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{{Short description|Biome characterized by coniferous forests}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Pp-move-indef|small=yes}}▼
{{Distinguish|Tiger}}
{{Infobox ecoregion
|name=Taiga
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'''Taiga''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|aɪ|ɡ|ə}}; {{lang-ru|тайга́|p=tɐjˈɡa}}), also known as '''boreal forest''' or '''snow forest''', is a [[biome]] characterized by [[pinophyta|coniferous]] [[forest]]s consisting mostly of [[pine]]s, [[spruce]]s, and [[larch]]es. The taiga or boreal forest
[[File:Adirondacks in May 2008.jpg|thumb|The [[Adirondack Mountains]] of [[Upstate New York]] form the southernmost part of the [[Eastern forest-boreal transition]] [[ecoregion]], constituting part of the
The
▲The taiga or boreal forest has been called the world's largest land [[biome]].<ref name="Berkeley">{{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/forests.php#boreal |title=Berkeley: The forest biome |publisher=Ucmp.berkeley.edu |access-date=2019-05-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620145416/https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/forests.php#boreal |archive-date=2019-06-20 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In North America, it covers most of inland [[Canada]], [[Alaska]], and parts of the northern contiguous United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trails.com/list_11901_list-plants-animals-canadian-wilderness.html |title=List of Plants & Animals in the Canadian Wilderness |publisher=Trails.com |date=2010-07-27 |access-date=2016-12-26 |archive-date=2018-09-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914022617/https://www.trails.com/list_11901_list-plants-animals-canadian-wilderness.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In [[Eurasia]], it covers most of [[Sweden]], [[Finland]], much of [[Russia]] from [[Karelia]] in the west to the [[Pacific Ocean]] (including much of [[Siberia]]), much of [[Norway]] and [[Estonia]], some of the [[Scottish Highlands]],{{Citation needed|reason=subalpine woods of different climate zone; no mention in "Taiga ecoregions", or indeed anywhere other than the infobox|date=March 2021}} some lowland/coastal areas of [[Iceland]], and areas of northern [[Kazakhstan]], northern [[Mongolia]], and northern [[Japan]] (on the island of [[Hokkaidō]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Taiga {{!}} Plants, Animals, Climate, Location, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/taiga |access-date=2023-05-04 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
▲[[File:Adirondacks in May 2008.jpg|thumb|The [[Adirondack Mountains]] of [[Upstate New York]] form the southernmost part of the [[Eastern forest-boreal transition]] [[ecoregion]], constituting part of the world’s taiga [[biome]].]]
▲The main tree species, depending on the length of the growing season and summer temperatures, varies across the world. The taiga of North America is mostly spruce, [[Scandinavia]]n and [[Finland|Finnish]] taiga consists of a mix of [[Norway spruce|spruce]], pines and [[Betula|birch]], Russian taiga has spruces, pines and larches depending on the region, while the [[Eastern Siberian taiga]] is a vast larch forest.
Taiga in its current form is a relatively recent phenomenon, having only existed for the last 12,000 years since the beginning of the [[Holocene]] epoch, covering land that had been [[mammoth steppe]] or under the [[Weichselian glaciation|Scandinavian Ice Sheet]] in Eurasia and under the [[Laurentide Ice Sheet]] in North America during the [[Late Pleistocene]].
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Although at high elevations taiga grades into [[alpine tundra]] through [[Krummholz]], it is not exclusively an alpine biome, and unlike [[Montane ecology#Subalpine zone|subalpine forest]], much of taiga is lowlands.
The term "taiga" is not used consistently by all cultures. In the English language, "boreal forest" is used in the United States and [[Boreal forest of Canada|Canada]] in referring to more southerly regions, while "taiga" is used to describe the more northern, barren areas approaching the [[tree line]] and the [[tundra]]. Hoffman (1958) discusses the origin of this differential use in North America and how this differentiation distorts established Russian usage.<ref name=Hoffman1958>{{cite journal |title=The Meaning of the Word "Taiga" |doi=10.2307/1931768|jstor=1931768|last1=Hoffmann|first1=Robert S.|journal=Ecology|year=1958|volume=39|issue=3|pages=540–541|bibcode=1958Ecol...39..540H }}</ref>
[[Climate change]] is a threat to taiga,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Graham|first=Karen|date=2021-05-19|title='Zombie fires' may become more common as the climate warms|url=https://www.digitaljournal.com/tech-science/zombie-fires-may-become-more-common-as-the-climate-warms/article|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Digital Journal|language=en-US}}</ref> and how the [[Carbon sink|carbon dioxide absorbed]] or [[Carbon emission|emitted]]<ref name="ucsusa">{{Cite web |title=Carbon Emissions from Boreal Forest Wildfires |url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/carbon-emissions-boreal-forest-wildfires |access-date=2022-05-31 |website=Union of Concerned Scientists |date=Apr 27, 2022 |first1=Carly |last1=Phillips |language=en}}</ref> should be treated by [[carbon accounting]] is controversial.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-18|title=How should the world's nations account for the carbon absorbed by their forests? We better figure it out|url=https://bellona.org/news/carbon-dioxide-removal/2021-05-how-should-the-worlds-nations-account-for-the-carbon-absorbed-by-their-forests-we-better-figure-it-out|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Bellona.org|language=en-US}}</ref>
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[[File:Skjomtinden & Kongsbakktinden from Bogen, 2010 September.JPG|thumb|Late September in the [[fjord]]s near [[Narvik]], Norway. This oceanic part of the forest can see more than {{cvt|1,000|mm|in}} precipitation annually and has warmer winters than the vast inland taiga.]]
In general, taiga grows to the south of the {{cvt|10|C|F}} July [[Isotherm (contour line)|isotherm]], occasionally as far north as the
In these warmer areas the taiga has higher species diversity, with more warmth-loving species such as [[Korean pine]], [[Jezo spruce]], and [[Manchurian fir]], and merges gradually into [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests|mixed temperate forest]] or, more locally (on the [[Pacific Ocean]] coasts of North America and Asia), into coniferous [[temperate rainforest]]s where oak and hornbeam appear and join the conifers, birch and [[Populus tremula]].
