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{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{
{{for|the clinical disorder|Narcissistic personality disorder}}
{{Other uses|Narcissism (disambiguation)}}
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[[File:Michelangelo Caravaggio 065.jpg|thumb|250px|''[[Narcissus (Caravaggio)|Narcissus]]'' (1597–99) by [[Caravaggio]]; the man in love with his own reflection]]
'''Narcissism''' is a self{{Endash}}centered personality style characterized as having an excessive preoccupation with oneself and one's own needs, often at the expense of others.<ref name="Oxford">{{cite web |title=Oxford Learner's Dictionary |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/english/narcissism |website=oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=14 September 2021 |archive-date=25 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625202203/https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/english/narcissism |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="APA">{{cite web |title=APA Dictionary of Psychology |url=https://dictionary.apa.org/narcissism |website=dictionary.apa.org |publisher=American Psychological Association |access-date=14 September 2021 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925164027/https://dictionary.apa.org/narcissism |url-status=live }}</ref>
Narcissism exists on a continuum that ranges from normal to [[abnormal personality]] expression.<ref name="Zlatan">{{cite journal | vauthors = Krizan Z, Herlache AD | title = The Narcissism Spectrum Model: A Synthetic View of Narcissistic Personality | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Review | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–31 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 28132598 | doi = 10.1177/1088868316685018 | s2cid = 206682971 | doi-access = free }}</ref> While many psychologists believe that a moderate degree of narcissism is [[healthy narcissism|normal and healthy]] in humans, there are also more extreme forms, observable particularly in people who are excessively self-absorbed, or who have a mental illness like [[narcissistic personality disorder]] (NPD), where the narcissistic tendency has become pathological,<ref name="Zlatan"/><ref name="Nazario">{{cite web |
==Historical background==
The term ''narcissism''
The concept of excessive [[selfishness]] has been recognized throughout history. In ancient Greece, the concept was understood as [[hubris]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Berger |first1=Joël |last2=Osterloh |first2=Margit |last3=Rost |first3=Katja |last4=Ehrmann |first4=Thomas |title=How to prevent leadership hubris? Comparing competitive selections, lotteries, and their combination |journal=The Leadership Quarterly |date=1 October 2020 |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=101388 |doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2020.101388 |s2cid=219435184 }}</ref> Some religious movements such as the [[Hussites]] attempted to rectify what they viewed as the shattering and narcissistic cultures of recent centuries.<ref name="Fudge 2021 p. 47">{{cite book | last=Fudge | first=T.A. | title=Matthew Spinka, Howard Kaminsky, and the Future of the Medieval Hussites | publisher=Lexington Books | year=2021 | isbn=978-1-7936-5081-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgo0EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 | access-date=2023-05-09 | page=47 | archive-date=2023-05-09 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230509214123/https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgo0EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 | url-status=live }}</ref>
It was not until the late 1800s that narcissism began to be defined in psychological terms.<ref name="millon">{{cite book
* A sexual perversion,
* A normal developmental stage,
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In 1889, psychiatrists [[Paul Näcke]] and [[Havelock Ellis]] used the term "narcissism", independently of each other, to describe a person who treats their own body in the same way in which the body of a sexual partner is ordinarily treated. Narcissism, in this context, was seen as a perversion that consumed a person's entire sexual life.<ref name="millon"/> In 1911 [[Otto Rank]] published the first clinical paper about narcissism, linking it to vanity and self-admiration.<ref name="Ogrodniczuk">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ogrodniczuk J |title=Historical overview of pathological narcissism. In: Understanding and Treating Pathological Narcissism |journal=American Psychological Association |date=2013 |pages=15–26 |doi=10.1037/14041-001}}</ref><ref name=millon />
In an essay in 1913 called "The [[God
[[Sigmund Freud]] (1914) published his theory of narcissism in a lengthy essay titled "[[On Narcissism|On Narcissism: An Introduction]]". For Freud, narcissism refers to the individual's direction of [[libido|libidinal energy]] toward themselves rather than objects and others. He postulated a universal "primary narcissism", that was a phase of sexual development in early infancy – a necessary intermediate stage between auto-eroticism and object-love, love for others. Portions of this 'self-love' or ego-libido are, at later stages of development, expressed outwardly, or "given off" toward others. Freud's postulation of a "secondary narcissism" came as a result of his observation of the peculiar nature of the schizophrenic's relation to themselves and the world. He observed that the two fundamental qualities of such patients were megalomania and withdrawal of interest from the real world of people and things: "the libido that has been withdrawn from the external world has been directed to the ego and thus gives rise to an attitude which may be called narcissism."<ref>{{cite web |title=On Narcissism, 1914 by Freud |url=https://www.sigmundfreud.net/on-narcissism.jsp |website=SigmundFreud.net |publisher=Sigmund Freud |access-date=14 December 2021 |archive-date=9 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809205222/https://sigmundfreud.net/on-narcissism.jsp |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Strachey">{{cite web |
