Stabiae: Difference between revisions

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'''Stabiae''' ({{IPA-la|ˈstabɪ.ae̯|lang}}) was an ancient city situated near the modern town of [[Castellammare di Stabia]] and approximately 4.5&nbsp;km southwest of [[Pompeii]]. Like Pompeii, and being only {{cvt|16|km|mi}} from [[Mount Vesuvius]], this [[seaside resort]]it was largely buried by [[tephra]] ash in 79 AD [[Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD|eruption of Mount Vesuvius]], in this case at a smallershallower depth of up to five5 metresm.<ref>Giovanna Bonifacio; Anna Maria Sodo, Gina Carla Ascione, In Stabiano -– Cultura e archeologia da Stabiae , Castellammare di Stabia, Longobardi Editore, 2006. {{ISBN|88-8090-126-5}} p. 117-118</ref>

Stabiae is most famous for the Roman villas found near the ancient city which are regarded as some of the most stunning architectural and artistic remains from any Roman villas.<ref>Stabiae: Master Plan 2006, the Archaeological Superintendancy of Pompeii, School of Architecture of the University of Maryland, The Committee of Stabiae Reborn</ref> They are the largest concentration of excellently preserved, enormous, elite seaside villas foundknown fromin the entire Roman world. The villas were sited on a 50&nbsp;m high headland overlooking the [[Gulf of Naples]].<ref>[http://www.sdmart.org/exhibition-stabiano.html San Diego Museum of Art exhibition on Stabiae] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060210095848/http://www.sdmart.org/exhibition-stabiano.html |date=10 February 2006 }}</ref><ref name="restoring">[http://www.stabiae.org/foundation/en/ Restoring Stabiae website]</ref> Although it was discovered before Pompeii in 1749, unlike Pompeii and [[Herculaneum]], Stabiae was reburied by 1782 and so failed to establish itself as a destination for travellers on the [[Grand Tour]].

The settlement at Stabiae arose from as early as the 7th century BC due to the favourable climate and its strategic and commercial significance as evocatively documented by materials found in the vast [[necropolis]] discovered in 1957 on via Madonna delle Grazie, situated between [[Gragnano]] and [[Santa Maria la Carità]]. The necropolis of over 300 tombs containing imported pottery of Corinthian, Etruscan, [[Chalcidians|Chalcidian]] and [[Attica|Attic]] origin clearly shows that the town had major commercial contacts.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pompeiisites.org/Sezione.jsp?titolo=%E2%80%9CIn+Search+of+Stabiae%E2%80%9D&idSezione=7766 |title=Homepage -– Pompeii Sites Portale Ufficiale Parco Archeologico di Pompei |access-date=17 October 2018 |archive-date=17 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017163116/http://www.pompeiisites.org/Sezione.jsp?titolo=%E2%80%9CIn+Search+of+Stabiae%E2%80%9D&idSezione=7766 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The necropolis, covering an area of {{cvt|15000|m2}}, was used from the 7th to the end of the 3rd century BC and shows the complex population changes with the arrival of new peoples, such as the [[Etruscans]], which opened up new contacts.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pompeiisites.org/Sezione.jsp?titolo=History+of+Stabiae&idSezione=3386 |title=Homepage -– Pompeii Sites Portale Ufficiale Parco Archeologico di Pompei|date=9 March 2024 }}</ref>

:''Irrumpit Cumana ratis, quam Corbulo ducato lectaque complebat Stabiarum litore pubes.''

In 1759 [[Karl Weber (archaeologist)|Karl Weber]] identified and described part of the city near the Villa San Marco which extended over about 45000 square metresm². He found five paved streets intersecting at right angles, the ''[[Forum (Roman)|forum]]'', a [[temple]] on a podium, a [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|''gymnasium'']], ''[[tabernae]]'' with arcades, pavements and small private houses.

In the plain around StabiaStabiae was the ''Ager Stabianus'', the land administered by the city and an agricultural area in which about 60 ''[[villae rusticae]]'' have been identified: farmhouses that vary from 400 to 800 sqmm², from which intensive agriculture took advantage of the fertility of the soil, and which included production and processing of agricultural products with wine and olive presses, threshing floors and storehouses,<ref>Giuseppe Cosenza, Stabia , Trani, Tipografica Editrice Vecchi, 1907.</ref> making the owners wealthy, considering the villas' [[thermal baths]] and frescoed rooms.<ref>Giovanna Bonifacio; Anna Maria Sodo, Gina Carla Ascione, In Stabiano -– Cultura e archeologia da Stabiae , Castellammare di Stabia, Longobardi Editore, 2006. {{ISBN|88-8090-126-5}} p. 23</ref>

