Mestizo population to be predominately European (64.9%) followed by Amerindian (30.8%) and African (5%).<ref>{{cite journal|title=Admixture and population structure in Mexican-Mestizos based on paternal lineages
While Mexico does not have comprehensive modern racial censuses, some international publications believe that Mexican people of predominately European descent (Spanish or other European) make up approximately one-sixth (16.5%), this based on the figures of the last racial census in the country, made in 1921.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/379167/Mexico/27384/Ethnic-groups|title=Encyclopædia Britannica: Mexico Ethnic groups|date=18 July 2023 }}</ref> According to an opinion poll conducted by the [[Latinobarómetro]] organization in 2011, 52% of Mexican respondents said they were mestizos, 19% Indigenous, 6% white, 2% mulattos and 3% "other race".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.infoamerica.org/primera/lb_2011.pdf|title=Informe 2011 Latinobarómetro - pag. 58|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref>▼
▲While Mexico does not have comprehensive modern racial censuses, some international publications believe that Mexican people of predominately European descent (Spanish or other European) make up approximately one-sixth (16.5%), this based on the figures of the last racial census in the country, made in 1921.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/379167/Mexico/27384/Ethnic-groups|title=Encyclopædia Britannica: Mexico Ethnic groups|date=18 July 2023 }}</ref> According to an opinion poll conducted by the [[Latinobarómetro]] organization in 2011, 52% of Mexican respondents said they were mestizos, 19% Indigenous, 6% white, 2% mulattos and 3% "other race".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.infoamerica.org/primera/lb_2011.pdf|title=Informe 2011 Latinobarómetro
=== US Census Bureau classifications ===
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===Politics and debate of racial classification===
[[File:Portrait of Romualdo Pacheco (cropped).png|thumb
[[File:Octaviano Larrazolo, bw photo portrait, 1919.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Octaviano Larrazolo]] became the first Mexican American to serve in the US Senate (1928)]]▼
In some cases, legal classification of White racial status has made it difficult for Mexican-American rights activists to prove minority discrimination. In the case ''[[Hernandez v. Texas]]'' (1954), civil rights lawyers for the appellant, named Pedro Hernandez, were confronted with a paradox: because Mexican Americans were classified as White by the federal government and not as a separate race in the census, lower courts held that they were not being denied equal protection by being tried by juries that excluded Mexican Americans by practice. The lower court ruled there was no violation of the Fourteenth Amendment by excluding people with Mexican ancestry among the juries. Attorneys for the state of Texas and judges in the state courts contended that the amendment referred only to racial, not "nationality", groups. Thus, since Mexican Americans were tried by juries composed of their racial group—whites—their constitutional rights were not violated. The US Supreme Court ruling in ''Hernandez v. Texas'' case held that "nationality" groups could be protected under the Fourteenth Amendment, and it became a landmark in the civil rights history of the United States.<ref name="Another White Race:">{{cite web|url=https://litigation-essentials.lexisnexis.com/webcd/app?action=DocumentDisplay&crawlid=1&srctype=smi&srcid=3B15&doctype=cite&docid=21+Law+&+Hist.+Rev.+109&key=9eb15db6c4cb5ea99766572941111225|title=LexisNexis® Litigation Essentials
▲[[File:Octaviano Larrazolo, bw photo portrait, 1919.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Octaviano Larrazolo]] became the first Mexican American to serve in the US Senate (1928)]]
While Mexican Americans served in all-White units during World War II, many Mexican–American veterans continued to face discrimination when they arrived home; they created the G.I. Forum to work for equal treatment.<ref name="Mexican American voters">{{cite web|url=http://www1.cuny.edu/portal_ur/content/voting_cal/mexican_american.html/|title=Mexican American Voters / Voting Rights and Citizenship|work=cuny.edu|access-date=2014-04-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411152220/http://www1.cuny.edu/portal_ur/content/voting_cal/mexican_american.html|archive-date=2014-04-11|url-status=dead}}</ref>
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| chapter = 3 Prerequisite cases| page = 61}}</ref><ref name="Haney-Lopez1">{{cite book| author = Haney-Lopez, Ian F.| title = White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race| publisher = New York University| year = 1996| chapter = Appendix "A"}}</ref>
[[File:Henry Cisneros (P15195).jpg|thumb|200px|[[Henry Cisneros]] the first Mexican American mayor of a major U.S. city, San Antonio, Texas, in 1981. Cisneros later went on to serve as the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development]]
[[File:Lucille_Roybal-Allard_official_photo.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Lucille Roybal-Allard]], daughter of [[Edward R. Roybal]], first Latino chair of the [[Congressional Hispanic Caucus]]]]▼
Although Mexican Americans were legally classified as "white" in terms of official federal policy, socially they were seen as "too Indian" to be treated as such.<ref name=ManifestDestinies>{{cite book|author=Gomez, Laura E.|title=Manifest Destinies|publisher=NYU Press|date=Feb 6, 2018}}</ref> Many organizations, businesses, and homeowners associations and local legal systems had official policies in the early 20th century to exclude Mexican Americans in a racially discriminatory way.<ref name="autogenerated2"/> Throughout the Southwest, discrimination in wages was institutionalized in "White wages" versus lower "Mexican wages" for the same job classifications.<ref name="autogenerated2"/> For Mexican Americans, opportunities for employment were largely limited to guest worker programs.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web |url=http://www.understandingrace.org/history/society/post_war_economic_boom.html |title=RACE – History – Post-War Economic Boom and Racial Discrimination |publisher=Understandingrace.org |date=1956-12-21 |access-date=2014-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130818185124/http://www.understandingrace.org/history/society/post_war_economic_boom.html |archive-date=2013-08-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The ''bracero'' program, begun in 1942 during World War II, when many United States men were drafted for war, allowed Mexicans temporary entry into the United States as migrant workers at farms throughout California and the Southwest. This program continued until 1964.<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref name="autogenerated11">{{Cite web|url=http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=173707|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929122851/http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=173707|url-status=dead|title=JS Online: Filmmaker explores practice of redlining in documentary|archivedate=29 September 2007}}</ref><ref name="Pulido 53">{{cite book|last=Pulido|first=Laura|title=Black, Brown, Yellow, and Left: Radical Activism in Los Angeles|page=53|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-24520-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CzarnBhJiZUC&pg=PA53 |year=2006}}</ref>
▲[[File:Lucille_Roybal-Allard_official_photo.jpg|thumb|
While both Mexican American and African American minorities were subject to segregation and racial discrimination, they were treated differently. Segregation is the physical separation of peoples on the basis of ethnicity and social custom historically applied to separate African Americans and Mexican Americans from Whites in Texas. Racial attitudes that supported segregation of African Americans probably arrived in Texas during the 1820s in company with the "peculiar institution," slavery. Anglo-Americans began extending segregation to Mexican Americans after the Texas Revolution as a social custom. Tejanos formed a suspect class during and after the revolution, and that fact led to a general aversion of them. After the Civil War, segregation developed as a method of group control. For both minority groups, segregation existed in schools, churches, residential districts, and most public places such as restaurants, theaters, and barber shops. By the latter years of the nineteenth century, institutionalized segregation flourished legally in places with a visible Black population and was extended informally to Tejanos. Most Texas towns and cities had a "Negro quarter" and a "Mexican quarter."
