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{{main|History of Mexican Americans}}
[[File:Southwestern_Chillis_and_Skull.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Symbols of the Southwest: a string of chili peppers (a [[ristra]]) and a bleached white cow's skull hang in a market near [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]].]]
In 1900, there were slightly more than 500,000 [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|
New Mexico [[Hispanos of New Mexico|Hispanos]] were a notably large majority of the southwest US population. The vast majority of Hispanos are genetically Mestizo with varying degrees of Spanish ancestry, as well as ancestry from [[Puebloans|Pueblos]] and various North American Indigenous tribes. [[New Mexico]] was far more populated since the 16th century in comparison to Texas & California.
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{{bar percent|'''Total'''|Blue|100}}
|caption=
}} This identification as "some other race" reflects activism among Mexican Americans as claiming a cultural status and working for their rights in the United States, as well as the separation due to different language and culture.
The barrier that the language places on people who are immigrating from Mexico is difficult due to the importance that is placed around knowing how to speak English. The lack of support from surrounding people places an even more difficult strain given that there is not much remorse or yet very little patience that comes from those who these Mexican immigrants may find themselves seeking aid from.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lievano |first1=Wilson |title=The Impact of Language Barriers for Latinos Across America |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/news/photos/articles/2023-09-15/the-impact-of-language-barriers-for-latinos-across-america |website=usnews.com |publisher=usnews |access-date=December 11, 2023}}</ref>
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{{cite web| url = http://www.genealogybranches.com/1930census.html| title = US Population in the 1930 Census by Race| year= 2002| access-date = December 7, 2006}}</ref>
* In the 1940 census, due to widespread protests by the Mexican American community following the 1930 changes, Mexican Americans were re-classified as ''White''. Instructions for enumerators were: "Mexicans – Report 'White' (W) for Mexicans unless they are definitely of Indigenous or other non-white race." During the same census, however, the bureau began to track the ''White population of Spanish mother tongue''. This practice continued through the 1960 census.<ref name="historical census"/> The 1960 census also used the title "Spanish-surnamed American" in their reporting data of Mexican Americans; this category also covered Cuban Americans, Puerto Ricans and others under the same category.
* From 1970 to 1980, there was a dramatic increase in the number of people who identified as "of Other Race" in the census, reflecting the addition of a question on 'Latino origin' to the 100-percent questionnaire, an increased propensity for Latinos to identify as other than White as they agitated for civil rights, and a change in editing procedures to accept reports of "Other race" for respondents who wrote in ethnic
** Spanish speakers and persons belonging to a household where the head of household was a Spanish speaker
** persons with Spanish heritage by birth location or surname
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==Demographics==
[[File:Janet_Murguía_NCLR_President_and_CEO.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Janet Murguía]] is president of [[UnidosUS]], the United States' largest
Mexican Americans are concentrated in California (34%), Texas (26%) and Arizona (5%).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/fact-sheet/us-hispanics-facts-on-mexican-origin-latinos/|title=Facts on Hispanics of Mexican origin in the United States, 2021|first1=Mohamad|last1=Moslimani|first2=Luis|last2=Noe-Bustamante|first3=Sono|last3=Shah|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref>
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During World War II, more than 300,000 Mexican Americans served in the US armed forces.<ref name="autogenerated8" /> Mexican Americans were generally integrated into regular military units; however, many Mexican–American War veterans were discriminated against and even denied medical services by the [[United States Department of Veterans Affairs]] when they arrived home.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In 1948, war veteran [[Hector P. Garcia]] founded the [[American GI Forum]] to address the concerns of Mexican American veterans who were being discriminated against. The AGIF's first campaign was on the behalf of [[Felix Longoria]], a Mexican American private who was killed in the Philippines while in the line of duty. Upon the return of his body to his hometown of [[Three Rivers, Texas]], he was denied funeral services because of his nationality.