:"For I doubt not that in that study of yours, from which you have opened a window into the Stabian waters of the bay, and obtained a view of [[Miseno|Misenum]], you have spent the morning hours of those days in light reading"<ref>Cicero, Letter XIX: ad familiares 7.1</ref>

In 62 AD the city was hit by a violent earthquake that affected the whole region, and causedcausing considerable damage to the buildings and neededcreating the need for restoration work, which was never finished.{{cn|date = January 2024}}

Pliny died at Stabiae the following day,. probablyThis duringcoincides with the arrival of the sixth and largest [[pyroclastic surge]] of the eruption caused by the collapse of the [[eruption plume]].<ref>

However, unlikeUnlike Pompeii, the eruption did not end human activity as about 40 years later the road to [[Nuceria]] was rebuilt, as its 11th milestone recovered from the cathedral site shows. Also [[Publius Papinius Statius]] ({{circa|45–96}}) asked in a poem for his wife to join him in what he called "Stabias renatas" (Stabiae reborn).<ref>Statius, Silvae 3.5, 104: Ad Uxorem Claudiam</ref> It continued to be an important centre for trade as the surrounding agricultural area needed a port and that of Stabiae was restored whilst that of Pompeii had been destroyed. In the 2nd c. AD new [[Necropolis|necropoleis]] were created at Grotta S.Biagio (below the [http://pompeiisites.org/en/stabiae-en-2/villa-arianna/ Villa Arianna]), Santa Maria la Carità and Pimonte.

After the [[Crisis of the Third Century]] the city decreased in importance. Between the third and fourth centuries, as demonstrated by the discovery of a [[sarcophagus]] were the first traces of a Christian community.<ref name="positanonews.it">{{Cite web |date=2019-09-25 |title=Castellammare di Stabia. Torneranno sottoterra i reperti archeologici emersi in Piazza Unità d'Italia durante gli scavi per il parcheggio |url=https://www.positanonews.it/2019/09/castellammare-stabia-torneranno-sottoterra-reperti-archeologici-emersi-piazza-unita-ditalia-gli-scavi-parcheggio/3332378/ |access-date=2020-09-18 |website=Positanonews |language=it}}</ref> The fifth century saw the formation of the diocese with the first bishops Orso and Catello. In the 5th century it was known as a centre of the [[Benedictine order|Benedictine Order]].

</ref> These ruins were partially excavated by Alcubierre with help from [[Karl Weber (archaeologist)|Karl Weber]] between 1749–17751749 and 1775.<ref name="Parslow"/> Weber was the first to make detailed architectural drawings and delivered them to the court of Naples. He proposed the systematic unearthing of the buildings and their display on site, in their context. In 1759 Weber partially identified and described part of the old city that extended over an area of about 45000 m².<ref>Gardelli, Paolo. [https://actual-art.spbu.ru/en/publications/archive/vol-8/museum-collection-space-work-of-art/10691.html Stabiae and the Beginning of European Archaeology: From Looting to Science.] ''Actual Problems of Theory and History of Art'': Collection of articles. Vol. 8. Ed. S. V. Mal’tseva, E. Iu. Staniukovich-Denisova, A. V. Zakharova. St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg Univ. Press, 2018, pp. 681–690.</ref> The ruins that had been excavated, however, were reburied.

A second excavation campaign until 1782 was assisted by the architect [[Pietro la Vega|Franceso La Vega]] after Weber's death. He diligently collected all the preceding material to reconstruct the history of the excavations. He introduced new concepts for the first time about context, emphasising direct observation of ancient buildings in their landscape or in their historical and archaeological complex. In seven years at Stabiae La Vega resumed excavations in some villas built on the plateau of Varanium<ref>{{Cite web |title=Opening Archaeological Museum of Castellammare di Stabia Libero D’OrsiD'Orsi |url=http://pompeiisites.org/en/comunicati/opening-archaeological-museum-of-castellammare-di-stabia-libero-dorsi/ |access-date=2023-03-20 |website=Pompeii Sites |date=24 September 2020 |language=en-US}}</ref> already partially excavated, the Villa del Pastore, Villa Arianna and [http://pompeiisites.org/en/stabiae-en-2/second-complex/ Second Complex] and extended research to a large number of ''villae rusticae'' in the ''ager stabianus'' and made precise reports. However he could not persuade the court to keep excavated buildings exposed and avoid their backfilling, so excavation of Stabiae continued with the usual technique of digging and backfilling.<ref>Gardelli, Paolo. [https://actual-art.spbu.ru/en/publications/archive/vol-8/museum-collection-space-work-of-art/10691.html Stabiae and the Beginning of European Archaeology: From Looting to Science.] ''Actual Problems of Theory and History of Art'': Collection of articles. Vol. 8. Ed. S. V. Mal’tseva, E. Iu. Staniukovich-Denisova, A. V. Zakharova. St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg Univ. Press, 2018, pp. 686</ref> The location of Stabiae was again widely forgotten.

