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{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Short description|Excessive preoccupation with oneself}}
{{for|the clinical disorder|Narcissistic personality disorder}}
{{Other uses|Narcissism (disambiguation)}}
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[[File:Michelangelo Caravaggio 065.jpg|thumb|250px|''[[Narcissus (Caravaggio)|Narcissus]]'' (1597–99) by [[Caravaggio]]; the man in love with his own reflection]]
'''Narcissism''' is a self
Narcissism exists on a continuum that ranges from normal to [[abnormal personality]] expression.<ref name="Zlatan">{{cite journal | vauthors = Krizan Z, Herlache AD | title = The Narcissism Spectrum Model: A Synthetic View of Narcissistic Personality | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Review | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–31 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 28132598 | doi = 10.1177/1088868316685018 | s2cid = 206682971 | doi-access = free }}</ref> While many psychologists believe that a moderate degree of narcissism is [[healthy narcissism|normal and healthy]] in humans, there are also more extreme forms, observable particularly in people who are excessively self-absorbed, or who have a mental illness like [[narcissistic personality disorder]] (NPD), where the narcissistic tendency has become pathological
==Historical background==
The term ''narcissism''
The concept of excessive [[selfishness]] has been recognized throughout history. In ancient Greece, the concept was understood as [[hubris]].<ref>{{
It was not until the late 1800s that narcissism began to be defined in psychological terms.<ref name="millon">{{cite book
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In 1889, psychiatrists [[Paul Näcke]] and [[Havelock Ellis]] used the term "narcissism", independently of each other, to describe a person who treats
In an essay in 1913 called "The [[God
[[Sigmund Freud]] (1914) published his theory of narcissism in a lengthy essay titled "[[On Narcissism|On Narcissism: An Introduction]]". For Freud, narcissism refers to the individual's direction of [[libido|libidinal energy]] toward themselves rather than objects and others. He postulated a universal "primary narcissism", that was a phase of sexual development in early infancy – a necessary intermediate stage between auto-eroticism and object-love, love for others. Portions of this 'self-love' or ego-libido are, at later stages of development, expressed outwardly, or "given off" toward others. Freud's postulation of a "secondary narcissism" came as a result of his observation of the peculiar nature of the schizophrenic's relation to themselves and the world. He observed that the two fundamental qualities of such patients were megalomania and withdrawal of interest from the real world of people and things: "the libido that has been withdrawn from the external world has been directed to the ego and thus gives rise to an attitude which may be called narcissism."<ref>{{cite web |title=On Narcissism, 1914 by Freud |url=https://www.sigmundfreud.net/on-narcissism.jsp |website=SigmundFreud.net |publisher=Sigmund Freud |access-date=14 December 2021 |archive-date=9 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809205222/https://sigmundfreud.net/on-narcissism.jsp |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Strachey">{{cite web |
In 1925, [[Robert Waelder]] conceptualized narcissism as a personality trait. His definition described individuals who are condescending, feel superior to others, are preoccupied with admiration, and exhibit a lack of empathy.<ref name="Levy">{{cite book | vauthors = Levy KN, Reynoso JS, Wasserman RH, Clarkin JF | chapter = Chapter 9, Narcissistic Personality Disorder | veditors = O'Donohue WT, Fowler KA, Lilienfeld SO |title=Personality Disorders: Toward the DSM-V |date=2007 |publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc |isbn=978-1-4129-0422-3 |page=235}}</ref> Waelder's work and his case study have been influential in the way narcissism and the clinical disorder narcissistic personality disorder are defined today.{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}} His patient was a successful scientist with an attitude of superiority, an obsession with fostering self-respect, and a lack of normal feelings of guilt. The patient was aloof and independent from others, had an inability to empathize with others, and was selfish sexually. Waelder's patient was also overly logical and analytical and valued abstract intellectual thought over the practical application of scientific knowledge.<ref name="Bergmann">{{cite book | vauthors = Bergmann MS |title=''Anatomy of Loving; Man's Quest to Know what Love'' I |date=1987 |publisher=Ballantine Books |isbn=978-0-449-90553-1 }}</ref>
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[[Karen Horney]] (1939) postulated that narcissism was on a spectrum that ranged from healthy self-esteem to a pathological state.<ref name="Levy"/>
The term entered the broader [[social consciousness]] following the publication of ''[[The Culture of Narcissism]]'' by [[Christopher Lasch]] in 1979.<ref name="Daum">{{cite news |