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The area currently classified as taiga in Europe and North America (except Alaska) was [[Wisconsin glaciation|recently glaciated]]. As the glaciers receded they left [[Kettle (geology)|depressions]] in the topography that have since filled with water, creating [[lake]]s and [[bog]]s (especially [[muskeg]] soil) found throughout the taiga.
[[File:Yukon River near Carmacks, Yukon -a.jpg|thumb|right|[[Yukon
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File:Talkessel von Werchojansk.JPG|The taiga in the river valley near [[Verkhoyansk]], [[Russia]], at 67°N, experiences the coldest winter temperatures in the northern hemisphere, but the extreme continentality of the climate gives an average daily high of {{cvt|22|C|F}} in July
File:Helvetinjärvi.JPG|Lakes and other water bodies are common in the taiga. The [[Helvetinjärvi National Park]], Finland, is situated in the closed canopy taiga (mid-boreal to south-boreal)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://131.95.113.139/courses/multivariate/Diatom_community.pdf|title=Finland vegetation zone and freshwater biome|website=113.139|access-date=19 April 2018|archive-date=11 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911201301/http://131.95.113.139/courses/multivariate/Diatom_community.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> with mean annual temperature of {{cvt|4|C|F}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldclimate.com/cgi-bin/data.pl?ref=N61E023+1102+02944W |title=Tampere/Pirkkala, Finland Weather History and Climate Data |publisher=Worldclimate.com |date=2007-02-04 |access-date=2011-02-21}}</ref>
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==Flora==
[[File:BaikalForest (pixinn.net).jpg|thumb|right|upright|Boreal forest near [[Lake Baikal]] in [[Russia]]]]
Since [[North America]] and [[Eurasia]] were originally connected by the [[Bering land bridge]], a number of animal and plant [[species]], more animals than plants, were able to colonize both land masses, and are globally-distributed throughout the taiga biome (see [[Circumboreal Region]]). Others differ regionally, typically with each [[genus]] having several distinct species, each occupying different regions of the taiga. Taigas also have some small-leaved [[deciduous]] trees, like [[birch]], [[alder]], [[willow]], and [[Populus|poplar]]. These grow mostly in areas further south of the most extreme winter weather.
The [[Larix gmelinii|Dahurian larch]] tolerates the coldest winters of the Northern Hemisphere, in eastern Siberia. The very southernmost parts of the taiga may have trees such as [[oak]], [[maple]], [[elm]] and [[tilia|lime]] scattered among the conifers, and there is usually a gradual transition into a temperate, mixed forest, such as the [[eastern forest-boreal transition]] of eastern Canada. In the interior of the continents, with the driest climates, the boreal forests might grade into temperate [[grassland]].
There are two major types of taiga. The southern part is the '''closed canopy forest''', consisting of many closely-spaced trees and mossy groundcover. In clearings in the forest, shrubs and wildflowers are common, such as the [[fireweed]] and [[Lupinus|lupine]]. The other type is the '''lichen woodland''' or '''sparse taiga''', with trees that are farther-spaced and [[lichen]] groundcover; the latter is common in the northernmost taiga.<ref>Sayre, 12–13.</ref> In the northernmost taiga, the forest cover is not only more sparse, but often stunted in growth form; moreover, [[ice pruning|ice-pruned]], asymmetric black spruce (in North America) are often seen, with diminished foliage on the windward side.<ref>C. Michael Hogan, [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=44751 ''Black Spruce: Picea mariana'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. Nicklas Stromberg, November, 2008] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005174426/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=44751 |date=2011-10-05 }}</ref>
In Canada, Scandinavia and Finland, the boreal forest is usually divided into three subzones: The '''high boreal''' (northern boreal/taiga zone), the '''middle boreal''' (closed forest), and the '''southern boreal''', a closed-canopy, boreal forest with some scattered temperate, deciduous trees among the conifers.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author=George H. La Roi |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/boreal-forest |title=Boreal forest |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |access-date=2013-11-27 |archive-date=2015-10-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016044738/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/boreal-forest/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Commonly seen are species such as maple, elm and oak. This southern boreal forest experiences the longest and warmest growing season of the biome. In some regions, including Scandinavia and western Russia, this subzone is commonly used for agricultural purposes.
The boreal forest is home to many types of [[berries]]. Some species are confined to the southern and middle closed-boreal forest (such as [[fragaria|wild strawberry]] and [[mitchella repens|partridgeberry]]); others grow in most areas of the taiga (such as [[cranberry]] and [[cloudberry]]). Some berries can grow in both the taiga and the lower arctic (southern regions) tundra, such as [[bilberry]], [[cornus canadensis|bunchberry]] and [[lingonberry]].
[[File:SevenlakesAlaska.JPG|thumb|Taiga spruce forest in the [[Kenai National Wildlife Refuge]], Alaska. Trees in this environment tend to grow closer to the trunk and not "bush out" in the normal manner of spruce trees.]]
The forests of the taiga are largely [[Pinophyta|coniferous]], dominated by [[larch]], [[spruce]], [[fir]] and [[pine]]. The woodland mix varies according to geography and climate; for example, the [[Eastern Canadian forests]] ecoregion (of the higher elevations of the [[Laurentian Mountains]] and the northern [[Appalachian Mountains]]) in Canada is dominated by balsam fir ''[[Abies balsamea]]'', while further north, the [[Eastern Canadian Shield taiga]] (of northern [[Quebec]] and [[Labrador]]) is mostly black spruce ''[[Picea mariana]]'' and tamarack larch ''[[Larix laricina]]''.