In 1950<ref name="restoring"/> when [[Libero D'Orsi]],<ref>{{Citation |title=Libero D'Orsi |date=2023-01-18 |url=https://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Libero_D%27Orsi&oldid=131582798 |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2023-03-20 |language=it}}</ref> an enthusiastic amateur, brought to light some rooms of Villa San Marco<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-05-31 |title=Villa San Marco |url=http://pompeiisites.org/en/stabiae-en-2/villa-san-marco/ |access-date=2023-03-20 |website=Pompeii Sites |language=en-US}}</ref> and Villa Arianna<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-05-31 |title=Villa Arianna |url=http://pompeiisites.org/en/stabiae-en-2/villa-arianna/ |access-date=2023-03-20 |website=Pompeii Sites |language=en-US}}</ref> with the help of the maps from the Bourbon excavations, and also Villa Petraro, a ''[[domus]]'' found by chance in 1957 (in the commune of Santa Maria la Carità) but then reburied after a few years of study.<ref>Libero D'Orsi, Antonio Carosella; Vincenzo Cuccurullo, The excavations of Stabiae: excavation newspaper, Rome, Quasar, 1996, {{ISBN|88-7140-104-2}}</ref> He also found parts of a residential area of the city about 300 m from Villa San Marco including remains of houses, shops, parts of the ''[[macellum]]''<ref>Arnold De Vos; Mariette De Vos, Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabia, Rome, Editori Laterza, 1982. p. 323</ref> to which roads from the port converged.<ref>Giuseppe Di Massa, the territory of Gragnano in antiquity and the ager stabianus, pp. 1–48. http://www.centroculturalegragnano.it/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Il-Territorio-di-Gragnano-nell%E2%80%99antichit%C3%A0-e-l%E2%80%99Ager-Stabianus.pdf</ref> These remains were again reburied. News of the finds quickly attracted important visitors and nobility from all over Europe. Some of the most important frescoes were detached to allow better conservation and almost 9000 finds collected were housed locally. His work finally stopped in 1962 following lack of funds.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pompeiisites.org/Sezione.jsp?titolo=Storia+degli+scavi&idSezione=259 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022034654/http://www.pompeiisites.org/Sezione.jsp?titolo=Storia+degli+scavi&idSezione=259 |archive-date=22 October 2013 |title=Homepage -– Pompeii Sites Portale Ufficiale Parco Archeologico di Pompei}}</ref>

Sporadically, numerous remains of villas and necropolises were found; as when Villa Carmiano (now in commune of Gragnano) was excavated in 1963 then reburied; in 1967 part of the "Second Complex" and the Villa del Pastore resurfaced and reburied in 1970;<ref>Giovanna Bonifacio e Anna Maria Sodo, Stabia: storia e architettura: 250º anniversario degli scavi di Stabiae 1749-1999, Roma, L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2004, {{ISBN|978-88-826-5201-2}}. p 31</ref> in 1974 a villa belonging to the ''ager stabianus'' was discovered located in the current municipality of Sant'Antonio Abate but whose excavation has not yet been completed.<ref>Arnold De Vos; Mariette De Vos, Pompei, Ercolano, Stabia, Roma, Editori Laterza, 1982. p. 331</ref> In addition other villas, especially rural ones, were discovered throughout the ''ager stabianus'', especially between Santa Maria la Carità and Gragnano and all were reburied.

In 2008 Villa San Marco and Villa Arianna were re-explored and in the former three ''[[cubicula]]'' were discovered behind the peristyle and two [[Latrine|latrineslatrine]]s and a garden were brought to light, while in the latter part of the great peristyle that looked directly over the sea.

In 2009 new excavations brought to light a Roman road running along the northern [[perimeter]] of Villa San Marco. It is a paved road that connected the town of Stabiae with the seashore below: across this artery is a gate to the city and along the walls are a [[myriad]] of graffiti and small drawings in charcoal. On the other side of the road, a baths area of a new villa was discovered, partly explored in the Bourbon era. A Roman road also led to the entrance of a ''[[domus]]'' belonging to the "''Ager stabianus''". In May 2010 a villa dating to the first century was discovered during the work to double the railway track of the Torre Annunziata-Sorrento line of the [[Circumvesuviana]], between the stations of Ponte Persica and Pioppaino.