==Characteristics==
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===Normal and healthy levels of narcissism===
Some psychologists suggest that a moderate level of narcissism is supportive of good psychological health. Self-esteem works as a mediator between narcissism and psychological health. Therefore, because of their elevated self-esteem, deriving from self-perceptions of competence and likability, high narcissists are relatively free of worry and gloom.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sedikides C, Rudich EA, Gregg AP, Kumashiro M, Rusbult C | title = Are normal narcissists psychologically healthy?: self-esteem matters | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 87 | issue = 3 | pages = 400–416 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15382988 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.400 | s2cid = 12903591 | hdl = 1871/17274 | url = https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/155e777a-4d9d-4417-8cf2-f6e6403e2ee7 | access-date = 2022-11-20 | archive-date = 2023-08-02 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230802165625/https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/are-normal-narcissists-psychologically-healthy-self-esteem-matter | url-status = live }}</ref>
===Destructive levels of narcissism===
While narcissism, in and of itself, can be considered a normal personality trait, high levels of narcissistic behavior can be harmful to both self and others.<ref name="Kohut1971">{{Cite book | vauthors = Kohut H |title=The Analysis of the Self. A systematic approach to the psychoanalytic treatment of narcissistic personality disorders |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=1971 |location=London | isbn = 978-0-226-45014-8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vazire |first1=Simine |last2=Funder |first2=David C. |title=Impulsivity and the Self-Defeating Behavior of Narcissists |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review |date=May 2006 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=154–165 |doi=10.1207/s15327957pspr1002_4 |pmid=16768652 |s2cid=1924100 }}</ref> Destructive narcissism is the constant exhibition of a few of the intense characteristics usually associated with pathological
</ref>
===Pathological levels of narcissism===
{{Main|Narcissistic personality disorder}}
Extremely high levels of narcissistic behavior are considered [[Narcissistic personality disorder|pathological]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dashineau |first1=Samantha C. |last2=Edershile |first2=Elizabeth A. |last3=Simms |first3=Leonard J. |last4=Wright |first4=Aidan G. C. |title=Pathological narcissism and psychosocial functioning. |journal=Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment |date=September 2019 |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=473–478 |doi=10.1037/per0000347 |pmid=31259606 |pmc=6710132 }}</ref> The pathological condition of narcissism is a magnified, extreme manifestation of healthy narcissism.
===Heritability===
[[Heritability]] studies using twins have shown that narcissistic traits, as measured by standardized tests, are often inherited. Narcissism was found to have a high heritability score (0.64) indicating that the [[Concordance (genetics)|concordance]] of this trait in the identical twins was significantly influenced by genetics as compared to an environmental causation. It has also been shown that there is a continuum or spectrum of narcissistic traits ranging from normal to a pathological personality.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Livesley WJ, Jang KL, Jackson DN, Vernon PA | title = Genetic and environmental contributions to dimensions of personality disorder | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 150 | issue = 12 | pages = 1826–1831 | date = December 1993 | pmid = 8238637 | doi = 10.1176/ajp.150.12.1826 }}</ref><ref name = "DeWall_2011">{{Cite journal | vauthors = DeWall CN, Pond Jr RS, Campbell WK, Twenge JM |date=August 2011 |title=Tuning in to psychological change: Linguistic markers of psychological traits and emotions over time in popular U.S. song lyrics. |journal=Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=200–207 |doi=10.1037/a0023195 |issn=1931-390X|citeseerx=10.1.1.684.1672 }}</ref> Furthermore, evidence suggests that individual elements of narcissism have their own heritability score. For example, intrapersonal [[grandiosity]] has a score of 0.23, and interpersonal [[entitlement]] has a score of 0.35.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Luo YL, Cai H, Song H | title = A behavioral genetic study of intrapersonal and interpersonal dimensions of narcissism | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = e93403 | date = 2014-04-02 | pmid = 24695616 | pmc = 3973692 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0093403 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2014PLoSO...993403L }}</ref> While the genetic impact on narcissism levels is significant, it is not the only factor at play.