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Although the taiga is dominated by coniferous forests, some [[flowering plant|broadleaf trees]] also occur, including [[birch]], [[aspen]], [[willow]], and [[rowan]]. Many smaller [[herbaceous]] plants, such as [[fern]]s and occasionally [[allium tricoccum|ramps]] grow closer to the ground. Periodic stand-replacing [[wildfire]]s (with return times of between 20 and 200 years) clear out the tree canopies, allowing sunlight to invigorate new growth on the forest floor. For some species, wildfires are a necessary part of the life cycle in the taiga; some, e.g. [[jack pine]] have cones which only open to release their seed after a fire, dispersing their seeds onto the newly cleared ground; certain species of fungi (such as [[morchella|morels]]) are also known to do this. [[Grass]]es grow wherever they can find a patch of sun; [[moss]]es and [[lichen]]s thrive on the damp ground and on the sides of tree trunks. In comparison with other biomes, however, the taiga has low botanical diversity.
Coniferous trees are the dominant plants of the taiga biome. Very few species, in
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[[File:Brown-bear-in-spring.jpg|thumb|A [[Brown bear]], [[Kamchatka peninsula]]. Brown bears are among the largest and most widespread taiga [[omnivore]]s.]]
The boreal forest/taiga supports a relatively small variety of highly
The cold winters and short summers make the taiga a challenging biome for [[reptile]]s and [[amphibian]]s, which depend on environmental conditions to regulate their body temperatures. There are only a few species in the boreal forest, including [[common garter snake|red-sided garter snake]], [[vipera berus|common European adder]], [[blue-spotted salamander]], [[northern two-lined salamander]], [[Siberian salamander]], [[wood frog]], [[northern leopard frog]], [[boreal chorus frog]], [[American toad]], and [[Canadian toad]]. Most hibernate underground in winter.
Fish of the taiga must be able to withstand cold water conditions and be able to adapt to life under ice-covered water. Species in the taiga include [[Alaska blackfish]], [[northern pike]], [[walleye]], [[longnose sucker]], [[white sucker]], various species of [[cisco (fish)|cisco]], [[lake whitefish]], [[round whitefish]], [[pygmy whitefish]], [[Arctic lamprey]], various [[Thymallus|grayling]] species, [[brook trout]] (including sea-run brook trout in the Hudson Bay area), [[chum salmon]], [[Hucho taimen|Siberian taimen]], [[lenok]] and [[lake chub]].
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[[File:Snowscape (6701322581).jpg|thumb|[[Seney National Wildlife Refuge]].]]
The taiga is mainly home to a number of large [[Herbivore|herbivorous]] [[mammal]]s, such as ''Alces alces'' ([[moose]]), and a few subspecies of ''Rangifer tarandus'' ([[reindeer]] in Eurasia
Small mammals of the taiga biome include [[rodent]] species such as the [[beaver]], [[squirrel]], [[chipmunk]], [[marmot]], [[lemming]], [[North American porcupine]] and [[vole]], as well as a small number of [[lagomorph]] species, such as the [[pika]], [[snowshoe hare]] and [[mountain hare]]. These species have adapted to survive the harsh winters in their native ranges. Some larger mammals, such as [[bear]]s, eat heartily during the summer in order to gain weight, and then go into [[hibernation]] during the winter. Other animals have adapted layers of fur or feathers to insulate them from the cold.
Predatory mammals of the taiga must be adapted to travel long distances in search of scattered prey, or be able to supplement their diet with vegetation or other forms of food (such as [[raccoon]]s). Mammalian predators of the taiga include [[Canada lynx]], [[Eurasian lynx]], [[stoat]], [[Siberian weasel]], [[least weasel]], [[sable]], [[American marten]], [[North American river otter]], [[European otter]], [[American mink]], [[wolverine]], [[Asian badger]], [[Fisher (animal)|fisher]], [[Subspecies of Canis lupus|timber wolf]], [[Mongolian wolf]], [[coyote]], [[red fox]], [[Arctic fox]], [[grizzly bear]], [[American black bear]], [[Asiatic black bear]], [[Ussuri brown bear]], [[polar bear]] (only small areas of northern taiga), [[Siberian tiger]], and [[Amur leopard]].
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The dominant fire regime in the boreal forest is high-intensity crown fires or severe surface fires of very large size, often more than 10,000 ha (100 km<sup>2</sup>), and sometimes more than 400,000 ha (4000 km<sup>2</sup>).<ref name="hein2" /> Such fires kill entire stands. Fire rotations in the drier regions of western Canada and Alaska average 50–100 years, shorter than in the moister climates of eastern Canada, where they may average 200 years or more. Fire cycles also tend to be long near the tree line in the subarctic spruce-lichen woodlands. The longest cycles, possibly 300 years, probably occur in the western boreal in floodplain white spruce.<ref name="hein2" />
Amiro et al. (2001) calculated the mean fire cycle for the period 1980 to 1999 in the Canadian boreal forest (including taiga) at 126 years.<ref name="amiro" /> Increased fire activity has been predicted for western Canada, but parts of eastern Canada may experience less fire in future because of greater precipitation in a warmer climate.<ref name="flann">{{cite journal |last1=Flannigan |first1=M. D. |last2=Bergeron |first2=Y. |last3=Engelmark |first3=O. |last4=Wotton |first4=B. M. |year=1998 |title=Future wildfire in circumboreal forests in relation to global warming |journal=J. Veg. Sci. |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=469–76 |doi=10.2307/3237261 |jstor=3237261 |doi-access=free |bibcode=1998JVegS...9..469F }}</ref>