From 2011–142011 to 2014, [[Columbia University]] and H2CU (Centro Interuniversitario per la Formazione Internazionale) have been excavating in the Villa San Marco, investigating it as a Roman elite structure and the pre-79 AD history of the site.<ref>The 2012 Excavation Season at the Villa San Marco, Stabiae: Preliminary Field Report1 Taco T. Terpstra www.fastionline.org/docs/FOLDER-it-2013-286.pdf. Journal of Fasti Online ({{ISSN|1828-3179}})</ref>

In 2019 excavations in the Piazza Unità d'Italia unearthed an Augustan or Julio-Claudian building and a 4th-century building.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Castellammare di Stabia, la sua vita dopo l'eruzione |url=http://www.turismo.it/il-luogo-del-giorno/articolo/art/castellammare-di-stabia-la-sua-vita-dopo-leruzione-id-19853/ |access-date=2020-09-18 |website=www.turismo.it |language=it}}</ref><ref name="positanonews.it"/>

One of the largest villas ever discovered in [[Campania]], it measured more than 11,000 sq. m²,<ref name="restoring" /> although only half has been excavated. It was being renovated at the time of the eruption as shown by building materials present and displaced artefacts. Nevertheless, it was lavishly decorated with frescoes, with [[stucco]] work, floor mosaics and wall mosaics all of very high artistic quality and many of which were removed and are now held in museums.

The villa was built at least in part on a 6th c. BC platform that may have levelled the ground on the hill.<ref>Taco T. Terpstra. The 2011 Field Season at the Villa San Marco, Stabiae: Preliminary Report on the Excavations, The Journal of Fasti Online ({{ISSN|1828-3179}})</ref> Construction started at the latest in [[Augustus]]' reign and was significantly enlarged with the garden and swimming pool under [[Claudius]].<ref>Giovanna Bonifacio; Anna Maria Sodo, Gina Carla Ascione, In Stabiano -– Cultura e archeologia da Stabiae , Castellammare di Stabia, Longobardi Editore, 2006. {{ISBN|88-8090-126-5}} p. 26</ref> The owner's name is not exactly known but it could belong to a certain Narcissus, a [[freedman]], on the basis of stamps found on tiles, or to the Virtii family who had tombs not far away.

It has an entrance [[Atrium (architecture)|''atrium'']] (44) containing a pool, a ''[[oecus]] [[triclinium|triclinaris]]'' (banqueting hall) (16) with views of the bay, and several colonnaded courtyards. There are also many other small rooms, a kitchen and two internal gardens. This villa is also important because it has provided frescoes, sculptures, mosaics[[mosaic]]s and architecture, which show styles and themes comparable to those found in Pompeii and Herculaneum.<ref>Pompeii in Pictures 99. Stabiae, Villa San Marco. https://pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/RV/Villa%20San%20Marco%20Stabiae%20p1.htm</ref>

The great peristyle (9) is surrounded by a long porch with a central pool (15) of 36×7 m which at the end has a ''[[nymphaeum]]'' (64,65) that has yet to be explored, decorated with frescoes depicting [[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]], [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] and several athletes, that were removed by the [[Bourbons]] and are now at the Naples museum and the [[Musée Condé|Condé Museum]] in [[Chantilly, Oise|Chantilly]], France. In the peristyle garden large plane trees grew and their root cavities were found; just as with the casts of humans these cavities were filled with liquid concrete to make casts and archaeologists have also calculated that their age ranged from 75 to 100 years.

The villa has an even larger second peristyle on the southern side, partially excavated, approximately 140m long, with arcades supported by spiral columns which collapsed during the [[1980 Irpinia earthquake]]: the ceilings are painted with scenes depicting [[Melpomene]], the Apotheosis of [[Athena]] etc.. In this peristyle was a [[sundial]] found during the excavation in a deposit as the villa at the time of the eruption was under renovation; the sundial was subsequently placed in its original position.

The baths of the villa are of considerable size on a triangular plot. The remains of the frescoes show they were finely decorated with depictions of large pendulous branches. Access to the baths is via an [[Atrium (architecture)|''atrium'']], painted with wrestlers and boxers, followed by ''[[apodyterium]], [[tepidarium]], [[frigidarium]], [[palaestra]]'' and ''[[caldarium]]'': the pool in the ''caldarium'', accessible by stone steps, is 7x5m and 1.5m deep. In excavations in the pool, part of the bottom was removed exposing a large brick furnace heating a large bronze boiler which was removed in 1798 by Lord Hamilton to be transported to London, but during the trip the Colossus was shipwrecked. The ''caldarium'' was covered with marble slabs. From the baths there are a number of ramps connecting the villa with the shore.