Although the law specified until 1890 that Black schools were to have equal access to the common school fund, they often did not. In the early twentieth century, Black and Mexican schools faced lamentable conditions endemic in an antiquated educational system, and educational reforms of the Progressive era did not improve matters. During the 1920s, Black schoolchildren were more likely to miss school than White students, Black teachers received less pay and training than their White counterparts, and teaching accommodations ordinarily amounted to one-room buildings generally under the tutelage of a single teacher. The same circumstances applied to Hispanic students, who were segregated because some Whites thought them "dirty" and because some White employers desired an uneducated, inexpensive labor pool. Whatever schools existed often suffered from inadequate financing, poor educational facilities, and racist curriculum.<ref name="Robert Calvert 1996">{{cite book|first=Robert|last=Calvert|title=Segregation|url=
==Demographics==
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Mexican Americans have long been the second largest minority group in the United States after African Americans.<ref>{{cite book | last=Rodriguez | first=M.S. | title=Rethinking the Chicano Movement | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=American Social and Political Movements of the 20th Century | year=2014 | isbn=978-1-136-17537-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ydWBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 | page=3}}</ref>
The Mexican American population was still concentrated in Southwestern states such as Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Texas, and California
There is recent Mexican enclaves in [[Salt Lake City]] and [[Atlanta]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bKKLqGC5K3YC&dq=%22mexican%22+population+growing+in+%22atlanta%22&pg=PA46|title=Mexican Americans and the U.S. Economy|first=Arturo|last=Gonz‡lez|date=4 December 2002|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=9780816519774 |accessdate=4 December 2023|via=Google Books}}</ref>
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{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Population<ref name=invsn>[https://www.migrationpolicy.org/programs/data-hub/charts/mexican-born-population-over-time?width=900&height=850&iframe=true Number of Mexican Immigrants and Their Share of the Total U.S. Immigrant Population,
|-
| 1850 || 13,300 || 0.6
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===Immigration issues===
{{See also|2006 United States immigration reform protests|Illegal immigration to the United States}}
:''See also [[Strangers No Longer]]: Together on the Journey of Hope'', a pastoral letter written by both the [[United States Conference of Catholic Bishops]] and the [[Mexican Episcopal Conference]], which deals with the issue of migration in the context of the
[[File:Cesar Chavez Day.jpg|thumb|left|[[Cesar Chavez]]'s supporters say his work led to numerous improvements for union laborers. Although the [[UFW]] faltered a few years after Chavez died in 1993, he became an iconic "folk saint" in the pantheon of Mexican Americans.]]
Since the 1960s, Mexican immigrants have met a significant portion of the demand for low cost labor in the United States.<ref>Scruggs, O. (1984). Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954. Labor History, 25(1), 135–137. Retrieved from America: History & Life database.</ref> Fear of [[deportation]] makes them highly vulnerable to exploitation by employers. Many employers, however, have developed a "don't ask, don't tell" attitude toward hiring undocumented Mexican nationals. In May 2006, hundreds of thousands of undocumented immigrants, Mexicans and other nationalities, walked out of their jobs across the country in [[2006 United States immigration reform protests|protest]] to support immigration reform (many in hopes of a path to citizenship similar to the [[Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986]] signed into law by President Ronald Reagan, which granted citizenship to Mexican nationals living and working without documentation in the US). Governmentalities have been the result of unequal relations with its northern neighbors versus a response to more locally driven needs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marchand |first=Marianne H. |date=June 2017 |title=Crossing Borders: Mexican State Practices, Managing Migration, and the Construction of "Unsafe" Travelers: Crossing Borders |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/lamp.12118 |journal=Latin American Policy |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=5–26 |doi=10.1111/lamp.12118}}</ref>
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==Discrimination and stereotypes==
{{main|Anti-Mexican sentiment|Latinophobia}}{{See also|Madrigal v. Quilligan}}
[[File:Solo s 48 Fleetline.jpg|thumb|right|[[Lowrider]] began in the Mexican-American barrios of Los Angeles in the mid-to-late 1940s and during the post-war prosperity of the 1950s. Initially, some youths would place sandbags in the trunk of their customized cars
Throughout US history, Mexican Americans have endured various types of negative stereotypes which have long circulated in media and popular culture.<ref>Flores Niemann Yolanda, ''et al.'' ''Black-Brown Relations and Stereotypes'' (2003); Charles Ramírez Berg, ''Latino Images in Film: Stereotypes, Subversion, & Resistance'' (2002); Chad Richardson, ''Batos, Bolillos, Pochos, and Pelados: Class & Culture on the South Texas Border'' (1999)</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p111385_index.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022070241/http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p111385_index.html|url-status=dead|title=Life on the Texas-Mexico Border: Myth and reality as represented in Mainstream and Independent Western Cinema|archivedate=22 October 2007}}</ref> Mexican Americans have also faced discrimination based on ethnicity, race, culture, poverty, and use of the Spanish language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/21.1/forum_wilson.html |title=Steven H. Wilson | Brown over "Other White": Mexican Americans' Legal Arguments and Litigation Strategy in School Desegregation Lawsuits | Law and History Review, 21.1 |publisher=The History Cooperative |access-date=2014-01-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120930061850/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/21.1/forum_wilson.html |archive-date=2012-09-30 }}</ref>
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Mexicans faced [[Racial segregation in the United States|racially segregated]] schooling in a number of Western states during the Depression era. In Wyoming, the segregation of Mexican children—regardless of US citizenship—mirrored the South's Jim Crow laws. The segregation of Mexicans also occurred in California and in neighboring Colorado, Montana, and Nebraska.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guzmán |first1=Gonzalo |title="Things change you know": Schools as the Architects of the Mexican Race in Depression-Era Wyoming |journal=History of Education Quarterly |date=November 2021 |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=392–422 |doi=10.1017/heq.2021.37|s2cid=240357463 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Garcia |first1=David |title=Strategies of Segregation: Race, Residence, and the Struggle for Educational Equality |date=2018 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Oakland, CA}}</ref>
Since the majority of [[undocumented immigrants in the US]] have traditionally been from Latin America, the Mexican American community has been the subject of widespread immigration raids. During [[The Great Depression]], the United States government sponsored a [[Mexican Repatriation]] program which was intended to encourage people to voluntarily move to Mexico, but thousands were deported against their will. During the 1930s, between 355 000 and 1 million individuals were repatriated or deported to Mexico, approximately 40 to 60 percent of which were actually United States citizens
[[File:No Dogs-Negroes-Mexicans - Racist Sign from Deep South - National Civil Rights Museum - Downtown Memphis - Tennessee - USA.jpg|thumb|left|Sign from a restaurant in Dallas, Texas, now located in the [[National Civil Rights Museum]]]]
During World War II, more than 300,000 Mexican Americans served in the US armed forces.<ref name="autogenerated8" /> Mexican Americans were generally integrated into regular military units; however, many Mexican–American War veterans were discriminated against and even denied medical services by the [[United States Department of Veterans Affairs]] when they arrived home.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In 1948, war veteran [[Hector P. Garcia]] founded the [[American GI Forum]] to address the concerns of Mexican American veterans who were being discriminated against. The AGIF's first campaign was on the behalf of [[Felix Longoria]], a Mexican American private who was killed in the Philippines while in the line of duty. Upon the return of his body to his hometown of [[Three Rivers, Texas]], he was denied funeral services because of his nationality.