The [[Zoot Suit Riots]] took place from June 3–8, 1943, in Los Angeles involving white American servicemen stationed in Southern California and young Latino and Mexican American city residents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/zoot-suit-riots|title=Zoot Suits Riots|website=History.comdate=December 14, 2023 |date=9 August 2023 }}</ref> It was one of the dozen wartime industrial cities that suffered race-related riots in the summer of 1943. White servicemen and white [[Angelenos]] attacked and stripped children, teenagers, and youths who wore [[zoot suit]]s. While most of the violence was directed toward Mexican American youth, [[African Americans|African American]] and [[Filipino Americans|Filipino American]] youths who were wearing zoot suits were also attacked.<ref>{{cite book | last=Peiss | first=Kathy | year=2011 | page=33 | title=Zoot Suit | publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press | isbn=
9780812223033 | quote=Over the next few days, crowds of white civilians joined in the rampage, targeting mainly Mexican American youths but also some African Americans and Filipinos.}}</ref> The defiance of zoot suiters became inspirational for [[Chicano]]s during the [[Chicano Movement]] that worked to embrace a Chicano identity and worldview that combated structural [[Racism in the United States|racism]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sandoval|first=Denise M.|title=Black and Brown in Los Angeles: Beyond Conflict and Coalition|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|location=Berkeley, California|year=2013|isbn=9780520956872|editor-last=Kun|editor-first=Josh|pages=197|chapter=The Politics of Low and Slow/Bajito y Suavecito: Black and Chicano Lowriders in Los Angeles, from the 1960s through the 1970s|editor-last2=Pulido|editor-first2=Laura}}</ref>
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In 1971, U.S. president [[Richard Nixon]] is recorded exhibiting prejudice toward Mexican Americans and African Americans. Referring to Latinos he states, "At the present time they steal, they're dishonest, but they do have some concept of family life. They don't live like a bunch of dogs, which the Negroes do live like."<ref>{{cite news |title=Nixon On Tape Expounds On Welfare And Homosexuality |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1999-11-07-9911070165-story.html |access-date=December 14, 2023 |work=Chicago Tribune}}</ref>
In 2006, ''Time'' magazine reported that the number of hate groups in the United States increased by 33% since 2000, with illegal immigration being used as a foundation for recruitment.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1198895,00.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060616064019/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1198895,00.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=June 16, 2006 | magazine=Time | title=How Immigration is Rousing the Zealots | date=May 29, 2006 | access-date=May 12, 2010 | first=Jeffrey | last=Ressner}}</ref> According to the 2011 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Hate Crimes Statistics Report, 56.9% of the 939 victims of crimes motivated by a bias toward the victims' ethnicity or national origin were directed at Latinos.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate-crime/2011/narratives/victims|title=Victims|website=Fbi.gov|access-date=7 October 2017}}</ref> In California, the state with the largest Mexican American population, the number of hate crimes committed against Latinos almost doubled from 2003 to 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.democracynow.org/2007/12/5/fbi_statistics_show_anti_latino_hate |title=FBI Statistics Show Anti-Latino Hate Crimes on the Rise |publisher=Democracy Now! |access-date=2014-01-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ccsre.stanford.edu/reports/exec_summary5.pdf |title=Latino Communities of the Central Valley: Population, Families, and Households|access-date=2008-03-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216020854/http://ccsre.stanford.edu/reports/exec_summary5.pdf |archive-date=2008-02-16 }}</ref> In 2011, hate crimes against
In 2015, future president [[Donald Trump]] offended Mexican Americans by stating "They're bringing drugs. They're bringing crime. They're rapists. And some, I assume, are good people." He built the [[Trump wall]] to prevent undocumented Mexican immigrants from entering the United States.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://time.com/4473972/donald-trump-mexico-meeting-insult/|title=Here Are All the Times Donald Trump Insulted Mexico|first=Katie|last=Reilly|date=31 August 2016|magazine=Time|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=18BEEAAAQBAJ&q=donald+trump+%22mexican+americans%22+discrimination|title=Trumpism, Mexican America, and the Struggle for Latinx Citizenship|first1=Phillip B.|last1=Gonzales|first2=Renato|last2=Rosaldo|first3=Mary Louise|last3=Pratt|date=15 October 2021|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|isbn=9780826362858 |accessdate=4 December 2023|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/amp/ncna952011|title=Trump's border wall was never just about security. It's meant to remind all Latinos that we're unwelcome.|website=[[NBC News]] |date=28 December 2018 }}</ref>
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[[File:CornmealProducts.jpg|left|thumb|[[Mexican food]] has become part of the mainstream American market, just as [[Italian food]] did decades before and assimilated to the American market like [[Tex-Mex]].]]