In 1925, [[Robert Waelder]] conceptualized narcissism as a personality trait. His definition described individuals who are condescending, feel superior to others, are preoccupied with admiration, and exhibit a lack of empathy.<ref name="Levy">{{cite book | vauthors = Levy KN, Reynoso JS, Wasserman RH, Clarkin JF | chapter = Chapter 9, Narcissistic Personality Disorder | veditors = O'Donohue WT, Fowler KA, Lilienfeld SO |title=Personality Disorders: Toward the DSM-V |date=2007 |publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc |isbn=978-1-4129-0422-3 |page=235}}</ref> Waelder's work and his case study have been influential in the way narcissism and the clinical disorder narcissistic personality disorder are defined today.{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}} His patient was a successful scientist with an attitude of superiority, an obsession with fostering self-respect, and a lack of normal feelings of guilt. The patient was aloof and independent from others, had an inability to empathize with others, and was selfish sexually. Waelder's patient was also overly logical and analytical and valued abstract intellectual thought over the practical application of scientific knowledge.<ref name="Bergmann">{{cite book | vauthors = Bergmann MS |title=''Anatomy of Loving; Man's Quest to Know what Love'' I |date=1987 |publisher=Ballantine Books |isbn=978-0-449-90553-1 }}</ref>
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[[Karen Horney]] (1939) postulated that narcissism was on a spectrum that ranged from healthy self-esteem to a pathological state.<ref name="Levy"/>
The term entered the broader [[social consciousness]] following the publication of ''[[The Culture of Narcissism]]'' by [[Christopher Lasch]] in 1979.<ref name="Daum">{{cite news |
==Characteristics==
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===Normal and healthy levels of narcissism===
Some psychologists suggest that a moderate level of narcissism is supportive of good psychological health. Self-esteem works as a mediator between narcissism and psychological health. Therefore, because of their elevated self-esteem, deriving from self-perceptions of competence and likability, high narcissists are relatively free of worry and gloom.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sedikides C, Rudich EA, Gregg AP, Kumashiro M, Rusbult C | title = Are normal narcissists psychologically healthy?: self-esteem matters | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 87 | issue = 3 | pages = 400–416 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15382988 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.400 | s2cid = 12903591 | hdl = 1871/17274 | url = https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/155e777a-4d9d-4417-8cf2-f6e6403e2ee7 | access-date = 2022-11-20 | archive-date = 2023-08-02 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230802165625/https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/are-normal-narcissists-psychologically-healthy-self-esteem-matter | url-status = live }}</ref>
===Destructive levels of narcissism===
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===Pathological levels of narcissism===
{{Main|Narcissistic personality disorder}}
Extremely high levels of narcissistic behavior are considered [[Narcissistic personality disorder|pathological]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dashineau |first1=Samantha C. |last2=Edershile |first2=Elizabeth A. |last3=Simms |first3=Leonard J. |last4=Wright |first4=Aidan G. C. |title=Pathological narcissism and psychosocial functioning. |journal=Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment |date=September 2019 |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=473–478 |doi=10.1037/per0000347 |pmid=31259606 |pmc=6710132 }}</ref> The pathological condition of narcissism is a magnified, extreme manifestation of healthy narcissism. It manifests itself in the inability to love others, lack of empathy, emptiness, boredom, and an unremitting need to search for power, while making the person unavailable to others.<ref name="Kohut1971"/> The clinical theorists [[Kernberg]], [[Kohut]], and [[Theodore Millon]] all saw pathological narcissism as a possible outcome in response to
===Heritability===
[[Heritability]] studies using twins have shown that narcissistic traits, as measured by standardized tests, are often inherited. Narcissism was found to have a high heritability score (0.64) indicating that the [[Concordance (genetics)|concordance]] of this trait in the identical twins was significantly influenced by genetics as compared to an environmental causation. It has also been shown that there is a continuum or spectrum of narcissistic traits ranging from normal to a pathological personality.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Livesley WJ, Jang KL, Jackson DN, Vernon PA | title = Genetic and environmental contributions to dimensions of personality disorder | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 150 | issue = 12 | pages = 1826–1831 | date = December 1993 | pmid = 8238637 | doi = 10.1176/ajp.150.12.1826 }}</ref><ref name = "DeWall_2011">{{Cite journal | vauthors = DeWall CN, Pond Jr RS, Campbell WK, Twenge JM |date=August 2011 |title=Tuning in to psychological change: Linguistic markers of psychological traits and emotions over time in popular U.S. song lyrics. |journal=Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=200–207 |doi=10.1037/a0023195 |issn=1931-390X|citeseerx=10.1.1.684.1672 }}</ref> Furthermore, evidence suggests that individual elements of narcissism have their own heritability score. For example, intrapersonal [[grandiosity]] has a score of 0.23, and interpersonal [[entitlement]] has a score of 0.35.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Luo YL, Cai H, Song H | title = A behavioral genetic study of intrapersonal and interpersonal dimensions of narcissism | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = e93403 | date = 2014-04-02 | pmid = 24695616 | pmc = 3973692 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0093403 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2014PLoSO...993403L }}</ref> While the genetic impact on narcissism levels is significant, it is not the only factor at play.