The [[Zoot Suit
9780812223033 | quote=Over the next few days, crowds of white civilians joined in the rampage, targeting mainly Mexican American youths but also some African Americans and Filipinos.}}</ref> The defiance of zoot suiters became inspirational for [[Chicano]]s during the [[Chicano Movement]] that worked to embrace a Chicano identity and worldview that combated structural [[Racism in the United States|racism]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sandoval|first=Denise M.|title=Black and Brown in Los Angeles: Beyond Conflict and Coalition|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|location=Berkeley, California|year=2013|isbn=9780520956872|editor-last=Kun|editor-first=Josh|pages=197|chapter=The Politics of Low and Slow/Bajito y Suavecito: Black and Chicano Lowriders in Los Angeles, from the 1960s through the 1970s|editor-last2=Pulido|editor-first2=Laura}}</ref>
[[File:TaqueriaMiLindoHuetamoHoustonTX.jpg|thumb|Food truck Mi Lindo [[Huetamo]]
In the 1948 case of ''[[Perez v. Sharp]]'', the Supreme Court of California recognized that the [[Anti-miscegenation laws|ban on interracial marriage]] violated the Fourteenth Amendment of the Federal Constitution from 1868. The case involved Andrea Perez, a Mexican-American woman listed as White, and Sylvester Davis, an African American man.<ref name="Traynor-1948">{{cite web|url=https://scocal.stanford.edu/opinion/perez-v-sharp-26107|title=Perez v. Sharp
In 1971, U.S. president [[Richard Nixon]] is recorded exhibiting prejudice toward Mexican Americans and African Americans. Referring to Latinos he states, "At the present time they steal, they're dishonest, but they do have some concept of family life. They don't live like a bunch of dogs, which the Negroes do live like."<ref>{{cite news |title=Nixon On Tape Expounds On Welfare And Homosexuality |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1999-11-07-9911070165-story.html |access-date=December 14, 2023 |work=Chicago Tribune}}</ref>
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In 2015, future president [[Donald Trump]] offended Mexican Americans by stating "They're bringing drugs. They're bringing crime. They're rapists. And some, I assume, are good people." He built the [[Trump wall]] to prevent undocumented Mexican immigrants from entering the United States.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://time.com/4473972/donald-trump-mexico-meeting-insult/|title=Here Are All the Times Donald Trump Insulted Mexico|first=Katie|last=Reilly|date=31 August 2016|magazine=Time|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=18BEEAAAQBAJ&q=donald+trump+%22mexican+americans%22+discrimination|title=Trumpism, Mexican America, and the Struggle for Latinx Citizenship|first1=Phillip B.|last1=Gonzales|first2=Renato|last2=Rosaldo|first3=Mary Louise|last3=Pratt|date=15 October 2021|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|isbn=9780826362858 |accessdate=4 December 2023|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/amp/ncna952011|title=Trump's border wall was never just about security. It's meant to remind all Latinos that we're unwelcome.|website=[[NBC News]] |date=28 December 2018 }}</ref>
Although many Mexican Americans descend from indigenous Amerindians, and although many Mexican Americans have been in country for many generations, Mexicans are often seen and stereotyped as newly arrived cultural parasites and border hoppers in the United States. Mexican men are stereotyped as illiterate criminals. Mexican women are depicted as hypersexual. Mexicans are stereotyped as lazy, dirty, physically unattractive menaces.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jimcrowmuseum.ferris.edu/mexican.htm|title=Mexican and Latino Stereotypes
==Social status and assimilation==
{{See also|Tex-Mex|Mexican cuisine in the United States}}
[[File:'View of Santa Fe Plaza in the 1850s' by Gerald Cassidy, c. 1930 (cropped).JPG|thumb|left|[[Santa Fe Plaza]] c, 1850, after the [[Mexican Cession]] to the United States]]
[[File:Tropical_Amèrica_.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[América Tropical: Oprimida y Destrozada por los Imperialismos|''America Tropical'']]]]▼
There have been increases in average personal and household incomes for Mexican Americans in the 21st century. US-born Americans of Mexican heritage earn more and are represented more in the middle and upper-class segments more than most recently arriving Mexican immigrants.