According to James P. Smith, the children and grandchildren of
Huntington (2005) argues that the sheer number, concentration, linguistic homogeneity, and other characteristics of Latin American immigrants will erode the dominance of English as a nationally unifying language, weaken the country's dominant cultural values, and promote ethnic allegiances over a primary identification as an American. Testing these hypotheses with data from the US Census and national and Los Angeles opinion surveys, Citrin et al. (2007) show that Latinos generally acquire English and lose Spanish rapidly beginning with the second generation, and appear to be no more or less religious or committed to the work ethic than native-born non-Mexican American whites. However, the children and grandchildren of Mexican immigrants were able to make close ties with their extended families in Mexico, since United States shares a 2,000 mile border with Mexico. Many had the opportunity to visit Mexico on a relatively frequent basis. As a result, many Mexicans were able to maintain a strong Mexican culture, language, and relationship with others.<ref>{{cite book|last=LeeAnne|first=Gelletly|title=Mexican Immigration|publisher=Mason Crest|location=Philadelphia}}</ref>
South et al. (2005) examine
{{clear}}
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According to 2000 census data, US-born ethnic Mexicans have a high degree of [[Interracial marriage in the United States|intermarriage]] with [[non-Hispanic whites|non-Latino whites]]. Based on a sample size of 38,911 US-born Mexican husbands and 43,527 US-born Mexican wives:<ref name="Borjas1">{{cite book |last1=Borjas |first1=George J. |title=Mexican Immigration to the United States |date=2007 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-06668-4 |page=244 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_iONl31AMQYC&pg=PA244 }}</ref>
* 50.6% of US-born Mexican men and 45.3% of US-born Mexican women were married to US-born Mexicans;<ref name=Borjas1 />
* 26.7% of US-born Mexican men and 28.1% of US-born Mexican women were married to non-
* 13.6% of US-born Mexican men and 17.4% of US-born Mexican women were married to Mexico-born Mexicans.<ref name=Borjas1 />
In addition, based on 2000 data, there is a significant amount of ethnic absorption of ethnic Mexicans into the mainstream population with 16% of the children of mixed marriages not being identified in the census as Mexican.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_iONl31AMQYC&pg=PA244 ''Mexican Immigration to the United States'' edited by George J. Borjas] page 252 | retrieved March 20, 2013</ref>
A study done by the National Research Council (US) Panel on
=== Double-Marginalization ===
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==Segregation issues==
===Housing market practices===
Studies have shown that the segregation among Mexican Americans and Mexican immigrants seems to be declining. One study from 1984 found that Mexican American applicants were offered the same housing terms and conditions as non-
===Battle of Chavez Ravine===
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The '''[[Battle of Chavez Ravine]]''' has several meanings, but often refers to controversy surrounding government acquisition of land largely owned by Mexican Americans in [[Los Angeles]]' [[Chavez Ravine]] over approximately ten years (1951–1961). The eventual result was the removal of the entire population of Chavez Ravine from land on which Dodger Stadium was later constructed.<ref name="Shatkin-2017">{{cite web|url=https://www.scpr.org/news/2017/10/31/77135/remembering-dodger-stadium-when-it-was-chavez-ravi/|title=What Dodger Stadium looked like when it was Chavez Ravine|last=Radio|first=Southern California Public|date=2017-10-31|website=Southern California Public Radio|access-date=2019-10-05}}</ref> The great majority of the Chavez Ravine land was acquired to make way for proposed public housing. The public housing plan that had been advanced as politically "progressive" and had resulted in the removal of the Mexican American landowners of Chavez Ravine, was abandoned after passage of a public referendum prohibiting the original housing proposal and election of a conservative Los Angeles mayor opposed to public housing. Years later, the land acquired by the government in Chavez Ravine was dedicated by the city of Los Angeles as the site of what is now [[Dodger Stadium]].<ref name="Shatkin-2017" />
===
[[File:East LA Interchange map.svg|thumb|right|alt=Map of East LA Interchange|Viramontes' childhood neighborhood was divided by the East LA interchange in the early 1960s. The novel ''[[Their Dogs Came with Them]]'' focuses on the freeway construction and difficult conditions for the Mexican Americans living in this area at the time.]]