==Expressions of narcissism==
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==== Workplace ====
{{Main articles|Narcissism in the workplace}}There is a compulsion of some professionals to constantly assert their competence, even when they are wrong.<ref name="Banja_2004">{{cite book | vauthors = Banja JD |title=Medical errors and medical narcissism |date=2004 |publisher=Jones and Bartlett Publishers |location=Sudbury, Mass. |isbn=978-0-7637-8361-7}}</ref><ref name="banja2">{{cite interview | vauthors = Banja J | interviewer = Rangus E | date = 7 February 2005 | url = https://www.emory.edu/EMORY_REPORT/erarchive/2005/February/February7/sandr1.htm | title = John Banja: Interview with the clinical ethicist | access-date = 18 November 2023 | archive-date = 18 November 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231118185431/https://www.emory.edu/EMORY_REPORT/erarchive/2005/February/February7/sandr1.htm | url-status = live }}</ref> Professional narcissism can lead otherwise capable, and even exceptional, professionals to fall into narcissistic traps. "Most professionals work on cultivating a self that exudes authority, control, knowledge, competence and respectability. It's the narcissist in us all—we dread appearing stupid or incompetent."<ref name="Banja_2004" />
Executives are often provided with potential narcissistic triggers. Inanimate triggers include [[status symbol]]s like company cars, company-issued [[smartphone]], or prestigious offices with window views; animate triggers include [[flattery]] and [[attention]] from colleagues and subordinates.<ref name="Dubrin">{{cite book | vauthors = DuBrin AJ |title=Narcissism in the Workplace: Research, opinion and practice. | publisher = Edward Elgar Publishing |date=2012 | isbn = 978-1-78100-136-3 }}</ref>{{rp|143}}
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== Collective narcissism ==
{{main|Collective narcissism}}
Collective narcissism is a type of narcissism where an individual has an inflated [[self-love]] of their own group.<ref name="Zavala_2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = de Zavala AG, Cichocka A, Eidelson R, Jayawickreme N | title = Collective narcissism and its social consequences | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 97 | issue = 6 | pages = 1074–1096 | date = December 2009 | pmid = 19968420 | doi = 10.1037/a0016904 | url = https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/4252/1/Golec_collectivenarcissism.pdf | access-date = 2022-11-20 | archive-date = 2022-10-31 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221031123757/https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/4252/1/Golec_collectivenarcissism.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> While the classic definition of narcissism focuses on the individual, collective narcissism asserts that one can have a similar excessively high opinion of a group, and that a group can function as a narcissistic entity.<ref name="Zavala_2009" /> Collective narcissism is related to [[ethnocentrism]]; however, ethnocentrism primarily focuses on self-centeredness at an ethnic or cultural level, while collective narcissism is extended to any type of ingroup beyond just cultures and ethnicities.<ref name="Zavala_2009" /><ref name="Bizumic_2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bizumic B, Duckitt J | title = My group is not worthy of me": Narcissism and ethnocentrism. | journal = Political Psychology | date = June 2008 | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | pages = 437–453 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00638.x }}</ref>
==Normalization of narcissistic behaviors==
Some commentators contend that the American populace has become increasingly narcissistic since the end of [[World War II]].<ref name="Lorentzenp127">{{cite book| vauthors = Lorentzen J |chapter=The culture(s) of narcissism: simultaneity and the psychedelic sixties| veditors = Curk P, Gaitanidis A |title=Narcissism – A Critical Reader |year=2007 |publisher=Karnac Books|location=London|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=AWbo2e_ujMoC&pg=PA127 |isbn=978-1-85575-453-9 |page=127}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Lasch C |title=The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0446969443|url-access=registration |year=1979 |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=978-0-446-32104-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Nelson K |title= Narcissism in High Fidelity |publisher=iUniverse |year=2004 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DoN0SXTkZdoC&pg=PA1 |isbn= 978-0-595-31804-9 |location=Lincoln|pages=1–2}}</ref> According to sociologist [[Charles Derber]], people pursue and compete for attention on an unprecedented scale. The profusion of popular literature about "listening" and "managing those who talk constantly about themselves" suggests its pervasiveness in everyday life.<ref name="Derber">{{cite book |vauthors = Derber C|title=The Pursuit of Attention: Power and Ego in Everyday Life 2nd Edition|date=15 June 2000|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-513549-7|edition=2nd}}</ref> The growth of media phenomena such as "[[reality TV]]" programs<ref name="Lorentzenp127" /> and [[social media]] are generating a "new era of public narcissism".<ref>{{cite journal |