The mature boreal forest pattern in the south shows [[Abies balsamea|balsam fir]] dominant on well-drained sites in eastern Canada changing centrally and westward to a prominence of [[Picea engelmannii|white spruce]], with [[Picea mariana|black spruce]] and [[Larix laricina|tamarack]] forming the forests on peats, and with jack pine usually present on dry sites except in the extreme east, where it is absent.<ref name="rowe4">{{cite journal |last1=Rowe |first1=J. S. |last2=Scotter |first2=G. W. |year=1973 |title=Fire in the boreal forest |journal=Quaternary Res. |volume=3 |issue= 3|pages=444–64 |doi=10.1016/0033-5894(73)90008-2 |bibcode=1973QuRes...3..444R |s2cid=129118655 }} [E3680, Coates et al. 1994]</ref> The effects of fires are inextricably woven into the patterns of vegetation on the landscape, which in the east favour black spruce, paper birch, and jack pine over balsam fir, and in the west give the advantage to aspen, jack pine, black spruce, and birch over white spruce. Many investigators have reported the ubiquity of charcoal under the forest floor and in the upper soil profile.<ref name="la">{{cite journal |last=La Roi |first=G. H. |year=1967 |title=Ecological studies in the boreal spruce–fir forests of the North American taiga. I. Analysis of the vascular flora |journal=Ecol. Monogr. |volume=37 |issue= 3|pages=229–53 |doi=10.2307/1948439 |jstor=1948439 |bibcode=1967EcoM...37..229L }}</ref> Charcoal in [[soil]]s provided Bryson et al. (1965) with clues about the forest history of an area 280 km north of the then-current tree line at Ennadai Lake, District Keewatin, Northwest Territories.<ref name="bryson">{{cite journal |last1=Bryson |first1=R. A. |last2=Irving |first2=W. H. |last3=Larson |first3=J. A. |year=1965 |title=Radiocarbon and soil evidence of former forest in the southern Canadian tundra |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=147 |issue=3653 |pages=46–48 |doi=10.1126/science.147.3653.46 |pmid=17799777 |bibcode=1965Sci...147...46B |s2cid=46218641 }}</ref>
[[File:Shanta2 7-8-2009.jpg|thumb|The [[Shanta Creek Fire]] began in a taiga area that had not had a major fire in over 130 years, and so was allowed to burn unchecked until it began to threaten populated areas.]]
Two lines of evidence support the thesis that fire has always been an integral factor in the boreal forest: (1) direct, eye-witness accounts and forest-fire statistics, and (2) indirect, circumstantial evidence based on the effects of fire, as well as on persisting indicators.<ref name="rowe4" /> The patchwork mosaic of forest stands in the boreal forest, typically with abrupt, irregular boundaries circumscribing homogenous stands, is indirect but compelling testimony to the role of fire in shaping the forest. The fact is that most boreal forest stands are less than 100 years old, and only in the rather few areas that have escaped burning are there stands of white spruce older than 250 years.<ref name="rowe4" />
The prevalence of fire-adaptive morphologic and reproductive characteristics of many boreal plant species is further evidence pointing to a long and intimate association with fire. Seven of the ten most common trees in the boreal forest—[[jack pine]], [[Pinus contorta|lodgepole pine]], [[aspen]], [[Populus balsamifera|balsam poplar]] (''Populus balsamifera''), [[Betula papyrifera|paper birch]], [[Larix laricina|tamarack]], [[Picea mariana|black spruce]] – can be classed as pioneers in their adaptations for rapid invasion of open areas. White spruce shows some pioneering abilities, too, but is less able than black spruce and the pines to disperse seed at all seasons. Only balsam fir and alpine fir seem to be poorly adapted to reproduce after fire, as their cones disintegrate at maturity, leaving no seed in the crowns.
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==Climate change==
During the last quarter of the twentieth century, the zone of latitude occupied by the boreal forest experienced some of the greatest temperature increases on Earth. Winter temperatures have increased more than summer temperatures. In summer, the daily low temperature has increased more than the daily high temperature.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.arcus.org/witness-the-arctic/2009/3/article/507 |title=Coincidence and Contradiction in the Warming Boreal Forest |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=32 |issue=15 |doi=10.1029/2005GL023331 |access-date=2012-01-14|bibcode=2005GeoRL..3215715W |date=2009-10-09 |last1=Wilmking |first1=M. |pages=L15715 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The number of days with extremely cold temperatures (e.g.,
It has been hypothesized that the boreal environments have only a few states which are stable in the long term - a treeless tundra/steppe, a forest with >75% tree cover and an open woodland with ~20% and ~45% tree cover. Thus, continued climate change would be able to force at least some of the presently existing taiga forests into one of the two woodland states or even into a treeless steppe - but it could also shift tundra areas into woodland or forest states as they warm and become more suitable for tree growth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Scheffer |first1=Marten |last2=Hirota |first2=Marina |last3=Holmgren |first3=Milena |author-link3=Milena Holmgren |last4=Van Nes |first4=Egbert H. |last5=Chapin |first5=F. Stuart |date=26 December 2012 |title=Thresholds for boreal biome transitions |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=109 |issue=52 |pages=21384–21389 |bibcode=2012PNAS..10921384S |doi=10.1073/pnas.1219844110 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3535627 |pmid=23236159
In keeping with this hypothesis, several studies published in the early 2010s found that there was already a substantial drought-induced tree loss in the western Canadian boreal forests since the 1960s: although this trend was weak or even non-existent in the eastern forests,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Peng |first1=Changhui |last2=Ma |first2=Zhihai |last3=Lei |first3=Xiangdong |last4=Zhu |first4=Qiuan |last5=Chen |first5=Huai |last6=Wang |first6=Weifeng |last7=Liu |first7=Shirong |last8=Li |first8=Weizhong |last9=Fang |first9=Xiuqin |last10=Zhou |first10=Xiaolu |date=20 November 2011 |title=A drought-induced pervasive increase in tree mortality across Canada's boreal forests |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate1293 |journal=Nature Climate Change |language=en |volume=1 |issue=9 |pages=467–471 |doi=10.1038/nclimate1293 |bibcode=2011NatCC...1..467P }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ma |first1=Zhihai |last2=Peng |first2=Changhui |last3=Zhu |first3=Qiuan |last4=Chen |first4=Huai |last5=Yu |first5=Guirui |last6=Li |first6=Weizhong |last7=Zhou |first7=Xiaolu |last8=Wang |first8=Weifeng |last9=Zhang |first9=Wenhua |date=30 January 2012 |title=Regional drought-induced reduction in the biomass carbon sink of Canada's boreal forests |journal=Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=109 |issue=7 |pages=2423–2427 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1111576109 |pmid=22308340 |pmc=3289349 |bibcode=2012PNAS..109.2423M |doi-access=free }}</ref> it was particularly pronounced in the western coniferous forests.