File:Fresco of woman with tray in Villa San Marco retouched.jpg|Fresco of woman with tray in Villa San Marco

File:Fresco of angel in Villa San Marco of Stabiae.jpg|Fresco of winged figure in Villa San Marco

File:Stabiae Villa Di San Marco Affresco Albero.jpg|Fresco of a tree in Villa San Marco

File:Perseus Medusa villa san Marco Stabiae Italy.jpg|[[Perseus]] with head of [[Medusa]] in villa San Marco

File:Planisfero 1.jpg|Fresco detail of a [[planisphere]], from villa San Marco (seen at Antiquarium)

File:Skyphoi in ossidiana con incastonature, da villa s. marco a castellammare, I sec dc. 03.JPG|[[Skyphos]] in obsidian with incastonatura, in(Naples villa San MarcoMuseum)

Named for the [[fresco]] depicting [[Dionysus]] saving [[Ariadne]] from the island of Dia (a mythological name for [[Naxos]]), this villa is particularly famous for its frescoes, many of which depict light, winged figures. Notably some of the most exquisite and famous Roman frescoes were found in bedrooms 23 to 26 on Weber's plan, the latter room having an especially fine decor with 18 outstanding frescoes.<ref>Antiquity Recovered: The Legacy of Pompeii and Herculaneum, editor Victoria C. Coates Gardner, J. Paul Getty Museum, 2007 {{ISBN|0892368721}}</ref>

It is the oldest ''[[Otium|villa d'otium]]'' (a leisure villa) in Stabiae, dating back to the 2nd century BC.<ref>Antonio Ferrara, Castellammare di Stabia -– Short guide to the excavations of Stabiae, Castellammare di Stabia, Longobardi Editore, 2005</ref> The villa was extended over the course of 150 years. It is skilfully designed so that the residential quarters take advantage of the panorama along the ridge overlooking the [[Bay of Naples]]. It occupies an area of about 11000 sqm. of which only 2500 have been excavated. Some of the rooms were lost as a result of landslides on the slope.

It was first excavated between 1757 and 1762<ref>Arnold De Vos; Mariette De Vos, Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabia, Rome, Editori Laterza, 1982. p. 315</ref> when the villa was called the "firstFirst complexComplex" to distinguish it from the "Second Complex", from which it is separated by a narrow alley. The excavations were resumed by D'Orsi in 1950. In 2008 the large peristyle, one of the largest of any Roman villa at 370m in length, was brought to light almost completely, along with new rooms, columns and windows.

It has a complex plan, the result of several expansions of the building and was conveniently divided into four sections: the [[Atrium (architecture)|''atrium'']], the [[thermal baths]], the ''[[triclinium]]'' and the [[peristyle]].

The "Tuscan" ''atrium'', dating back to the late Republican age, is paved with white-black mosaic and has wall frescoes, often female figures and [[Palmette|palmettespalmette]]s on a black and red background attributable to the ''[[Pompeian Styles|third style]]''. At the centre of the atrium is an ''[[impluvium]]'' while all around are numerous rooms: two of these, placed at the ends of the entrance of the ''atrium'', preserve decorations that imitate architectures such as [[Ionic columns]] that support the [[Coffer|cofferedcoffer]]ed ceiling belonging to the ''[[Pompeian Styles|second style]]''.

Another work of great importance is the "Seller of cupids", found in 1759, also dating to the first century BC, which represents a woman in the act of selling a [[cupid]] to a girl: this fresco was already famous across Europe in the 18th century, influencing [[Neoclassicism|neoclassical]] taste and was copied on porcelain, prints, lithographs and paintings.

The ''triclinium'' directly overlooks the edge of the hill and dates from [[Nero]]'s reign. On the centre of the rear wall is the fresco found in 1950 of the myth of [[Ariadne]], abandoned by [[Theseus]] on the island of [[Naxos]] in the arms of [[Hypnos|Hypno]] escorted by [[Dionysus]] (represented with hawk eyes).

The bath area is smaller than the other villas in Stabiae, nevertheless there is an [[Apse|apsedapse]]d [[Caldarium|''calidarium'']] with bath, a ''[[tepidarium]]'' and a ''[[frigidarium]]''. In 2009 a large garden of 110x55 m was found, considered as the best preserved in the world, as the traces of the plants present at the time are still clearly visible.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.archemail.it/notizie2009.htm |title=Archemail l'archeologia in Campania -– Gruppo Archeologico Napoletano ONLUS -– Il notiziario archeologico della Campania |access-date=13 April 2020 |archive-date=7 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130707033155/http://www.archemail.it/notizie2009.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> There are also numerous service areas such as the kitchen, a fishpond, a masonry staircase leading to the first floor and a stable, where two agricultural carts were found,<ref>La Villa di Arianna http://www.comune.castellammare-di-stabia.napoli.it/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=511:la-villa-di-arianna&catid=70:siti-archeologici</ref> one of which has been restored and on show to the public: this wagon has two large wheels made of iron and wood; in the immediate vicinity the skeleton of a horse with its hind legs raised was found, having become frightened by the eruption whose name, Repentinus, is also known from an inscription in the stable.