When comparing the contemporary segregation of Mexican Americans to that of Black Americans, some scholars claim that "
Legally, Mexican Americans could vote and hold elected office, however, it was not until the creation of organizations such as the League of United Latin America Citizens and the G.I. Forum that Mexican Americans began to achieve political influence. [[Edward R. Roybal|Edward Roybal's]] election to the Los Angeles City Council in 1949 and then to Congress in 1962 also represented this rising Mexican American political power.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.house.gov/People/Listing/R/ROYBAL,-Edward-R--(R000485)/|title=ROYBAL, Edward R. {{!}} US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives|website=history.house.gov|access-date=2019-10-05}}</ref> In the late 1960s the founding of the Crusade for Justice in Denver in and the land grant movement in New Mexico in 1967 set the bases for what would become the Chicano (Mexican American) nationalism. The 1968 Los Angeles school walkouts expressed Mexican American demands to end segregation, increase graduation rates, and reinstate a teacher fired for supporting student organizing. A notable event in the Chicano movement was the 1972 Convention of La Raza Unida (United People) Party, which organized with the goal of creating a third party that would give Chicanos political power in the United States.<ref name="Mexican American voters"/>
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This model of immigration and residential segregation, explained above, is the model which has historically been accurate in describing the experiences of Latino immigrants. However, the patterns of immigration seen today no longer follows this model. This old model is termed the standard spatial assimilation model. More contemporary models are the polarization model and the diffusion model: The spatial assimilation model posits that as immigrants would live within this country's borders, they would simultaneously become more comfortable in their new surroundings, their socioeconomic status would rise, and their ability to speak English would increase. The combination of these changes would allow for the immigrant to move out of the barrio and into the dominant society. This type of assimilation reflects the experiences of immigrants of the early twentieth century.<ref name="autogenerated9" />
Polarization model suggests that the immigration of non-black minorities into the United States further separates blacks and whites, as though the new immigrants are a buffer between them. This creates a hierarchy in which blacks are at the bottom, whites are at the top, and other groups fill the middle. In other words, the polarization model posits that Asians and
The diffusion model has also been suggested as a way of describing the immigrant's experience within the United States. This model is rooted in the belief that as time passes, more and more immigrants enter the country. This model suggests that as the United States becomes more populated with a more diverse set of peoples, stereotypes and discriminatory practices will decrease, as awareness and acceptance increase. The diffusion model predicts that new immigrants will break down old patterns of discrimination and prejudice, as one becomes more and more comfortable with the more diverse neighborhoods that are created through the influx of immigrants.<ref name="autogenerated6" /> Applying this model to the experiences of Mexican Americans forces one to see Mexican American immigrants as positive additions to the "American melting pot", in which as more additions are made to the pot, the more equal and accepting society will become.