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Chen |first1=Han Y. H. |last2=Luo |first2=Yong |date=2 July 2015 |title=Net aboveground biomass declines of four major forest types with forest ageing and climate change in western Canada's boreal forests |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.12994 |journal=Global Change Biology |language=en |volume=21 |issue=10 |pages=3675–3684 |doi=10.1111/gcb.12994 |pmid=26136379 |bibcode=2015GCBio..21.3675C |s2cid=25403205 }}</ref> However, in 2016, a study found no overall Canadian boreal forest trend between 1950 and 2012: while it also found improved growth in some southern boreal forests and dampened growth in the north (contrary to what the hypothesis would suggest), those patterns were statistically weak.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Girardin |first1=Martin P. |last2=Bouriaud |first2=Olivier |last3=Hogg |first3=Edward H. |last4=Kurz |first4=Werner |last5=Zimmermann |first5=Niklaus E. |last6=Metsaranta |first6=Juha M. |last7=de Jong |first7=Rogier |last8=Frank |first8=David C. |last9=Esper |first9=Jan |last10=Büntgen |first10=Ulf |last11=Guo |first11=Xiao Jing |last12=Bhatti |first12=Jagtar |date=12 December 2016 |title= No growth stimulation of Canada's boreal forest under half-century of combined warming and CO2 fertilization |journal=Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=113 |issue=52 |pages=E8406–E8414 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1610156113 |pmid=27956624 |pmc=5206510 |bibcode=2016PNAS..113E8406G |doi-access=free }}</ref>
A 2018 [[Landsat]] reanalysis confirmed that there was a drying trend and a loss of forest in western Canadian forests and some greening in the wetter east, but it had also concluded that most of the [[forest loss]] attributed to climate change in the earlier studies had instead constituted a delayed response to anthropogenic disturbance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sulla-Menashe |first1=Damien |last2=Woodcock |first2=Curtis E |last3=Friedl |first3=Mark A |date=4 January 2018 |title=Canadian boreal forest greening and browning trends: an analysis of biogeographic patterns and the relative roles of disturbance versus climate drivers |journal=Environmental Research Letters |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=014007 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aa9b88 |bibcode=2018ERL....13a4007S |s2cid=158470300 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Subsequent research found that even in the forests where biomass trends did not change, there was a substantial shift towards the deciduous broad-leaved trees with higher drought tolerance over the past 65 years,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hisano |first1=Masumi |last2=Ryo |first2=Masahiro |last3=Chen |first3=Xinli |last4=Chen |first4=Han Y. H. |date=16 May 2021 |title=Rapid functional shifts across high latitude forests over the last 65 years |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.15710 |journal=Global Change Biology |language=en |volume=27 |issue=16 |pages=3846–3858 |doi=10.1111/gcb.15710 |pmid=33993581 |s2cid=234744857 }}</ref> and another Landsat analysis of 100,000 undisturbed sites found that the areas with low tree cover became greener in response to warming, but tree mortality (browning) became the dominant response as the proportion of existing tree cover increased.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Berner |first1=Logan T. |last2=Goetz |first2=Scott J. |date=24 February 2022 |title=Satellite observations document trends consistent with a boreal forest biome shift |journal=Global Change Biology |language=en |volume=28 |issue=10 |pages=3846–3858 |doi=10.1111/gcb.16121 |pmid=35199413 |pmc=9303657 }}</ref>
While the majority of studies on boreal forest transitions have been done in Canada, similar trends have been detected in the other countries. Summer warming has been shown to increase water stress and reduce tree growth in dry areas of the southern boreal forest in central Alaska and portions of far eastern Russia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.libraryindex.com/pages/3196/Boreal-Forests-Climate-Change.html |title=Boreal Forests and Climate Change - Changes in Climate Parameters and Some Responses, Effects of Warming on Tree Growth on Productive Sites |access-date=2011-03-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727080310/http://www.libraryindex.com/pages/3196/Boreal-Forests-Climate-Change.html |archive-date=2011-07-27 }}</ref> In Siberia, the taiga is converting from predominantly needle-shedding larch trees to evergreen conifers in response to a warming climate. This is likely to further accelerate warming, as the evergreen trees will absorb more of the sun's rays. Given the vast size of the area, such a change has the potential to affect areas well outside of the region.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/03/110325022352.htm |title=Russian boreal forests undergoing vegetation change, study shows |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=17 |issue=7 |pages=2370–84 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02417.x |date=2011-03-25 |access-date=2012-01-14|bibcode=2011GCBio..17.2370S |last1=Shuman |first1=Jacquelyn Kremper |last2=Shugart |first2=Herman Henry |last3=O'Halloran |first3=Thomas Liam |s2cid=86357569 }}</ref> In much of the boreal forest in Alaska, the growth of white spruce trees are stunted by unusually warm summers, while trees on some of the coldest fringes of the forest are experiencing faster growth than previously.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newsminer.com/view/full_story/12094427/article-New-study-states-boreal-forests-shifting-as-Alaska-warms |title=Fairbanks Daily News-Miner – New study states boreal forests shifting as Alaska warms |publisher=Newsminer.com |access-date=2012-01-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119115807/https://www.newsminer.com/view/full_story/12094427/article-New-study-states-boreal-forests-shifting-as-Alaska-warms |archive-date=2012-01-19 }}</ref> Lack of moisture in the warmer summers are also stressing the birch trees of central Alaska.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Morello |first=Lauren |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=forest-changes-in-alaska-reveal-changing-climate |title=Forest Changes in Alaska Reveal Changing Climate |magazine=Scientific American |access-date=2012-01-14}}</ref>
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[[File:2018 boreal tree species trends.jpg|thumb|The response of six tree species common in Quebec's forests to 2°C and 4°C warming under different precipitation levels.]]