File:Villa Arianna (Stabia) WLM 099.JPG|[[Ariadne]] on [[Naxos]], ''triclinium'', Villa Ariana

File:Secondo Complessocomplesso (Stabia) WLM 02922.JPG|Second Complex

"Villa of the Shepherd" in English, this villa gets its name from a small statue of a shepherd that was discovered at this site. The villa, at 19,000 square metresm² area, is one of the very largest ever discovered and is even larger than Villa San Marco with many rooms, large baths and luxurious gardens. It lacks, however, any domestic rooms suggesting that it may not have been a residence. One hypothesis is that it is instead a ''valetudinarium''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898), Valetudinarium |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0062:entry=valetudinarium-harpers&highlight=valetudinarium |access-date=2023-03-22 |website=perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> (health spa or a sort of domestic hospital and infirmary for sick slaves) to allow people to take advantage of the famous spring waters of Stabiae.

The villa stands on the edge of the plateau Varano with a panoramic view, a short distance from Villa Arianna. It was explored three times: its discovery dates back to 1754 to 1759 when Karl Weber brought to light a large garden; the second campaign under PeterPietro la Vega was carried out between 1775 and 1778; the third and final exploration dates to 1967–68 when the villa was rediscovered following the discovery of a perimeter wall after removal of a layer of ''[[lapilli]]'' on agricultural land. This excavation was funded by the landowner and the superintendent of the time tried to expropriate church land in the area between Villa Arianna and Villa San Marco in order to combine the areas of the villas of Stabiae. While waiting for the permit, the villa was re-buried in 1970 to prevent it from ruin. As a result of various bureaucratic problems related to the expropriation, the villa remains buried and has not yet been fully excavated.<ref>Giovanna Bonifacio, Anna Maria Sodo, ''Stabiae – Archaeological Guide to Villas , Castellammare di Stabia'', Longobardi Editore, 2006, {{ISBN|88-8090-125-7}}</ref>

The Villa del Pastore dates from between the eighth century BC and 79 AD. It is divided into two parts: a large outdoor area and a series of residential rooms. The garden area is bordered to the south by the semicircular wall, while on the north is a 140m long ''[[cryptoporticus]]'' which runs parallel to a colonnade on a slightly lower level. At the centre of the garden is a swimming pool (''[[natatio]]'') with marble staircase. In the centre of the semicircular [[Alcove (architecture)|alcove]] was found the statue that gives the villa its name, of marble, 65&nbsp;cm tall in [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] style and is an old shepherd dressed in hides, carrying on his shoulders a kid, with a basket with grapes and bread on his left hand while in the right hand is a hare. Also in the garden to the south west is a porch 10x2m portico paved with black and white mosaic. Also a small square [[nympheum|''nymphaeum'']] was found in the centre of which was placed a marble [[Labrum (architecture)|''labrum'']].

The second part of the villa has fifteen rooms around a central courtyard, on the north side of which lies the baths area in which is located an ''[[apodyterium]]'', a steam bath, a kitchen and a [[Vestibule (architecture)|vestibule]].

This (also called Villa del Fauno or Villa Chapel San Marco) is a ''villa otium'' situated on the border between Castellammare di Stabia and Gragnano, a few metres from Villa San Marco and on the Varano plateau.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Villa of Anteros and Hercules -– AD79eruption |url=https://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption/stabiae/villa-of-anteros-and-hercules |access-date=2020-09-18 |website=sites.google.com}}</ref> It was the first Stabian villa to be excavated during the Bourbon excavations of the ancient town in 1749 and was explored again by Karl Weber in 1779. After being investigated and plundered of all items considered of value it was reburied.

In the southwest corner of a small peristyle were the remains of a ''[[lararium]]'', in the niche of which was of a young Julio-Claudian woman, perhaps [[Livia]] or [[Antonia Minor]], with curly hair adorned with a brooch, now in the [[Naples Museum|Naples museum]] (inv. 6193).

Next to it an [[altar]] was found and on the wall above a plaque about 1.5m wide in red letters and from the [[Augustus|Augustan]] or [[Tiberius|Tiberian]] era that read:<ref>PAOLA MINIERO: Ville scavate nel Settecento nel territorio di Stabiae, Città vesuviane: antichità e fortuna: il suburbio e l'agro di Pompei, Ercolano, Oplontis e Stabiae, Roma: Treccani editrice, 2015</ref>

It reports the dedication of a gift, perhaps the altar itself, to the ''[[Lares]]'' and the ''Familia''

It was discovered in 1957 during industrial ''[[lapilli]]'' extraction and its exploration continued until 1958, followed by Libero D'Orsi, when after stripping it of frescoes and the best artworks it was reburied.<ref name="sites.google.com">{{Cite web |title=Villa Petraro -– AD79eruption |url=https://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption/stabiae/villa-petraro |access-date=2020-09-18 |website=sites.google.com}}</ref>

It had a large courtyard with ''[[cryptoporticus]]'' and oven and well. The rooms branch off from the central area: there are workspaces, ''triclinia'', ''cubicula'' and six ''[[ergastula]]'', or cells for slaves.