▲[[File:Tropical_Amèrica_.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[América Tropical: Oprimida y Destrozada por los Imperialismos|''America Tropical'']]]]
Most immigrants from Mexico, as elsewhere, come from the lower classes and from families generationally employed in lower skilled jobs. They also are most likely from rural areas. Thus, many new Mexican immigrants are not skilled in white collar professions. Recently, some professionals from Mexico have been migrating, but to make the transition from one country to another involves re-training and re-adjusting to conform to US laws —i.e. professional licensing is required.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Salgado|first1=Casandra D.|last2=Ortiz|first2=Vilma|date=2019-05-03|title=Mexican Americans and wealth: economic status, family and place|journal=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies|volume=46|issue=18|pages=3855–3873|doi=10.1080/1369183X.2019.1592878|s2cid=155153400|issn=1369-183X}}</ref> Millions crossed into the United States to find work that would help them survive as well as sustain their families in Mexico.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Minian |first=Ana Raquel |title=Undocumented Lives |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2018 |pages=76 |language=English}}</ref> However now, Mexican Americans, primarily those who are bilingual are being used by firms to attract immigrant clientele. More value is being placed on Mexican Americans because they possess the ability to communicate with Spanish-speaking clients, thus expanding the customer range of companies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jiménez |first=Tomás R. |date=September 2007 |title=Weighing the Costs and Benefits of Mexican Immigration: The Mexican-American Perspective |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2007.00474.x |journal=Social Science Quarterly |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=599–618 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6237.2007.00474.x |s2cid=8854023 |via=Business Source Complete}}</ref>
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According to James P. Smith, the children and grandchildren of Hispanic immigrants tend to lessen educational and income gaps with White American. Immigrant Latino men earn about half of what whites make, while second generation US-born Hispanics make about 78 percent of the salaries of their white counterparts and by the third generation US-born Latinos make on average identical wages to their US-born white counterparts.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20060618/ai_n16490113 | work=Deseret News (Salt Lake City) | title=Assimilation of immigrants is not a problem in the U.S | first=Tyler | last=Cowen | date=June 18, 2006}}</ref> However, the number of [[Mexican American professionals]] have been growing in size since 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mexican American Proarchive|url=http://mexican-american-proarchive.com/2014/12/slow-and-steady-progress-for-mexican-american-professionals-the-results-of-the-american-surveys-for-the-years-2010-2012-show-positive-results/|website=Mexican American Proarchive|date=2014-12-09}}</ref> According to Gutiérrez, Ramón throughout the 1980s, single Mexican women have made up an important portion of this migration, they are representing up to 40% of the total immigrant movement. Mexican women are mostly employed in service-related jobs such as service workers, housekeepers, and nannies, with a smaller involvement in agricultural labor. While Mexicans who have strong academic skills, have been granted with legal status in the United States, and their percentage is less compared to the infusion of unskilled immigrants.<ref>{{Citation |last=Gutiérrez |first=Ramón A. |title=Mexican Immigration to the United States |date=2019-07-29 |url=https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-146 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History |access-date=2023-12-06 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.146 |isbn=978-0-19-932917-5}}</ref>
Huntington (2005) argues that the sheer number, concentration, linguistic homogeneity, and other characteristics of Latin American immigrants will erode the dominance of English as a nationally unifying language, weaken the country's dominant cultural values, and promote ethnic allegiances over a primary identification as an American. Testing these hypotheses with data from the US Census and national and Los Angeles opinion surveys, Citrin et al. (2007) show that Latinos generally acquire English and lose Spanish rapidly beginning with the second generation, and appear to be no more or less religious or committed to the work ethic than native-born non-Mexican American whites. However, the children and grandchildren of Mexican immigrants were able to make close ties with their extended families in Mexico, since United States shares a 2,000
South et al. (2005) examine Hispanic spatial assimilation and inter-neighborhood [[geographic mobility]]. Their longitudinal analysis of seven hundred Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban immigrants followed from 1990 to 1995 finds broad support for hypotheses derived from the classical account of assimilation into American society. High income, English-language use, and embeddedness in American social contexts increased Latin American immigrants' geographic mobility into multi-ethnic neighborhoods. US citizenship and years spent in the United States were positively associated with geographic mobility into different neighborhoods while co-ethnic contact and prior experiences of ethnic discrimination decreased the likelihood that Latino immigrants would move from their original neighborhoods and into non-Latino white census tracts.<ref>South, Scott J.; Crowder, Kyle; and Chavez, Erick. "Geographic Mobility and Spatial Assimilation among US Latino Immigrants." ''International Migration Review'' 2005 39(3): 577–607. {{ISSN|0197-9183}}</ref>
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===Intermarriage===
[[File:Jessica_Alba_Cropped2.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Jessica Alba]]'s mother has [[Danish people|Danish]], [[Welsh people|Welsh]],
According to 2000 census data, US-born ethnic Mexicans have a high degree of [[Interracial marriage in the United States|intermarriage]] with [[non-Hispanic whites|non-Latino whites]]. Based on a sample size of 38,911 US-born Mexican husbands and 43,527 US-born Mexican wives:<ref name="Borjas1">{{cite book |last1=Borjas |first1=George J. |title=Mexican Immigration to the United States |date=2007 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-06668-4 |page=244 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_iONl31AMQYC&pg=PA244 }}</ref>
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In addition, based on 2000 data, there is a significant amount of ethnic absorption of ethnic Mexicans into the mainstream population with 16% of the children of mixed marriages not being identified in the census as Mexican.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_iONl31AMQYC&pg=PA244 ''Mexican Immigration to the United States'' edited by George J. Borjas] page 252 | retrieved March 20, 2013</ref>
A study done by the National Research Council (US) Panel on Hispanics in the United States published in 2006 looked at not only marriages, but also non-marriage unions. It found that since at least 1980, marriage for females across all Hispanic ethnic groups, including Mexican Americans, has been in a steady decline.<ref name="Landale1">Nancy S. Landale, R. Salvador Olopesa, and Christina Bradatan. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK19902/ Hispanic Families in the United States: Family Structure and Process in an Era of Family change].</ref> In addition, the percentage of births to unmarried mothers increased for females of Mexican descent from 20.3% in 1980 to 40.8% in 2000, more than doubling in that time frame.<ref name=Landale1 /> The study also found that for females of all Hispanic ethnicities, including Mexican origin, "considerably fewer births to unmarried Latino mothers involve partnerships with non-Latino white males than is the case for married Latino mothers. Second, births outside marriage are more likely to involve a non-Latino black father than births within marriage."<ref name=Landale1 /> Additionally, "Unions among partners from different Latino origins or between Latinos and non-Latino blacks are considerably more evident in cohabitation and parenthood than they are in marriage. In particular, unions between Latinos and non-Latino blacks are prominent in parenthood, especially non-marital births."<ref name=Landale1 /> Furthermore, for 29.7% of unmarried births to native-born females of Mexican origin and 40% of unmarried births to females of "Other Latino" origin, which may include Mexican American, information on the father's ethnicity was missing.<ref name=Landale1 /> The study was supported by the US Census Bureau,