==Expressions of narcissism==
=== Primary
Two primary expressions of narcissism have been identified: grandiose ("thick-skinned") and vulnerable ("thin-skinned"). Recent accounts posit that the core of narcissism is self-centred antagonism (or "entitled self-importance"), namely selfishness, entitlement, lack of empathy, and devaluation of others.<ref name=":0">Crowe, M. L., Weiss, B., Lynam, D. R., Campbell, W. K., & Miller, J. D. (2022). Narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder: Moving toward a trifurcated model. ''Journal of Personality''.</ref> Grandiosity and vulnerability are seen as different expressions of this antagonistic core, arising from individual differences in the strength of the approach and avoidance motivational systems.<ref name=":1">Krizan, Z., & Herlache, A. D. (2018). The narcissism spectrum model: A synthetic view of narcissistic personality. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''22''(1), 3-31.</ref>
Narcissistic grandiosity is thought to arise from a combination of the antagonistic core with temperamental boldness—defined by positive emotionality, social dominance, reward-seeking and risk-taking. Grandiosity is defined—in addition to antagonism—by a confident, exhibitionistic and manipulative self-regulatory style
▲Narcissistic grandiosity is thought to arise from a combination of the antagonistic core with temperamental boldness—defined by positive emotionality, social dominance, reward-seeking and risk-taking. Grandiosity is defined—in addition to antagonism—by a confident, exhibitionistic and manipulative self-regulatory style.<ref name=":1" />
# High self-esteem and a clear sense of uniqueness and superiority, with fantasies of success and power, and lofty ambitions
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# Exploitative, self-serving relational dynamics; short-term relationship transactions defined by manipulation and privileging of personal gain over other benefits of socialisation
==== Vulnerable ====
Narcissistic vulnerability is thought to arise from a combination of the antagonistic core with temperamental reactivity—defined by negative emotionality, social avoidance, passivity and marked proneness to rage. Vulnerability is defined—in addition to antagonism—by a shy, vindictive and needy self-regulatory style
▲Narcissistic vulnerability is thought to arise from a combination of the antagonistic core with temperamental reactivity—defined by negative emotionality, social avoidance, passivity and marked proneness to rage. Vulnerability is defined—in addition to antagonism—by a shy, vindictive and needy self-regulatory style.<ref name=":1" />
# Low and contingent self-esteem, unstable and unclear sense of self, and resentment of others' success
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# Needy, obsessive relational dynamics; long-term relationship transactions defined by an excessive need for admiration, approval and support, and vengefulness when needs are unmet
=== Other
==== Sexual ====
[[Sexual narcissism]] has been described as an [[egocentric]] pattern of sexual behavior that involves an inflated sense of sexual ability or sexual entitlement, sometimes in the form of extramarital affairs. This can be [[Compensation (psychology)|overcompensation]] for low self-esteem or an inability to sustain true intimacy.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hurlbert DF, Apt C | title = Sexual narcissism and the abusive male | journal = Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 279–292 | year = 1991 | pmid = 1815094 | doi = 10.1080/00926239108404352 }}</ref>
While this behavioral pattern is believed to be more common in men than in women,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hurlbert DF, Apt C, Gasar S, Wilson NE, Murphy Y | title = Sexual narcissism: a validation study | journal = Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy | volume = 20 | issue = 1 | pages = 24–34 | year = 1994 | pmid = 8169963 | doi = 10.1080/00926239408403414 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11199-008-9403-9 | vauthors = Ryan KM, Weikel K, Sprechini G |title=Gender differences in narcissism and courtship violence in dating couples |journal=Sex Roles |volume=58 |pages=802–13 |year=2008 |issue=11–12 |s2cid=19749572}}</ref> it occurs in both males and females who compensate for feelings of sexual inadequacy by becoming overly proud or obsessed with their [[Hypermasculinity|masculinity]] or femininity.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Schoenewolf G |title=Psychoanalytic Centrism: Collected Papers of a Neoclassical Psychoanalyst |publisher=Living Center Press |year=2013 | isbn = 978-1-4811-5541-0 }}</ref>
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The controversial condition referred to as "[[sexual addiction]]" is believed by some experts to be sexual narcissism or sexual compulsivity, rather than an addictive behavior.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/1066480795032003 | vauthors = Apt C, Hurlbert DF |title=Sexual Narcissism: Addiction or Anachronism? |journal=The Family Journal |volume=3 |pages=103–07 |year=1995 |issue=2 |s2cid=143630223}}</ref>
{{Main|Narcissistic parents}} Narcissistic parents often see their children as extensions of themselves
In extreme situations, this parenting style can result in estranged relationships with the children, coupled with feelings of resentment, and in some cases, self-destructive tendencies.<ref name="co"/>