Following the renovation, the eastern part of the villa was equipped with a spa composed of a ''calidarium'' with a [[Barrel vault|barrel-vaulted]] roof, a ''frigidarium'' in which new pools were under construction, a ''tepidarium'' equipped with clay pipes for heating the room, a furnace and an ''[[apodyterium]]'', the changing room.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Villa Petraro (Stabiae -– Campania) {{!}} romanoimpero.com |url=https://www.romanoimpero.com/2018/01/villa-petraro-stabiae-campania.html |access-date=2020-09-18 |website=www.romanoimpero.com}}</ref> The decorative panels represented [[Bucolic|bucolic scenes]], river gods, cupids and mythological representations such as [[Pasifae]] with [[Narcissus (mythology)|Narcissus]] reflected in the water, Psyche, a [[Satyr]] with goat and a Satyr with ''[[rhyton]]''; however, most of the walls of the villa had been covered with white plaster as well as twenty-five unfinished fine [[stucco]] panels.<ref name="sites.google.com"/>

The villa was one of two nearby in Carmiano, Gragnano, excavated by Libero D'Orsi from 1963 but re-buried in 1998.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption/stabiae/villa-carmiano |title=Villa Carmiano -– AD79eruption}}</ref> Many fine frescoes were found and removed for preservation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Villa Gragnano Localita Carmiano |url=https://www.pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/VF/Villa_097%20Gragnano%20Localita%20Carmiano%20A.htm |access-date=2020-09-18 |website=www.pompeiiinpictures.com}}</ref>

It is a rustic villa of the ''ager stabianus'' located just under a kilometre from the plateau of Varano. It has an area of 400 square metresm² and dates from the end of the 1st c. BC. The quality of the paintings indicates that the owner was a wealthy farmer.<ref>Giovanna Bonifacio; Anna Maria Sodo, Gina Carla Ascione, In Stabiano -– Cultura e archeologia da Stabiae , Castellammare di Stabia, Longobardi Editore, 2006. {{ISBN|88-8090-126-5}} p 36</ref> The most important works come from the ''[[triclinium]]'' such as the representation of [[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]] and [[Amymone]], [[Bacchus]] and [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]] and the Triumph of [[Dionysus]].

The entrance includes a dog's bedkennel. The atrium has a ''[[lararium]]'' dedicated to [[Minerva]]. The service rooms include a wine press, tank for the collection of the must and a wine cellar with twelve [[Dolia (vessels)|''dolia'']] with a total capacity of seven thousand litres. The rooms used for the storage of the crop and tools for working the land are paved in clay, while the residential area such as the ''triclinium'', finely decorated with paintings in [[Flavian dynasty|Flavian]] art, has tiled floors.

A seal with the letters ''MAR . A . S'' found during excavations may record the first name of the patron MAR, followed by the initial of the ''[[gens]]'' (family) A and then the word S(ervi).

<gallery mode="packed-hover" heights="200px200">

File:Trionfo di Dioniso 1.jpg|Triumph of Dionynsus[[Dionysus]]

File:Villa Carmiano triclinio 2.jpg|[[Bacchus]] and [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]], from the ''[[triclinium]]'', Villa Carmiano

The villa dates from the [[Augustus]]-[[Tiberius]] era and is probably built around a square courtyard. The area found is a large room near the [[perimeter]] wall with a small farmyard enclosed by lower walls and three square-base columns as part of a portico in the entrance to the villa, decorated with images of animals, plants and masks.

Named after its locality, it was explored by la Vega in 1781–2. The villa has a rectangular plan with a courtyard in the centre with six columns frescoed in red, a ''[[dolium]]'', a well and a basin with a canal that served as a drinking trough for animals. From the courtyard there are a series of rooms such as the kitchen with oven, a latrine, an ''[[apotheca]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), APOTHE´CA |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0063:entry=apotheca-cn&highlight=apotheca |access-date=2023-03-20 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> (upstairs store-room) where fruits were collected and laid on a straw bed<ref>Arnold De Vos; Mariette De Vos, Pompei, Ercolano, Stabia , Roma, Editori Laterza, 1982. p 330</ref> and a ''[[torcularium]]'' (a shed or out-house where the presses for oil or wine were worked<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), TORCULARIUM |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0063:entry=torcularium-cn |access-date=2023-03-20 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref>), which in turn gives access to a large frescoed room with a yellow [[plinth]] and red stripes while the upper part has green bands on a dark background with drawings of flowers and leaves. In this room were found a cup, a bell and an axe. There is also a wine cellar.