=== Double-Marginalization ===
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===Battle of Chavez Ravine===
[[File:Dodger Stadium view of downtown 2015-10-04.jpg|thumb|right|View of downtown and the Palos Verdes Peninsula]]
The '''[[Battle of Chavez Ravine]]''' has several meanings, but often refers to controversy surrounding government acquisition of land largely owned by Mexican Americans in
===Hispanic segregation versus Black segregation===
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===Immigration and segregation===
[[File:El Paso Morning Times, El Paso, Texas, January 30, 1917.png|thumb|left|''El Paso Morning Times'' newspaper January 30, 1917, headlinedː "Bill Before
Historically, immigrants first settled in immigration hubs, where immigrants of similar background settle after they first arrive to the United States. Although they are segregated from the general population, hubs have helped many immigrants to acclimate to the United States, learn English, accumulate wealth, and once they are established, move into mainstream society.<ref name="autogenerated6">{{cite journal |last1=White |first1=Michael J. |first2=Catherine |last2=Bueker |first3=Jennifer E. |last3=Glick |date=August 2002 |title=The Impact of Immigration on Residential Segregation Revisited |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/252197245 }}</ref>
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==Education==
===Parental Involvement===
[[File:Sal-Castro.png|thumb|upright|[[Sal Castro]] was a [[Mexican-American]] [[Education|educator]] and
Parents are commonly associated with being a child's first teacher. As the child grows older, the parent's role in their child's learning may change; however, a parent will often continue to serve as a role model. There are multiple research articles that have looked at parental involvement and education. A key aspect of parental involvement in education is that it can be transmitted in many ways. For a long time, there has been a misconception that the parents of Mexican American students are not involved in their children's education; however, multiple studies have demonstrated that parents are involved in their children's education (Valencia & Black, 2002).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Valencia |first1=Richard R. |title='Mexican Americans Don't Value Education!' On the Basis of the Myth, Mythmaking, and Debunking |journal=Journal of Latinos and Education |date=April 2002 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=81–103 |doi=10.1207/S1532771XJLE0102_2 |s2cid=144594549}}</ref> It is important to know that the parents of Mexican American students frequently display their involvement through untraditional methods; such as, consejos, home-base practices, and high academic expectations.
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[[File:Cavazos.jpg|thumb|left|[[Lauro Cavazos]], [[United States Secretary of Education|Secretary of Education]] from August 1988 to December 1990]]
Literature has demonstrated that parental involvement has had a positive influence in the academic achievement of Mexican American students. Studies have shown that Mexican families show their value towards education by using untraditional methods (Kiyama, 2011).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kiyama |first1=Judy Marquez |title=Family Lessons and Funds of Knowledge: College-Going Paths in Mexican American Families |journal=Journal of Latinos and Education |date=January 2011 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=23–42 |doi=10.1080/15348431.2011.531656 |hdl=1802/23012 |s2cid=17247506 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> One educational practice that is commonly used among Mexican families are consejos (advice). Additional research has supported the idea that parents' consejos have had a significant influence on the education of Mexican American students. Espino (2016)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Espino |first1=Michelle M. |title=The Value of Education and Educación : Nurturing Mexican American Children's Educational Aspirations to the Doctorate |journal=Journal of Latinos and Education |date=2 April 2016 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=73–90 |doi=10.1080/15348431.2015.1066250 |s2cid=146963763 }}</ref> studied the influence that parental involvement had on seven, 1st generation Mexican American PhDs. The study found that one of the participant's father would frequently use consejos to encourage his son to continue his education. The father's consejos served as an encouragement tool, which motivated the participant to continue his education. Consejos are commonly associated with the parents' occupation. Parents use their occupation as leverage to encourage their child to continue his or her education, or else they may end up working an undesirable job (Espino, 2016). While this might not be the most common form of parental involvement, studies have shown that it has been an effective tool that encourages Mexican American students. Although that might be an effective tool for Mexican American students, a mother can be just as an important figure for consejos. A mother's role teaches their child the importance of everyday tasks such as knowing how to cook, clean and care for oneself
[[File:Arizona Ethnic Studies.jpg|right|alt=Protesters against HB 2281|thumb|Protesters are seen in June 2011 in support of the [[Tucson Unified School District]]'s Mexican-American studies program. A new state law HB2281 effectively ended the program, saying it was divisive.]]
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Additional literature has demonstrated that parent involvement also comes in the form of parent expectations. Valencia and Black (2002) argued that Mexican parents place a significant amount of value on education and hold high expectations for their children. The purpose of their study was to debunk the notion that Mexicans do not value education by providing evidence that shows the opposite. Setting high expectations and expressing their desire for their children to be academically successful has served as powerful tools to increase of the academic achievement among Mexican American students (Valencia & Black, 2002). Keith and Lichtman (1995)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keith |first1=Patricia B. |last2=Lichtman |first2=Marilyn V. |title=Does parental involvement influence the academic achievement of Mexican-American eighth graders? Results from the National Education Longitudinal Study. |journal=School Psychology Quarterly |date=1994 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=256–273 |doi=10.1037/h0088292 }}</ref> also conducted a research study that measured the influence of parental involvement and academic achievement. The data was collected from the NELS and used a total of 1,714 students that identified as Mexican American (Chicana/o). The study found a higher level of academic achievement among 8th grade Mexican American students and parents who had high educational aspirations for their children (Keith & Lichtman, 1995).
[[File:
Additional research done by Carranza, You, Chhuon, and Hudley (2009)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carranza |first1=Francisco D. |last2=You |first2=Sukkyung |last3=Chhuon |first3=Vichet |last4=Hudley |first4=Cynthia |title=Mexican American adolescents' academic achievement and aspirations: the role of perceived parental educational involvement, acculturation, and self-esteem |journal=Adolescence |date=22 June 2009 |volume=44 |issue=174 |pages=313–334 |id={{Gale|A207643292}} {{INIST|21922379}} |pmid=19764269 }}</ref> added support to the idea that high parental expectations were associated with higher achievement levels among Mexican American students. Carranza et al. (2009) studied 298 Mexican American high school students. They studied whether perceived parental involvement, acculturation, and self-esteem had any effect on academic achievement and aspirations. Results from their study demonstrated that perceived parental involvement had an influence on the students' academic achievement and aspirations. Additionally, Carranza et al. noted that among females, those who perceived that their parents expected them to get good grades tended to study more and have higher academic aspirations (2009). The findings suggest that parental expectations can affect the academic performance of Mexican American students.