In addition to these observations, there has also been work on projecting future forest trends. A 2018 study of the seven tree species dominant in the Eastern Canadian forests found that while 2 °C warming alone increases their growth by around 13% on average, water availability is much more important than temperature and further warming of up to 4 °C would result in substantial declines unless matched by increases in precipitation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=
Climatic change only stimulated growth for trees under weak competition in central boreal forests. A 2021 paper had confirmed that the boreal forests are much more strongly affected by climate change than the other forest types in Canada and projected that most of the eastern Canadian boreal forests would reach a tipping point around 2080 under the [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP]] 8.5 scenario which represents the largest potential increase in anthropogenic emissions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boulanger |first1=Yan |last2=Puigdevall |first2=Jesus Pascual |date=3 April 2021 |title=Boreal forests will be more severely affected by projected anthropogenic climate forcing than mixedwood and northern hardwood forests in eastern Canada |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10980-021-01241-7 |journal=Landscape Ecology |language=en |volume=36 |issue=6 |pages=1725–1740 |doi=10.1007/s10980-021-01241-7 |bibcode=2021LaEco..36.1725B |s2cid=226959320 }}</ref> Another 2021 study projected that under the "moderate" [[Shared Socioeconomic Pathways|SSP2-4.5]] scenario, boreal forests would experience a 15% worldwide increase in biomass by the end of the century, but this would be more than offset by the 41% biomass decline in the tropics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Larjavaara |first1=Markku |last2=Lu |first2=Xiancheng |last3=Chen |first3=Xia |last4=Vastaranta |first4=Mikko |date=12 October 2021 |title=Impact of rising temperatures on the biomass of humid old-growth forests of the world |journal=Carbon Balance and Management |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |page=31 |doi=10.1186/s13021-021-00194-3 |pmid=34642849 |pmc=8513374 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021CarBM..16...31L }}</ref>
In 2022, the results of a 5-year warming experiment in North America had shown that the juveniles of tree species which currently dominate the southern margins of the boreal forests fare the worst in response to even 1.5 °C or +3.
▲Climatic change only stimulated growth for trees under weak competition in central boreal forests. A 2021 paper had confirmed that the boreal forests are much more strongly affected by climate change than the other forest types in Canada and projected that most of the eastern Canadian boreal forests would reach a tipping point around 2080 under the [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP]] 8.5 scenario which represents the largest potential increase in anthropogenic emissions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boulanger |first1=Yan |last2=Puigdevall |first2=Jesus Pascual |date=3 April 2021 |title=Boreal forests will be more severely affected by projected anthropogenic climate forcing than mixedwood and northern hardwood forests in eastern Canada |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10980-021-01241-7 |journal=Landscape Ecology |language=en |volume=36 |issue=6 |pages=1725–1740 |doi=10.1007/s10980-021-01241-7 |s2cid=226959320 }}</ref> Another 2021 study projected that under the "moderate" [[Shared Socioeconomic Pathways|SSP2-4.5]] scenario, boreal forests would experience a 15% worldwide increase in biomass by the end of the century, but this would be more than offset by the 41% biomass decline in the tropics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Larjavaara |first1=Markku |last2=Lu |first2=Xiancheng |last3=Chen |first3=Xia |last4=Vastaranta |first4=Mikko |date=12 October 2021 |title=Impact of rising temperatures on the biomass of humid old-growth forests of the world |journal=Carbon Balance and Management |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |page=31 |doi=10.1186/s13021-021-00194-3 |pmid=34642849 |pmc=8513374 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
A 2022 assessment of [[tipping points in the climate system]] designated two inter-related tipping points associated with climate change - the die-off of taiga at its southern edge and the area's consequent reversion to [[grassland]] (similar to the [[Amazon rainforest]] dieback) and the opposite process to the north, where the rapid warming of the adjacent [[tundra]] areas converts them to taiga. While both of these processes can already be observed today,
▲In 2022, the results of a 5-year warming experiment in North America had shown that the juveniles of tree species which currently dominate the southern margins of the boreal forests fare the worst in response to even 1.5°C or +3.1 °C of warming and the associated reductions in precipitation. While the temperate species which would benefit from such conditions are also present in the southern boreal forests, they are both rare and have slower growth rates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Reich |first1=Peter B. |last2=Bermudez |first2=Raimundo |last3=Montgomery |first3=Rebecca A. |last4=Rich |first4=Roy L. |last5=Rice |first5=Karen E. |last6=Hobbie |first6=Sarah E. |last7=Stefanski |first7=Artur |date=10 August 2022 |title=Even modest climate change may lead to major transitions in boreal forests |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05076-3 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=608 |issue=7923 |pages=540–545 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05076-3 |pmid=35948640 |bibcode=2022Natur.608..540R |s2cid=251494296 }}</ref>
