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{{Short description|Study of victimization}}
{{more citations needed|date=July 2007}}
[[File:Memorial to Those who Saved the World (26564702649) (cropped).jpg|alt=[[Monument to Those Who Saved the World]] is a monument in Chernobyl, Ukraine, to the firefighters and liquidators who died stopping the fire at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in 1986 after the catastrophic nuclear accident there and from the clean-up efforts that took place to limit the spread of nuclear contamination.|thumb|350x350px|''Monument to Those Who Saved the World'' is a monument in [[Chernobyl (city)|Chernobyl]], Ukraine, to the firefighters and [[Chernobyl liquidators|liquidators]] victims who died stopping the fire at the [[Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant]] in 1986 after the [[Chernobyl disaster|catastrophic nuclear accident]] there and from the clean-up efforts that took place to limit the spread of [[Radioactive contamination|nuclear contamination]]. ]]
{{Criminology and penology |theory}}
{{Sociology}}
'''Victimology''' is the study of [[victimization]], including the psychological effects on victims,
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== Victim of a crime ==
In [[criminology]] and [[criminal law]], a victim of a crime is an identifiable person who has been harmed individually and directly by the
The [[Supreme Court of the United States]] first recognized the rights of crime victims to make a [[victim impact statement]] during the [[Sentence (law)|sentencing]] phase of a [[Criminal law|criminal trial]] in the case of ''[[Payne v. Tennessee]]'' {{ussc|501|808|1991}}.
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== Consequences of crimes ==
[[Psychological pain|Emotional distress]] as the result of crime is a recurring theme for all victims of crime. The most common problems, affecting three
Victims may experience the following psychological reactions:
* Increase in the realization of personal [[vulnerability]].
* The perception of the world as meaningless and incomprehensible.
*
The experience of victimization may result in increasing fear on the part of the victim, and the spread of fear in the community.
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The environmental theory posits that the location and context of the crime bring the victim of the crime and its perpetrator together.<ref>Harrison on the ''environmental theory'', at [http://www.cameron.edu/~harrison/259,4 Environmental Theory]{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
Studies in the early 2010s showed that crimes are negatively correlated to trees in urban environments; more trees in an area are congruent with lower victimization rates or violent crime rates.<ref name="More Trees">{{cite web |url=http://www.treehugger.com/health/more-trees-means-less-crime-baltimore-study-shows.html|title=More Trees (Equals) Less Crime in Baltimore, Study Shows|last=Davies|first=Alex|date=June 19, 2012|
=== Quantification of victim-proneness ===
There have been some studies recently to quantify the real existence of victim-proneness.<ref>David Thissen (The [[University of Kansas]], [[Lawrence, Kansas]]) and Howard Wainer ([[Educational Testing Service]], [[Princeton, New Jersey]]), {{cite journal |title=Toward the Measurement and Prediction of Victim Proneness |journal=Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=243–261 |year=1983 |doi=10.1177/002242788302000206 |last1=Thissen |first1=David |last2=Wainer |first2=Howard |
In the case of juvenile offenders, the study results also show that people are more likely to be victimized as a result of a serious offense by someone they know; the most frequent crimes committed by adolescents towards someone they know were sexual assault, common assault, and homicide. Adolescents victimizing people they did not know generally committed common assault, forcible confinement, and armed or unarmed robbery.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lusignan | first1 = Richard | year = 2007 | title = Risk Assessment and Offender–Victim relationship in Juvenile Offenders | journal = International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology | volume = 51 | issue = 4| pages = 433–443 | doi=10.1177/0306624x06294135| pmid = 17652147 | s2cid = 28660909 }}</ref>
Sex workers are, anecdotally, thought to have an abnormally high incidence of violent crime committed against them, and such crimes
=== Fundamental attribution error ===
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The fundamental attribution error is most visible when people explain the behavior of others. It does not explain interpretations of one's own behavior—where situational factors are often taken into consideration. This discrepancy is called the [[actor–observer bias]]. As a simple example, if Alice saw Bob trip over a rock and fall, Alice might consider Bob to be clumsy or careless (dispositional). If Alice later tripped over the same rock herself, she would be more likely to blame the placement of the rock (situational). Victim proneness or [[victim blaming]] can be a form of fundamental attribution error, and more specifically, the ''just-world phenomenon''(Aronson, Wilson, Akert, & Sommers, 2016, p. 107).<ref>Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., Akert, R. M., Sommers, S. R. (2016). Social Psychology (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.</ref>
The [[Just-world phenomenon]] is the belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get, which was first theorized by [[Melvin Lerner]] (1977).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lerner | first1 = M.J. | last2 = Miller | first2 = D.T. | year = 1977 | title = Just-world research and the attribution process: Looking back and ahead | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 85 | issue = 5| pages = 1030–1051 | doi=10.1037/0033-2909.85.5.1030}}</ref> Attributing failures to dispositional causes rather than situational causes, which are unchangeable and uncontrollable, satisfies our need to believe that the world is fair and we have control over our life. We are motivated to see a just world because this reduces our perceived threats,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Burger | first1 = J.M. | year = 1981 | title = Motivational biases in the attribution of responsibility for an accident: A meta-analysis of the defensive-attribution hypothesis | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 90 | issue = 3| pages = 496–12 | doi=10.1037/0033-2909.90.3.496}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Walster | first1 = E | year = 1966 | title = Assignment of responsibility for an accident | doi = 10.1037/h0022733| journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 3 | issue = 1| pages = 73–79 |
== Victim facilitation ==
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Victim facilitation, another controversial sub-topic, but a more accepted theory than victim proneness, finds its roots in the writings of criminologists such as [[Marvin Wolfgang]]. The choice to use victim facilitation as opposed to "victim proneness" or some other term is that victim facilitation is not blaming the victim, but rather the interactions of the victim that make them vulnerable to a crime.