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Based on current literature, one can conclude that parental involvement is an extremely important aspect of Mexican American students' education. The studies demonstrated that parental involvement is not limited to participating in school activities at the school; instead, parental involvement can be displayed through various forms. There are numerous studies that suggest that parental expectations are associated with the achievement level of Mexican American students. Future research should continue to study the reasons why Mexican American students perform better when their parents expect them to do well in school. Furthermore, future research can also look into whether gender influences parental expectations.
''[[Stand and Deliver]]'' was an inductee of the 2011 [[National Film Registry]] list.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.loc.gov/programs/national-film-preservation-board/film-registry/complete-national-film-registry-listing/|title=Complete National Film Registry Listing
==Mexican American communities==
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[[File:Record Ave. & Hammel St..jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[City Terrace]] streets]]
[[File:Día de Los Muertos Celebration.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Two Mexican American boys at a [[Día de Los Muertos]] celebration in [[Greeley, Colorado]]]]
[[File:Los Angeles with Mount Baldy.jpg|thumb|250px|
Large Mexican American populations by both size and per capita exist in the following American counties, metropolitan areas, and cities:
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=== California ===
*
** [[East Los Angeles, California]] – Unincorporated community of roughly 130,000, name synonymous with Mexican Americans, 97% Hispanic, 88% of Mexicans are immigrant, 40% of east L.A. residents reportedly Mexican including American-born.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov|title=U.S. Census website|date=29 November 2014|access-date=7 October 2017}}</ref>
** [[Montebello, California]] – Over 62% of the population is Mexican.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.infoplease.com/us/california/demographic-statistics-119 |title = Demographic Statistics for Montebello, California}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://maps.latimes.com/neighborhoods/neighborhood/montebello/|title=Montebello|website=Mapping L.A.|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref>
** [[Culver City, California]] – Also the site of the infamous [[Zoot Suit
** [[Long Beach, California]] – Third largest city in [[Southern California]], one of many cities in the region with a large Mexican/Latin American population.
** [[South Gate, California]] – Over 70.77% of the population is Mexican or Mexican American.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://zipatlas.com/us/ca/city-comparison/percentage-mexican-population.htm | title=Cities with the Highest Percentage of Mexicans in California | Zip Atlas}}</ref>
** [[La Puente, California]] – About two-thirds are of Mexican ancestry or Hispanic, one of the largest Hispanic (in percentage, the most Mexican American community) populations in California.
** [[Downey, California]]
** [[San Gabriel Valley]] – There is a large Mexican American community in San Gabriel Valley cities such as [[West Covina]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology, and Identity,
** [[Inland Empire, California]] (Riverside/ San Bernardino Counties- and the cities of that namesake) – About a third of the population are of Mexican descent. Including [[Pomona, California|Pomona]] and [[Romoland, California|Romoland]] with high Mexican percentages.
*** [[Riverside, California|Riverside]],<ref name="factfinder2.census.gov">{{cite web |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_QTP10&prodType=table |title=American FactFinder
*** [[Indio, California|Indio]]<ref name="factfinder2.census.gov" /> and [[Coachella, California]] (primarily Mexican-American).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_QTP6&prodType=table|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200212213134/http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_QTP6&prodType=table|url-status=dead|archive-date=2020-02-12|title=American FactFinder
** [[Santa Ana, California|Santa Ana]] – 78% Latino with the majority being of Mexican descent.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Nagourney |first1=Adam |last2=Medina |first2=Jennifer |title=This City Is 78% Latino, and the Face of a New California|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/12/us/california-latino-voters.html |website=The New York Times |date=October 11, 2016}}</ref>
** [[Southern California]] is the highest densely populated Mexican-American region, but by areas of percentage it is [[South Texas]].
* [[San Diego]], California – slightly less than one-third of the city's population is Latino, primarily Mexican American, making it the lowest percentage of Latinos of any significant border city.
* [[Imperial Valley]] region ([[Imperial County, California]] and [[Yuma, Arizona]]).
* [[San Francisco Bay Area]] – also with over one million Hispanics, many of whom are Mexican Americans, both US-born and foreign-born (see also [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] about 10–20% Hispanic and
** [[East Palo Alto, California|East Palo Alto]]
** [[Half Moon Bay, California|Half Moon Bay]]
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** [[Redwood City, California|Redwood City]]
** [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] – California's third largest Mexican-American city by percentage (over 25%) after Long Beach (about 30%). Many live in the [[Fruitvale, Oakland|Fruitvale]] district.
** [[San
** [[South San Francisco, California|South San Francisco]]
* [[Central Valley of California]] both the [[Sacramento Valley|Sacramento]] and [[San Joaquin Valley]]s have majority Mexican American communities. Examples being [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] and [[Fresno, California|Fresno]], and the heaviest concentrations in [[Kern County, California]] around [[Bakersfield, California|Bakersfield]].
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===Illinois===
*
** [[Chicago metropolitan area]] – As of 2021, nearly 1.69
** [[Cook County, Illinois|Cook County]]
***
*** [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]]
** [[Dupage County, Illinois|Dupage County]]
*** [[Elgin, Illinois|Elgin]]
** [[Kane County, Illinois|Kane County]]
*** [[Aurora, Illinois|Aurora]]
** [[Lake County, Illinois|Lake County]]
*** [[Waukegan, Illinois|Waukegan]]
** [[Will County, Illinois|Will County]]
===Indiana===
* [[Lake County, Indiana|Lake County]]
=== Texas ===
* [[Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex|Dallas/Fort Worth Area]] – [[History of Mexican Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth|Fifth-largest Mexican-American population and over 1.5
* [[San Antonio|San Antonio, Texas]] – Over half of the population in the city proper (53.2%, 705,530) and second largest Mexican population of any city in the US.<ref name="factfinder2.census.gov"/>
* [[Laredo, Texas|Laredo]]
* [[Houston|Houston, Texas]] – [[History of Mexican Americans in Houston|Third-largest Mexican ancestry community]] in the United States.<ref name="census">{{Cite web|url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=houston+texas+hispanic+or+latino&tid=ACSDP1Y2019.DP05&hidePreview=false|title=Explore Census Data|website=data.census.gov|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref>
* [[San Angelo, Texas|San Angelo]] with other areas of [[West Texas]], home to [[Tejanos]]. 53% of San Antonio is of Mexican descent, highest percentage of any city with a population of over 1 million.
* [[El Paso, Texas|El Paso]] – Largest Mexican-American community bordering a state of Mexico. 74% of El Paso is of Mexican descent, highest percentage of any city with a population of over 500k.