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=== California ===
* [[Los Angeles, California]] area – [[History of the Mexican Americans in Los Angeles|The city proper is home to over 1.2 million of Mexican ancestry]], another 2.3 million throughout [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]], and a total of about 6.3 million in the five-county [[Greater Los Angeles Area]]. Unsurprisingly, it has the largest Mexican American population in the United States. (according to the 2010 census, L.A. is now 31.9% of Mexican descent with numerous [[Central American]] national groups).
** [[East Los Angeles, California]] – Unincorporated community of roughly 130,000, name synonymous with Mexican Americans, 97%
** [[Montebello, California]] – Over 62% of the population is Mexican.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.infoplease.com/us/california/demographic-statistics-119 |title = Demographic Statistics for Montebello, California}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://maps.latimes.com/neighborhoods/neighborhood/montebello/|title=Montebello|website=Mapping L.A.|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref>
** [[Culver City, California]] – Also the site of the infamous [[Zoot Suit Riots]] in 1943.
** [[Long Beach, California]] – Third largest city in [[Southern California]], one of many cities in the region with a large Mexican/Latin American population.
** [[South Gate, California]] – Over 70.77% of the population is Mexican or Mexican American.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://zipatlas.com/us/ca/city-comparison/percentage-mexican-population.htm | title=Cities with the Highest Percentage of Mexicans in California | Zip Atlas}}</ref>
** [[La Puente, California]] – About two-thirds are of Mexican ancestry or
** [[Downey, California]] - Between 45 and 50% are of Mexican descent.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.latimes.com/local/la-me-downey-latinos-20150805-story.html |title = Latinos' rising fortunes are epitomized in Downey|website = [[Los Angeles Times]]|date = 2015-08-05}}</ref>
** [[San Gabriel Valley]] – There is a large Mexican American community in San Gabriel Valley cities such as [[West Covina]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology, and Identity, 1930-1960}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Mexican American Baseball in the Central Coast|page=89}}</ref>
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* [[San Diego]], California – slightly less than one-third of the city's population is Latino, primarily Mexican American, making it the lowest percentage of Latinos of any significant border city.
* [[Imperial Valley]] region ([[Imperial County, California]] and [[Yuma, Arizona]]).
* [[San Francisco Bay Area]] – also with over one million
** [[East Palo Alto, California|East Palo Alto]]
** [[Half Moon Bay, California|Half Moon Bay]]
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** [[Redwood City, California|Redwood City]]
** [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] – California's third largest Mexican-American city by percentage (over 25%) after Long Beach (about 30%). Many live in the [[Fruitvale, Oakland|Fruitvale]] district.
** [[San Jose, California|San Jose]] – Nearly one-third of the city's population is Mexican American or of
** [[South San Francisco, California|South San Francisco]]
* [[Central Valley of California]] both the [[Sacramento Valley|Sacramento]] and [[San Joaquin Valley]]s have majority Mexican American communities. Examples being [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] and [[Fresno, California|Fresno]], and the heaviest concentrations in [[Kern County, California]] around [[Bakersfield, California|Bakersfield]].
=== Colorado ===
* [[Denver]] – Colorado has the eighth largest population of
* [[Greeley, Colorado|Greeley]] – Over one-third of the city's population is
** [[Garden City, Colorado|Garden City]] is
* [[Demographics of Colorado|Southern Colorado]] is home to many communities of
** [[San Luis Valley]] – The San Luis Valley has many towns with large Mexican-American populations. [[Antonito, Colorado|Antonito]], [[Blanca, Colorado|Blanca]], [[Center, Colorado|Center]], [[Del Norte, Colorado|Del Norte]], [[Fort Garland, Colorado|Fort Garland]], [[Monte Vista, Colorado|Monte Vista]] and [[Romeo, Colorado|Romeo]] are all
===Illinois===
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* [[El Paso, Texas|El Paso]] – Largest Mexican-American community bordering a state of Mexico. 74% of El Paso is of Mexican descent, highest percentage of any city with a population of over 500k.