Once the "right" level of warming is met, either process would take at least 40–50 years to finish, and is more likely to unfold over a century or more. While the southern die-off would involve the loss of around 52 billion tons of carbon, the net result is ''cooling'' of around 0.18 °C globally and between 0.5 °C to 2 °C regionally. Likewise, boreal forest expansion into tundra has a net global warming effect of around 0.14 °C globally and 0.5 °C to 1 °C regionally, even though new forest growth captures around 6 billion tons of carbon. In both cases, this is due to the snow-covered ground having a much greater [[albedo]] than the forests.<ref name="Getting tipsy">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong McKay |first1=David|last2=Abrams |first2=Jesse |last3=Winkelmann |first3=Ricarda |last4=Sakschewski |first4=Boris |last5=Loriani |first5=Sina |last6=Fetzer |first6=Ingo|last7=Cornell|first7=Sarah |last8=Rockström |first8=Johan |last9=Staal |first9=Arie |last10=Lenton |first10=Timothy |date=9 September 2022 |title=Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abn7950 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=377 |issue=6611 |pages=eabn7950 |doi=10.1126/science.abn7950 |pmid=36074831 |hdl=10871/131584 |s2cid=252161375 |issn=0036-8075|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Explainer">{{Cite web |last=Armstrong McKay |first=David |date=9 September 2022 |title=Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer |url=https://climatetippingpoints.info/2022/09/09/climate-tipping-points-reassessment-explainer/ |access-date=2 October 2022 |website=climatetippingpoints.info |language=en}}</ref> According to a later study, disappearing of boreal forests can also increase warming despite the effect on albedo, while the conclusion about cooling from deforestation in these areas made by previous studies results from the failure of models to properly capture the effects of evapotranspiration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=M. Makarieva |first1=Anastassia |last2=V. Nefiodov |first2=Andrei |last3=Rammig |first3=Anja |last4=Donato Nobre |first4=Antonio |title=Re-appraisal of the global climatic role of natural forests for improved climate projections and policies |journal=Frontiers in Forests and Global Change |date=20 July 2023 |volume=6 |doi=10.3389/ffgc.2023.1150191 |doi-access=free |arxiv=2301.09998 |bibcode=2023FrFGC...650191M }}</ref>▼
▲A 2022 assessment of [[tipping points in the climate system]] designated two inter-related tipping points associated with climate change - the die-off of taiga at its southern edge and the area's consequent reversion to [[grassland]] (similar to the [[Amazon rainforest]] dieback) and the opposite process to the north, where the rapid warming of the adjacent [[tundra]] areas converts them to taiga. While both of these processes can already be observed today, the assessment believes that they would likely not become unstoppable (and thus meet the definition of a tipping point) until global warming of around 4 °C. However, the certainty level is still limited and it is possible that 1.5 °C would be sufficient for either tipping point; on the other hand, the southern die-off may not be inevitable until 5 °C, while the replacement of tundra with taiga may require 7.2°C.<ref name="Getting tipsy"/><ref name="Explainer"/>
Primary boreal forests hold 1,042 billion tonnes of carbon, more than currently found in the atmosphere, 2 times more than all human caused GHG emissions since the year 1870. In a warmer climate their ability to store carbon will be reduced.<ref>{{cite web |title=Primary Forests: Boreal, Temperate, Tropical |url=https://www.woodwellclimate.org/primary-forests-boreal-temperate-tropical/ |website=Woodwell Climate Research Center |date=17 December 2020 |publisher=Woodwell Climate Research Center, INTACT, Griffits University, GEOS institute, Frankfurt Zoological Society, Australian Rainforest Conservation Society |access-date=22 August 2023}}</ref>
▲Once the "right" level of warming is met, either process would take at least 40–50 years to finish, and is more likely to unfold over a century or more. While the southern die-off would involve the loss of around 52 billion tons of carbon, the net result is ''cooling'' of around 0.18°C globally and between 0.5°C to 2°C regionally. Likewise, boreal forest expansion into tundra has a net global warming effect of around 0.14°C globally and 0.5°C to 1°C regionally, even though new forest growth captures around 6 billion tons of carbon. In both cases, this is due to the snow-covered ground having a much greater [[albedo]] than the forests.<ref name="Getting tipsy">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong McKay |first1=David|last2=Abrams |first2=Jesse |last3=Winkelmann |first3=Ricarda |last4=Sakschewski |first4=Boris |last5=Loriani |first5=Sina |last6=Fetzer |first6=Ingo|last7=Cornell|first7=Sarah |last8=Rockström |first8=Johan |last9=Staal |first9=Arie |last10=Lenton |first10=Timothy |date=9 September 2022 |title=Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abn7950 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=377 |issue=6611 |pages=eabn7950 |doi=10.1126/science.abn7950 |pmid=36074831 |hdl=10871/131584 |s2cid=252161375 |issn=0036-8075|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Explainer">{{Cite web |last=Armstrong McKay |first=David |date=9 September 2022 |title=Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer |url=https://climatetippingpoints.info/2022/09/09/climate-tipping-points-reassessment-explainer/ |access-date=2 October 2022 |website=climatetippingpoints.info |language=en}}</ref>
==Other threats==
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Some of the larger cities situated in this biome are [[Murmansk]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldclimate.com/cgi-bin/data.pl?ref=N68E033+1202+0006410G2 |title=Murmansk climate |publisher=Worldclimate.com |date=2007-02-04 |access-date=2011-02-21}}</ref> [[Arkhangelsk]], [[Yakutsk]], [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldclimate.com/cgi-bin/data.pl?ref=N61W149+1302+502820C |title=Anchorage climate |publisher=Worldclimate.com |date=2007-02-04 |access-date=2011-02-21}}</ref> [[Yellowknife]], [[Tromsø]], [[Luleå]], and [[Oulu]].
Large areas of [[Siberia]]'s taiga have been harvested for [[lumber]] since the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]]. Previously, the forest was protected by the restrictions of the Soviet
===Insects===
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===Pollution===
The effect of [[Sulfur dioxide|sulphur dioxide]] on woody boreal forest species was investigated by Addison et al. (1984),<ref name="add">Addison, P.A.; Malhotra, S.S.; Khan, A.A. 1984. "Effect of sulfur dioxide on woody boreal forest species grown on native soils and tailings". ''J. Environ. Qual.'' 13(3):333–36.</ref> who exposed plants growing on native soils and tailings to 15.2 μmol/m<sup>3</sup> (0.34 ppm) of SO<sub>2</sub> on CO<sub>2</sub> assimilation rate (NAR). The Canadian maximum acceptable limit for atmospheric SO<sub>2</sub> is 0.34 ppm. Fumigation with SO<sub>2</sub> significantly reduced NAR in all species and produced visible symptoms of injury in 2–20 days. The decrease in NAR of deciduous species (trembling aspen [''Populus tremuloides''], willow [''Salix''], green alder [''Alnus viridis''], and white birch [''Betula papyrifera'']) was significantly more rapid than of [[Pinophyta|conifers]] (white spruce, black spruce [''Picea mariana''], and jack pine [''Pinus banksiana'']) or an evergreen [[angiosperm]] (Labrador tea) growing on a fertilized Brunisol.