Origins of narcissism in children can often come from the social learning theory. The social learning theory proposes that social behavior is learned by observing and imitating others' behavior. This suggests that children are anticipated to grow up to be narcissistic when their parents overvalue them.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brummelman E, Thomaes S, Nelemans SA, Orobio de Castro B, Overbeek G, Bushman BJ | title = Origins of narcissism in children | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 112 | issue = 12 | pages = 3659–3662 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25775577 | pmc = 4378434 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1420870112 | bibcode = 2015PNAS..112.3659B | doi-access = free }}</ref>
==== Workplace ====
** animate – [[flattery]] and [[attention]] from colleagues and subordinates.<ref name="Dubrin">{{cite book | vauthors = DuBrin AJ |title=Narcissism in the Workplace: Research, opinion and practice. | publisher = Edward Elgar Publishing |date=2012 | isbn = 978-1-78100-136-3 }}</ref>{{rp|143}} ▼
: Narcissism has been linked to a range of potential leadership problems ranging from poor motivational skills to risky decision making, and in extreme cases, white-collar crime.<ref name="Brunell">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brunell AB, Gentry WA, Campbell WK, Hoffman BJ, Kuhnert KW, Demarree KG | title = Leader emergence: the case of the narcissistic leader | journal = Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 34 | issue = 12 | pages = 1663–1676 | date = December 2008 | pmid = 18794326 | doi = 10.1177/0146167208324101 | url = http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d9c9/4ab638f9182a79e96f7be1bcee582bab9c1c.pdf | url-status = dead | s2cid = 28823065 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200605041324/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d9c9/4ab638f9182a79e96f7be1bcee582bab9c1c.pdf | archive-date = 2020-06-05 }}</ref> High-profile corporate leaders that place an extreme emphasis on [[profit (economics)|profits]] may yield positive short-term benefits for their organizations, but ultimately it drags down individual employees as well as entire companies.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Hill V | date = 2005 | title = Corporate Narcissism in Accounting Firms Australia | publisher = Pengus Books | location = Australia }}</ref>▼
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: Subordinates may find everyday offers of support swiftly turn them into enabling sources, unless they are very careful to maintain proper boundaries.<ref name="Dubrin" />{{rp|143, 181}}▼
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: Studies examining the role of personality in the rise to leadership have shown that individuals who rise to leadership positions can be described as inter-personally dominant, extroverted, and socially skilled.<ref name="Brunell" /> When examining the correlation of narcissism in the rise to leadership positions, narcissists who are often inter-personally dominant, extroverted, and socially skilled, were also likely to rise to leadership but were more likely to emerge as leaders in situations where they were not known, such as in outside hires (versus internal promotions). Paradoxically, narcissism can present as characteristics that facilitate an individual's rise to leadership, and ultimately lead that person to underachieve or even to fail.<ref name="Brunell" />▼
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* '''General workforce'''. Narcissism can create problems in the general workforce. For example, individuals high in narcissism inventories are more likely to engage in counterproductive behavior that harms organizations or other people in the workplace.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Judge TA, LePine JA, Rich BL | title = Loving yourself abundantly: relationship of the narcissistic personality to self- and other perceptions of workplace deviance, leadership, and task and contextual performance | journal = The Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 91 | issue = 4 | pages = 762–776 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16834504 | doi = 10.1037/0021-9010.91.4.762 }}</ref> Aggressive (and counterproductive) behaviors tend to surface when self-esteem is threatened.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bushman BJ, Baumeister RF | title = Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 75 | issue = 1 | pages = 219–229 | date = July 1998 | pmid = 9686460 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.219 | s2cid = 145798157 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.337.396 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Penney LM, Spector PE | year = 2002 | title = Narcissism and counterproductive work behavior: Do bigger egos mean bigger problems? | journal = International Journal of Selection and Assessment | volume = 10 | issue = 1–2| pages = 126–34 | doi = 10.1111/1468-2389.00199 }}</ref> Individuals high in narcissism have fragile self-esteem and are easily threatened. One study found that employees who are high in narcissism are more likely to perceive the behaviors of others in the workplace as abusive and threatening than individuals who are low in narcissism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wislar JS, Richman JA, Fendrich M, Flaherty JA | year = 2002 | title = Sexual harassment, generalized workplace abuse and drinking outcomes: The role of personality vulnerability | journal = Journal of Drug Issues | volume = 32 | issue = 4| pages = 1071–88 | doi=10.1177/002204260203200404| s2cid = 145170557 }}</ref>▼