* [[South Texas]] – Heavily populated by Mexican-Americans, who are the ethnic majority, in a region spanning from [[Laredo, Texas|Laredo]] to [[Corpus Christi, Texas|Corpus Christi]] to [[Brownsville, Texas|Brownsville]].
*
===Wisconsin===
* [[Milwaukee County, Wisconsin|Milwaukee County]]
** [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee city]]
=== Other states ===
* [[Las Vegas]], Nevada
** [[North Las Vegas, Nevada|North Las Vegas]] – 30.14% Mexican<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zipatlas.com/us/nv/city-comparison/percentage-mexican-population.htm|title=Percentage of Mexican Population in Nevada by City | 2023 | Zip Atlas|website=zipatlas.com|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nCuVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT85|title=The Peoples Of Las Vegas: One City, Many Faces|isbn=9780874176513 |last1=Simich |first1=Jerry L. |last2=Wright |first2=Thomas C. |date=7 March 2005 |publisher=University of Nevada Press }}</ref>
* [[Yakima Valley AVA|The Yakima Valley]] and [[Tri-Cities, Washington]] – This region of
*
*
* [[Atlanta]] – Atlanta has a sizable Mexican population. Mexicans are the largest Hispanic ethnic group in Atlanta.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Odem |first1=Mary |last2=Browne |first2=Irene |title=Understanding the Diversity Of Atlanta's Latino Population: Intersections of Race, Ethnicity, and Class |journal=Norteamérica, Revista Académica del CISAN-UNAM |date=19 December 2011 |volume=6 |doi=10.22201/cisan.24487228e.2011.3.147 |doi-broken-date=31 January 2024 |url=https://www.revistanorteamerica.unam.mx/index.php/nam/article/view/147 }}</ref> Mexicans are concentrated in [[Gwinnett County]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://documents.atlantaregional.com/gawsnapshots/mexican.pdf|title=Mexicans|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref>
* [[New Orleans]] – Mexicans are one of the largest Hispanic groups in New Orleans following Hondurans.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.aag.org/a-glance-at-new-orleans-contemporary-hispanic-and-latino-communities/|title= A Glance at New Orleans' Contemporary Hispanic and Latino Communities|date= 2 October 2017}}</ref>
*
*
*
* [[Bridgeport]] and [[New Haven]],
=== Other US destinations ===
[[File:Flickr bargas 2306893354--Ninfas on Navigation.jpg|thumb|Original [[Ninfa's]] on Navigation Boulevard, established by [[Ninfa Laurenzo]]]]
Major cities like [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]],
===US states by Mexican American population===
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| {{flag|Florida}} ||align="right"| 707,301 ||align="right"| 3.2%
|-
|| {{flagicon|Georgia (U.S. state)}}
|-
| {{flag|Hawaii}} ||align="right"| 42,941 ||align="right"| 2.9%
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|}
=== Metropolitan areas with the largest Mexican populations ===
The largest populations of Mexicans are situated in the following metropolitan areas (Source: 2020 ACS 5-Year Estimates):<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDP5Y2020.DP05?g=310XX00US35300|title=Explore Census Data|website=data.census.gov|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT5Y2020.B03001?q=B03001:+HISPANIC+OR+LATINO+ORIGIN+BY+SPECIFIC+ORIGIN&g=310XX00US21340|title=Explore Census Data|website=data.census.gov|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/mexican-immigrants-united-states|title=Article: Mexican Immigrants in the United States | migrationpolicy.org|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref>
{{div col start}}
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# [[Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex|Dallas–Fort Worth, TX MSA]] – 1,758,882
# [[Chicago metropolitan area|Chicago-Joliet-Naperville, IL-IN-WI MSA]] – 1,639,211
# [[Phoenix metropolitan area|Phoenix, AZ MSA]]
# [[Greater San Antonio|San Antonio, TX MSA]] – 1,215,420
# [[San Diego County, California|San Diego, CA MSA]] – 988,825
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=== Diabetes ===
[[File:Francisco_Cigarroa_Nima2.JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[Francisco G. Cigarroa]] is a distinguished physician and academic leader who has made significant contributions to healthcare and medical education, particularly in Texas]]
[[Diabetes mellitus|Diabetes]] refers to a disease in which the body has an inefficiency of properly responding to [[insulin]], which then affects the levels of glucose. The prevalence of diabetes in the United States is constantly rising. Common types of Diabetes are [[Diabetes mellitus type 1|type 1]] and [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|type 2]]. [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|Type 2]] is the more common type of diabetes among Mexican Americans, and is constantly increasing due to poor diet habits.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Seligman|first1=Rebecca|last2=Mendenhall|first2=Emily|last3=Valdovinos|first3=Maria D.|last4=Fernandez|first4=Alicia|last5=Jacobs|first5=Elizabeth A.|date=March 2015|title=Self-care and Subjectivity among Mexican Diabetes Patients in the United States|journal=Medical Anthropology Quarterly|volume=29|issue=1|pages=61–79|doi=10.1111/maq.12107|issn=0745-5194|pmid=24942832}}</ref> The increase of [[obesity]] results in an increase of [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|type 2 diabetes]] among Mexican Americans in the United States. Mexican American men have higher prevalence rates in comparison to non-Latinos, whites and blacks.<ref name="Martorell-2004">{{cite journal|last=Martorell|first=Reynaldo|date=2004-12-15|title=Diabetes and Mexicans: Why the Two Are Linked|journal=Preventing Chronic Disease|volume=2|issue=1|pages=A04|issn=1545-1151|pmc=1323307|pmid=15670457}}</ref> "The prevalence of diabetes increased from 8.9% in 1976–1980 to 12.3% in 1988–94 among adults aged 40 to 74" according to the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994.<ref name="Martorell-2004" /> In a 2014 study, The US Census Bureau estimates that by 2050, one in three people living in the United States will be of Latino origin including Mexican Americans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.diabetes.org/newsroom/press-releases/2014/diabetes-among-hispanics-all-are-not-equal.html|title=Diabetes Among Hispanics: All Are Not Equal|last1=Drive|first1=American Diabetes Association 2451 Crystal|last2=Arlington|first2=Suite 900|website=American Diabetes Association|access-date=2018-12-09|last3=Va 22202 1-800-Diabetes|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210110837/http://www.diabetes.org/newsroom/press-releases/2014/diabetes-among-hispanics-all-are-not-equal.html|archive-date=2018-12-10|url-status=dead}}</ref> Type 2 diabetes prevalence is rising due to many risk factors and there are still many cases of pre-diabetes and undiagnosed diabetes due to lack of sources. According to the US Department of Health and Human Services (2011), individuals of Mexican descent are 50% more likely to die from diabetes than their white counterparts.<ref name="Martorell-2004" />
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There are several risk factors that put Mexican Americans at a higher risk of obtaining [[type 2 diabetes]]. Among these risks factors are genetics and family history, diet, low levels of physical activity, low socioeconomic status, and lack of access to healthcare.