These metabolic and visible injury responses seemed to be related to the differences in S uptake owing in part to higher gas exchange rates for [[deciduous]] species than for [[Pinophyta|conifers]]. Conifers growing in oil sands tailings responded to SO<sub>2</sub> with a significantly more rapid decrease in NAR compared with those growing in the Brunisol, perhaps because of predisposing toxic material in the tailings. However, [[Sulfur|sulphur]] uptake and visible symptom development did not differ between conifers growing on the 2 substrates.
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==Natural disturbance==
One of the biggest areas of research and a topic still full of unsolved questions is the recurring disturbance of fire and the role it plays in propagating the lichen woodland.<ref name="Kurkowski 1911">Kurkowski, 1911.</ref> The phenomenon of wildfire by lightning strike is the primary determinant of understory vegetation, and because of this, it is considered to be the predominant force behind community and ecosystem properties in the lichen woodland.<ref name="Nilsson 421">Nilsson, 421.</ref> The significance of fire is clearly evident when one considers that understory vegetation influences tree seedling germination in the short term and decomposition of biomass and nutrient availability in the long term.<ref name="Nilsson 421"/>
The recurrent cycle of large, damaging fire occurs approximately every 70 to 100 years.<ref>Johnson, 212.</ref> Understanding the dynamics of this ecosystem is entangled with discovering the successional paths that the vegetation exhibits after a fire. Trees, shrubs, and lichens all recover from fire-induced damage through vegetative reproduction as well as invasion by propagules.<ref name="Johnson 200">Johnson, 200</ref> Seeds that have fallen and become buried provide little help in re-establishment of a species. The reappearance of lichens is reasoned to occur because of varying conditions and light/nutrient availability in each different microstate.<ref name="Johnson 200"/> Several different studies have been done that have led to the formation of the theory that post-fire development can be propagated by any of four pathways: self replacement, species-dominance relay, species replacement, or gap-phase self replacement.<ref name="Kurkowski 1911"/>
Self-replacement is simply the re-establishment of the pre-fire dominant species. Species-dominance relay is a sequential attempt of tree species to establish dominance in the canopy. Species replacement is when fires occur in sufficient frequency to interrupt species dominance relay. Gap-Phase Self-Replacement is the least common and so far has only been documented in Western Canada. It is a self replacement of the surviving species into the canopy gaps after a fire kills another species. The particular pathway taken after fire disturbance depends on how the landscape is able to support trees as well as fire frequency.<ref>Kurkowski, 1912.</ref> Fire frequency has a large role in shaping the original inception of the lower forest line of the lichen woodland taiga.
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* {{cite book |last1=Arno |first1=S. F. |last2=Hammerly |first2=R. P. |name-list-style=amp |year=1984 |title=Timberline. Mountain and Arctic Forest Frontiers |publisher=The Mountaineers |location=Seattle |isbn=0-89886-085-7 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Arno |first1=S. F. |last2=Worral |first2=J. |name-list-style=amp |last3=Carlson |first3=C. E. |year=1995 |chapter=Larix lyallii: Colonist of tree line and talus sites |pages=[https://archive.org/details/CAT10699418/page/72 72–78] |editor-last=Schmidt |editor-first=W. C. |editor2-last=McDonald |editor2-first=K. J. |title=Ecology and Management of Larix Forests: A Look Ahead |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/CAT10699418 |series=USDA Forest Service General Technical Report GTR-INT-319 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Hoffmann |first=Robert S. |year=1958 |title=The Meaning of the Word 'Taiga' |journal=Ecology |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=540–541 |doi=10.2307/1931768 |jstor=1931768 |bibcode=1958Ecol...39..540H }}
* {{cite journal |last=Jasinski |first=J. P. |title=The Creation of Alternative Stable States in Southern Boreal Forest: Quebec, Canada |journal=Ecological Monographs |volume=75 |issue=4 |year=2005 |pages=561–583 |doi=10.1890/04-1621 |bibcode=2005EcoM...75..561J }}
* {{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=E. A. |title=Vegetation Organization and Dynamics of Lichen Woodland Communities in the Northwest Territories |journal=Ecology |volume=62 |issue=1 |year=1981 |pages=200–215 |doi=10.2307/1936682 |jstor=1936682 |s2cid=86749540 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Kurkowski |first=Thomas |title=Relative Importance of Different Secondary Successional Pathways in an Alaskan Boreal Forest |journal=Canadian Journal of Forest Research |volume=38 |issue=7 |year=2008 |pages=1911–1923 |doi=10.1139/X08-039 |s2cid=17586608 }}
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* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/bioconiferous.html Coniferous Forest, Earth Observatory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704133614/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/bioconiferous.html |date=2008-07-04 }} NASA
* [http://www.taigarescue.org Taiga Rescue Network (TRN)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130406214022/http://www.taigarescue.org/ |date=2013-04-06 }} A network of NGOs, indigenous peoples or individuals that works to protect the boreal forests.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120905010259/http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/ecoframe-list.htm Index of Boreal Forests/Taiga ecoregions] at bioimages.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101213002253/http://www.nature.org/wherewework/northamerica/canada/work/art12507.html The Canadian Boreal Forest] The Nature Conservancy and its partners
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090316135659/http://www.ups.edu/x6111.xml Slater museum of natural history: Taiga]
* [http://www.wilds.mb.ca/taiga/index.html Taiga Biological Station]—founded by William (Bill) Pruitt
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