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Celebrity narcissism (sometimes referred to as ''Acquired situational narcissism'') is a form of narcissism that develops in late adolescence or adulthood, brought on by wealth, fame and the other trappings of [[celebrity]]. Celebrity narcissism develops after childhood, and is triggered and supported by the celebrity-obsessed society. Fans, assistants and tabloid media all play into the idea that the person really is vastly more important than other people, triggering a narcissistic problem that might have been only a tendency, or latent, and helping it to become a full-blown personality disorder. "[[Robert Millman]] says that what happens to celebrities is that they get so used to people looking at them that they stop looking back at other people."<ref name = "Crompton_2007">{{cite book | vauthors = Crompton S | title = All about me: Loving a narcissist. | location = London | publisher = Collins | date = 2007 | page = 171 | isbn = 978-0-00-724795-0 }}</ref> In its most extreme presentation and symptoms, it is indistinguishable from [[narcissistic personality disorder]], differing only in its late onset and its environmental support by large numbers of fans. "The lack of social norms, controls, and of people centering them makes these people believe they're invulnerable,"<ref name = "Crompton_2007" /> so that the person may suffer from unstable relationships, substance abuse or erratic behaviors.▼
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==== Celebrity ====
▲Celebrity narcissism (sometimes referred to as [[Acquired Situational Narcissism|''
{{Anchor|Cultural narcissism}}
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== Collective narcissism ==
{{main|Collective narcissism}}
Collective narcissism is a type of narcissism where an individual has an inflated [[self-love]] of their own group.<ref name="Zavala_2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = de Zavala AG, Cichocka A, Eidelson R, Jayawickreme N | title = Collective narcissism and its social consequences | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 97 | issue = 6 | pages = 1074–1096 | date = December 2009 | pmid = 19968420 | doi = 10.1037/a0016904 | url = https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/4252/1/Golec_collectivenarcissism.pdf | access-date = 2022-11-20 | archive-date = 2022-10-31 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221031123757/https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/4252/1/Golec_collectivenarcissism.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> While the classic definition of narcissism focuses on the individual, collective narcissism asserts that one can have a similar excessively high opinion of a group, and that a group can function as a narcissistic entity.<ref name="Zavala_2009" /> Collective narcissism is related to [[ethnocentrism]]; however, ethnocentrism primarily focuses on self-centeredness at an ethnic or cultural level, while collective narcissism is extended to any type of ingroup beyond just cultures and ethnicities.<ref name="Zavala_2009" /><ref name="Bizumic_2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bizumic B, Duckitt J | title = My group is not worthy of me": Narcissism and ethnocentrism. | journal = Political Psychology | date = June 2008 | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | pages = 437–453 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00638.x }}</ref>
==Normalization of narcissistic behaviors==
Some commentators contend that the American populace has become increasingly narcissistic since the end of [[World War II]].<ref name="Lorentzenp127">{{cite book| vauthors = Lorentzen J |chapter=The culture(s) of narcissism: simultaneity and the psychedelic sixties| veditors = Curk P, Gaitanidis A |title=Narcissism – A Critical Reader |year=2007 |publisher=Karnac Books|location=London|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=AWbo2e_ujMoC&pg=PA127 |isbn=978-1-85575-453-9 |page=127}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Lasch C |title=The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0446969443|url-access=registration |year=1979 |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=978-0-446-32104-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Nelson K |title= Narcissism in High Fidelity |publisher=iUniverse |year=2004 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DoN0SXTkZdoC&pg=PA1 |isbn= 978-0-595-31804-9 |location=Lincoln|pages=1–2}}</ref>