It was found in 1778 and owes its name to the discovery of a ring adorned with a carved [[cornelian]] depicting the bust of a philosopher. The villa had not been disturbed since the eruption in 79 and many portable objects were found including the ring and an ivory needle with Venus, agricultural tools, [[terracotta]] objects, [[candelabra]], bronze vases and the skeleton of a horse.<ref name="centroculturalegragnano.it">Giuseppe Di Massa, Il Territorio di Gragnano nell'antichità e l'ager stabianus (PDF), pp. 41 http://www.centroculturalegragnano.it/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Il-Territorio-di-Gragnano-nell%E2%80%99antichit%C3%A0-e-l%E2%80%99Ager-Stabianus.pdf</ref>

The villa was built around a courtyard with a windowed ''[[cryptoporticus]]'' on the north and arcades on the south and east sides, while in the centre there is a ''[[tufa]]'' altar and a well for water collection. Around the courtyard are rooms for residential and farming use. There is a spa area paved with a white mosaic with a dolphin in black entwining a rudder, while the walls are frescoed with paintings of animals and masks and one of the most beautiful representing Venus.

The villa Marchetti located in Santa Maria La Carità was a very large villa, over 2000 sqm. where, in addition to the cultivation of grapes (wooden poles were found for the vineyard), horses and cattle were bred, cereals were grown, and the production cycle was completed with the mill and cooking in the ovens. Cheese was probably produced, as evidenced by a bronze boiler. Large lead pipes and [[hydraulic valvesvalve]]s, found near the villa and along the roads (for example in the current Piazza Trivione and throughout the Carmiano area), are testimony to the extent of services in use. A housing block for 14 slaves was found.

The part of the villa shown in red was excavated in 1762 while the rest was done in 1781.<ref>Ruggiero M., 1881. Degli scavi di Stabia dal 1749 al 1782, Napoli, p. 347-8</ref> It was centred around a peristyle and an olive mill was found in the ''torcularium''.<ref>Villa detto Carmiano in Masseria Buonodono https://pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/VF/Villa_008%20Gragnano%20Carmiano%20masseria%20Buonodono.htm</ref> Several agricultural implements were found including [[Hoe (tool)|hoes]], a hammer and ''[[amphorae]]''.

This is a ''villa rustica'' excavated in 1779 - 801779–80 and is near the ''villas of [[Otiumotium]]'' of ancient Stabia. It is divided into residential and the rustic areas; the living area consists of an entrance portico with three columns, in which a staircase leads to the upper floor and divides the entrance from a small ''atrium''. Around this are several rooms and a doorway into a large peristyle with twenty columns, with frescoed walls and floors decorated with mosaics and marble ''[[opus sectile]]''. There are also [[thermal baths]].<ref>Arnold De Vos; Mariette De Vos, Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabia, Rome, Editori Laterza, 1982. p. 328</ref>

The almost total absence of [[Temple|templestemple]]s in the central Stabiae area suggests that these were most likely razed to the ground during the occupation of [[Sulla]]: however, some remains suggest the presence of various sacred structures such as a temple dedicated to [[Hercules]], [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]], [[Athena]], [[Cybele]] and most importantly the Genius Stabianum.

The temple of Hercules was located on the rock of Rovigliano (''Petra Herculis''), a limestone islet about 200 metres from the coast. The name Rovigliano derives either from an ancient Roman family name, the ''[[gens]]'' Rubilia or from the ''consul'' Rubelio, owner of the rock, or from the Latin term ''robilia'' the [[leguminous plants]] which grew abundantly in the ''ager'' area. Few traces of the temple of Hercules survived but include a wall in ''[[opus reticulatum]]'', and a bronze statue representing Hercules which has since been lost.

The temple of Diana was located in the hamlet of Pozzano at the southern end of the ''ager stabianus'' on the hill near the basilica of the Madonna di Pozzano. In 1585 remnants were found in the church garden including aan altar with deer heads, flowers and fruits, which is now kept in the Villa San Marco.

The temple of Athena was brought to light in 1984 in the Privati area, on the banks of the Rivo Calcarella, over an area of about 200 square metres. The temple dates from the [[Samnites|Samnite]] period, probably built around the 4th century BC and contained a large quantity of [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]]. Among the most important finds found in this temple is a [[relief]] of the head of Hercules, of Hellenistic inspiration, made between the fourth and third century BC.

* [https://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption/stabiae Stabiae -– Comprehensive site on the eruption of 79&nbsp;AD] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127100907/https://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption/stabiae |date=27 January 2022 }}

* [http://www.auav46.dsl.pipex.com/p125.htm Herculaneum/Pompeii/Stabiae Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216125711/http://www.auav46.dsl.pipex.com/p125.htm |date=16 December 2008 }}

[[Category:Destroyed citiespopulated places]]