===== Genetics and Family
Due to genetics, Mexican Americans are
In a study done in 2010, called "Diabetes Risk Assessment in Mexicans and Mexican Americans: Effects of Parental History of Diabetes are Modified by Adiposity Level," it was found that there was a significant and positive association between parental history of diabetes and developing [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|type 2 diabetes]] showing more evidence for the genetic basis of diabetes. <ref name="Shatkin-2017">{{cite journal|last=Hsueh|first=Wen-Chi|last2=Hernandez-Avila|first2=Mauricio|last3=Burguete-Garcia|first3=Ana I.|last4=Peart|first4=Tasha|last5=Charlton|first5=R. William|last6=Mondragon|first6=Hector E. Velasco|date=2010-10-01|title=Diabetes Risk Assessment in Mexicans and Mexican Americans: Effects of parental history of diabetes are modified by adiposity level|url=http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/33/10/2260|journal=Diabetes Care|volume=33|issue=10|pages=2260–2265|doi=10.2337/dc10-0992|issn=1935-5548|pmid=20628089|pmc=2945171}}</ref> Results showed that the effects of positive parental diabetes history was further emphasized in subjects that had a lower [[Body mass index|BMI]]. This is why in the non-overweight group that was tested, subjects that had either a mother or father with diabetes, had about 3.3 to 3.4 times the risk of developing diabetes compared with those that had no diabetic parents. When there was a parental history where both parents had diabetes, this risk increased to about 7.9 times. <ref name="Shatkin-2017" />
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===== Diet =====
Diet is another risk factor for [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|type 2 diabetes]] in Mexican Americans. In a study of dietary patterns in Mexican Americans with Obesity conducted in 2007, it was found that this population has four main dietary patterns: poultry and alcohol, Milk and baked products, traditional Mexican, and meat.<ref name="Dictionary.com">{{cite journal|date=2007-10-01|title=A Study of Dietary Patterns in the Mexican-American Population and Their Association with Obesity|journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association|volume=107|issue=10|pages=1735–1742|doi=10.1016/j.jada.2007.07.016|issn=0002-8223 | last1 = Carrera | first1 = Patricia M. | last2 = Gao | first2 = Xiang | last3 = Tucker | first3 = Katherine L.}}</ref> It was found that within these dietary patterns there was no distinct healthy pattern group. The contribution of fruit and vegetables combined ranged from about 7% to 12% which is not enough.
The unhealthy dietary patterns followed by the Mexican American population has led to a prevalence of [[obesity]] and being [[overweight]]. In the study, it was found that all of the four dietary patterns were characterized by a high mean [[Body mass index|BMI]].<ref name="Dictionary.com" /> Body fat distribution which is measured by the [[Body mass index|BMI]] should be within a normal range to prevent any serious health conditions from developing. According to the American Heart Association, it was concluded that too much fat around the waist area is associated with a higher risk for health problems like [[Hypertension|high blood pressure]], [[Hypercholesterolemia|high blood cholesterol]], [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|type 2 diabetes]], [[Cardiovascular disease|heart disease]] and
===== Low levels of Physical Activity =====
Low levels of physical activity is also a risk factor that contributes to [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|type 2 diabetes]] in Mexican Americans. Physical activity is important to maintain a healthy lifestyle and it also has many benefits that help to prevent diseases like type 2 diabetes from developing. A 2005 behavioral risk factor surveillance system reported that nationally more [[Hispanic
===== Lack of Access to Healthcare =====
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==== Prevention ====
[[Prevention of diabetes mellitus type 2|Prevention]] is important
==Notable people==
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==See also==
{{Portal|United States|Mexico|Hispanic and Latino Americans}}
* [[Americans]]
* [[Mexicans]]
* [[Indigenous Mexican Americans]]
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* ''[[McFarland, USA]]''
* [[Spare Parts (2015 film)|''Spare Parts'' (2015 film)]]
* [[The Long Game (film)|''The Long Game'' (film)]]
* ''[[Tortilla Soup]]''
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==Bibliography/further reading==
{{main|Mexican American bibliography}}
* [[Jay P. Dolan|Dolan, Jay P.]], and Gilberto M. Hinojosa, eds. ''Mexican Americans and the Catholic Church,
* Englekirk, Allan, and Marguerite Marín. "Mexican Americans." ''Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America,'' edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 3, Gale, 2014), pp. 195–217. [https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3273300123/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=ab7d2d8e online]
* Gomez, Laura. [[Manifest Destinies: The Making of the Mexican American Race]] (New York UP, 2007). {{ISBN|978-0-8147-3174-1}}
* Gómez-Quiñones, Juan, and Irene Vásquez. ''Making Aztlán: Ideology and Culture of the Chicana and Chicano Movement,
* Meier, Matt S., and Margo Gutiérrez. ''Encyclopedia of the Mexican American civil rights movement'' (Greenwood 2000) [https://www.questia.com/library/120072171/encyclopedia-of-the-mexican-american-civil-rights online]
* Quiroz, Anthony (ed.), ''Leaders of the Mexican American Generation: Biographical Essays.'' Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado, 2015.
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==External links==
{{sister project links|d=Q581921|wikt=Mexican American|c=Mexican American|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|species=no}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721213311/http://www.library.ucsb.edu/speccoll/collections/cema/listguides.html#Chicano California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives – In the Chicano/Latino Collections]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090422084217/http://www.library.ucsb.edu/speccoll/collections/cema/digitalChicanoArt.html California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives – Digital Chicano Art]
* [http://www.calisphere.universityofcalifornia.edu/calcultures/ethnic_groups/ethnic3.html Calisphere > California Cultures > Hispanic Americans] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720093228/http://www.calisphere.universityofcalifornia.edu/calcultures/ethnic_groups/ethnic3.html |date=2011-07-20 }}
* [http://cemaweb.library.ucsb.edu/project_description.html ImaginArte – Interpreting and Re-imaging Chican@Art]
* [https://mexican-american.org Mexican American News – Network of the Mexican American Community]
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761587500_1/Mexican_Americans.html Mexican Americans MSN Encarta] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20090619011021/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761587500_1/Mexican_Americans.html Archived] 2009-11-01)
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