Also supporting the contention that [[American culture]] has become more narcissistic is an analysis of US popular song lyrics between 1987 and 2007. This found a growth in the use of first-person singular pronouns, reflecting a greater focus on the self, and also of references to antisocial behavior; during the same period, there was a diminution of words reflecting a focus on others, positive emotions, and social interactions.<ref name = "DeWall_2011" /><ref name="Twengep203">{{cite book| vauthors = Twenge JM | chapter = Chapter 10: Assessment of Narcissistic Personality Disorder | veditors = Campbell WK, Miller JD |title= The Handbook of Narcissism and Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Theoretical Approaches, Empirical Findings, and Treatments |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Hoboken NJ |isbn=978-1-118-02926-8 |year=2011 |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=SFnMUZFqtnIC&pg=PA203 |page=203}}</ref> References to narcissism and self-esteem in American popular print media have experienced vast inflation since the late 1980s.<ref name="Twengep203" /> Between 1987 and 2007 direct mentions of self-esteem in leading US newspapers and magazines increased by 4,540 per cent while narcissism, which had been almost non-existent in the press during the 1970s, was referred to over 5,000 times between 2002 and 2007.<ref name="Twengep203" />
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Similar patterns of change in cultural production are observable in other Western states. For example, a linguistic analysis of the largest circulation Norwegian newspaper found that the use of self-focused and individualistic terms increased in frequency by 69 per cent between 1984 and 2005 while collectivist terms declined by 32 per cent.<ref name="Twengep202">{{cite book| vauthors = Twenge JM | chapter = Chapter 10: Assessment of Narcissistic Personality Disorder | veditors = Campbell WK, Miller JD |title=The Handbook of Narcissism and Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Theoretical Approaches, Empirical Findings, and Treatments |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Hoboken NJ |isbn=978-1-118-02926-8 |year=2011 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SFnMUZFqtnIC&pg=PA202 |page=202}}</ref>
One study looked at differences in advertising between an individualistic culture, United States, and a collectivist culture, South Korea and found that in the US there was a greater tendency to stress the distinctiveness and uniqueness of the person;
==Controversies==
There has been an increased interest in narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) in the last 10 years.<ref name="miller">{{cite journal | vauthors = Miller JD, Lynam DR, Hyatt CS, Campbell WK | title = Controversies in Narcissism | journal = Annual Review of Clinical Psychology | volume = 13 | pages = 291–315 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 28301765 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045244 | s2cid = 207585237 | doi-access = free }}</ref>{{Update inline|date=June 2024|?=yes}} There are areas of substantial debate that surround the subject including:
* Clearly defining the difference between normal and pathological narcissism,<ref name="miller"/>
* Understanding the role of self-esteem in narcissism,<ref name="miller"/>
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* Agreeing on its representation in textbooks and classification manuals.<ref name="miller"/>
This extent of the controversy was on public display in 2010–2013 when the committee on personality disorders for the 5th Edition (2013) of the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] recommended the removal of Narcissistic Personality from the manual. A contentious three-year debate unfolded in the clinical community with one of the sharpest critics being [[John G. Gunderson|John Gunderson, MD]], the person who led the DSM personality disorders committee for the 4th edition of the manual.<ref>{{cite news |
== See also ==
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