* [[South Texas]] – Heavily populated by Mexican-Americans, who are the ethnic majority, in a region spanning from [[Laredo, Texas|Laredo]] to [[Corpus Christi, Texas|Corpus Christi]] to [[Brownsville, Texas|Brownsville]].
* [[Harlingen, Texas]] – The
===Wisconsin===
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=== Other states ===
* [[Las Vegas]], Nevada - 70% of
** [[North Las Vegas, Nevada|North Las Vegas]] – 30.14% Mexican<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zipatlas.com/us/nv/city-comparison/percentage-mexican-population.htm|title=Percentage of Mexican Population in Nevada by City | 2023 | Zip Atlas|website=zipatlas.com|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nCuVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT85|title=The Peoples Of Las Vegas: One City, Many Faces|isbn=9780874176513 |last1=Simich |first1=Jerry L. |last2=Wright |first2=Thomas C. |date=7 March 2005 |publisher=University of Nevada Press }}</ref>
* [[Yakima Valley AVA|The Yakima Valley]] and [[Tri-Cities, Washington]] – This region of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] contains many communities of Mexican-American majority thanks to high demand for agricultural labor.
* [[New York City]] – Mexicans are the third largest
* [[Oklahoma]] - [[Oklahoma City]] and [[Tulsa]] have sizable growing Mexican populations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zipatlas.com/us/ok/city-comparison/percentage-mexican-population.htm|title=Percentage of Mexican Population in Oklahoma by City | 2023 | Zip Atlas|website=zipatlas.com|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref>
* [[Atlanta]] – Atlanta has a sizable Mexican population. Mexicans are the largest
* [[New Orleans]] – Mexicans are one of the largest
* [[Kansas]] – There is a large Mexican American presence in Kansas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kshs.org/kansapedia/mexican-americans-in-kansas/17874|title=Mexican Americans in Kansas - Kansapedia - Kansas Historical Society|website=www.kshs.org|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref>
* [[Detroit]] – In the early 1900s, many Mexican American families moved to Michigan and Detroit. The epicenter of Detroit's Mexican American community is [[Mexicantown, Detroit|Mexicantown]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hsmichigan.org/mexicantown|title=Mexicantown | Historical Society of Michigan|website=www.hsmichigan.org|accessdate=4 December 2023}}</ref>
* [[New Jersey]] The North Jersey region (nicknamed "Puebla Jersey" by migrants) is home to Mexican migrants and their descendants primarily from the states of Puebla and Oaxaca. The largest Mexican community is found in the small city of [[Passaic, New Jersey|Passaic]], where roughly a quarter of the city's population is of Mexican origin, where Mexicans began to arrive in the 1970s to work in mills.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/passaic-puebla-connection-new-jersey-enclave-rooted-in-one-mexican-state-1409965651 | title=Passaic-Puebla Connection: New Jersey Enclave Rooted in One Mexican State | newspaper=Wall Street Journal | date=6 September 2014 | last1=Haddon | first1=Heather | last2=Roman | first2=Esteban }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/new-jersey-city-has-mexican-flavor-of-the-state-of-puebla/ | title=New Jersey city has Mexican flavor of the state of Puebla | date=20 July 2017 }}</ref>
* [[Bridgeport]] and [[New Haven]], [[Connecticut]] have the 1st and 3rd largest Mexican populations in the [[New England]] region respectively in 2020 (alongside [[Boston]] at #2), despite being much smaller cities. The Mexican population of these respective cities began to grow in the 1990s from the tens into the hundreds, to around 8,000 each by 2020. New Haven has thousands of migrants from [[Tlaxcala]] (some of whom are reported [[Nahuatl]] speakers),<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.elalliance.org/languages/nahuatl | title=Nahuatl }}</ref> where New Haven is the primary destination for migrants. Mexicans are the second largest
=== Other US destinations ===
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