▲Some commentators contend that the American populace has become increasingly narcissistic since the end of [[World War II]].<ref name="Lorentzenp127">{{cite book| vauthors = Lorentzen J |chapter=The culture(s) of narcissism: simultaneity and the psychedelic sixties| veditors = Curk P, Gaitanidis A |title=Narcissism – A Critical Reader |year=2007 |publisher=Karnac Books|location=London|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=AWbo2e_ujMoC&pg=PA127 |isbn=978-1-85575-453-9 |page=127}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Lasch C |title=The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0446969443|url-access=registration |year=1979 |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=978-0-446-32104-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Nelson K |title= Narcissism in High Fidelity |publisher=iUniverse |year=2004 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DoN0SXTkZdoC&pg=PA1 |isbn= 978-0-595-31804-9 |location=Lincoln|pages=1–2}}</ref> People compete mightily for attention. In social situations they tend to steer the conversation away from others and toward themselves. The profusion of popular literature about "listening" and "managing those who talk constantly about themselves" suggests its pervasiveness in everyday life.<ref name="Derber">{{cite book |vauthors = Derber C|title=The Pursuit of Attention: Power and Ego in Everyday Life 2nd Edition|date=15 June 2000|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-513549-7|edition=2nd}}</ref> This claim is substantiated by the growth of "[[reality TV]]" programs,<ref name="Lorentzenp127" /> the growth of an online culture in which digital media, [[social media]] and the desire for fame are generating a "new era of public narcissism".<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Marshall DP |title=Fame's Perpetual Motion |journal=M/C Journal |volume=7 |issue=5 |date=November 2004 |url=http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0411/01-editorial.php |access-date=7 February 2013|doi=10.5204/mcj.2401 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Also supporting the contention that [[American culture]] has become more narcissistic is an analysis of US popular song lyrics between 1987 and 2007. This found a growth in the use of first-person singular pronouns, reflecting a greater focus on the self, and also of references to antisocial behavior; during the same period, there was a diminution of words reflecting a focus on others, positive emotions, and social interactions.<ref name = "DeWall_2011" /><ref name="Twengep203">{{cite book| vauthors = Twenge JM | chapter = Chapter 10: Assessment of Narcissistic Personality Disorder | veditors = Campbell WK, Miller JD |title= The Handbook of Narcissism and Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Theoretical Approaches, Empirical Findings, and Treatments |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Hoboken NJ |isbn=978-1-118-02926-8 |year=2011 |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=SFnMUZFqtnIC&pg=PA203 |page=203}}</ref> References to narcissism and self-esteem in American popular print media have experienced vast inflation since the late 1980s.<ref name="Twengep203" /> Between 1987 and 2007 direct mentions of self-esteem in leading US newspapers and magazines increased by 4,540 per cent while narcissism, which had been almost non-existent in the press during the 1970s, was referred to over 5,000 times between 2002 and 2007.<ref name="Twengep203" />
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Similar patterns of change in cultural production are observable in other Western states. For example, a linguistic analysis of the largest circulation Norwegian newspaper found that the use of self-focused and individualistic terms increased in frequency by 69 per cent between 1984 and 2005 while collectivist terms declined by 32 per cent.<ref name="Twengep202">{{cite book| vauthors = Twenge JM | chapter = Chapter 10: Assessment of Narcissistic Personality Disorder | veditors = Campbell WK, Miller JD |title=The Handbook of Narcissism and Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Theoretical Approaches, Empirical Findings, and Treatments |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Hoboken NJ |isbn=978-1-118-02926-8 |year=2011 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SFnMUZFqtnIC&pg=PA202 |page=202}}</ref>
One study looked at differences in advertising between an individualistic culture, United States, and a collectivist culture, South Korea and found that in the US there was a greater tendency to stress the distinctiveness and uniqueness of the person;
==Controversies==
There has been an increased interest in narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) in the last 10 years.<ref name="miller">{{cite journal | vauthors = Miller JD, Lynam DR, Hyatt CS, Campbell WK | title = Controversies in Narcissism | journal = Annual Review of Clinical Psychology | volume = 13 | pages = 291–315 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 28301765 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045244 | s2cid = 207585237 | doi-access = free }}</ref>{{Update inline|date=June 2024|?=yes}} There are areas of substantial debate that surround the subject including:
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This extent of the controversy was on public display in 2010–2013 when the committee on personality disorders for the 5th Edition (2013) of the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] recommended the removal of Narcissistic Personality from the manual. A contentious three-year debate unfolded in the clinical community with one of the sharpest critics being [[John G. Gunderson|
== See also ==
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{{Narcissism|state =expand}}
{{Echo and Narcissus}}
{{Authority control}}
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[[Category:1889 introductions]]
[[Category:1890s neologisms]]
[[Category:Barriers to critical thinking]]
[[Category:Social influence]]
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