The theory of victim facilitation calls for study of the external elements that make a victim more accessible or vulnerable to an attack.<ref>Hickey, Eric W. (2006). The Male serial murderer. In Serial murderers and their victims (4th ed., pp. 152–159). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group</ref> In an article that summarizes the major movements in victimology internationally, Schneider expresses victim facilitation as a model that ultimately describes only the misinterpretation by the offender of victim behavior.<ref name="Schneider, H. J. 2001">{{cite journal | last1 = Schneider | first1 = H. J. | year = 2001 | title = Victimological developments in the world during the past three decades (I): A Study of comparative victimology | journal = International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology | volume = 45 | issue = 4| pages = 449–468 | doi=10.1177/0306624x01454005| s2cid = 220641525 }}</ref> It is based upon the theory of a symbolic interaction and does not alleviate the offender of their exclusive responsibility.<ref name="Schneider, H. J. 2001" />
In Eric Hickey's ''Serial Murderers and their Victims,'' a major analysis of 329 [[serial killers]] in America is conducted. As part of Hickey's analysis, he categorized victims as high, low, or mixed regarding the victim's facilitation of the murder. Categorization was based upon lifestyle risk (example, amount of time spent interacting with strangers), type of employment, and their location at the time of the killing (example, bar, home or place of business). Hickey found that 13–15% of victims had high facilitation, 60–64% of victims had low facilitation and 23–25% of victims had a combination of high and low facilitation.<ref name="Hickey, Eric W. 2006 pp. 260–262">Hickey, Eric W. (2006). Victims. In Serial murderers and their victims (4th ed., pp. 260–262). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group</ref> Hickey also noted that among serial killer victims after 1975, one in five victims were at greater risk from hitchhiking, working as a prostitute, or involving themselves in situations in which they often came into contact with strangers.<ref name="Hickey, Eric W. 2006 pp. 260–262" />
There is importance in studying and understanding victim facilitation as well as continuing to research it as a sub-topic of victimization. For instance, a study of victim facilitation increases public awareness, leads to more research on victim-offender relationship, and advances theoretical etiologies of [[violent crime]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Miethe | first1 = Terance D | year = 1985 | title = The Myth or reality of victim involvement in crime: A Review and comment on victim-precipitation research | journal = Sociological Focus | volume = 18 | issue = 3| pages = 209–220 }}</ref> One of the ultimate purposes of this type of knowledge is to inform the public and increase awareness so fewer people become victims. Another goal of studying victim facilitation, as stated by Maurice Godwin, is to aid in investigations. Godwin discusses the theory of victim social networks as a concept in which one looks at the areas of highest risk for victimization from a [[serial killer]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Godwin | first1 = Maurice | year = 1998 | title = Victim target networks as solvability factors in serial murder
== Victimization rate in United States ==
The [[National Crime Victimization Survey]] (NCVS) is a tool to measure the existence of actual, rather than reported, crimes—the victimization rate.<ref name="NCVS">{{cite web|url=http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/cvict.htm|title=National Crime Victimization Survey Official web site|access-date=2016-05-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080223163046/http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/cvict.htm|archive-date=2008-02-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> The National Crime Victimization Survey is the [[United States]]' "primary source of information on crime victimization. Each year, data is obtained from a nationally representative sample of 77,200 households comprising nearly 134,000 persons on the frequency, characteristics and consequences of criminal victimization in the United States. This survey enables the (government) to estimate the likelihood of victimization for [[rape]], [[sexual assault]], [[robbery]], [[assault]], [[theft]], household burglary, and motor vehicle theft for the population as a whole as well as for segments of the population such as women, the elderly, members of various racial groups, city dwellers, or other groups."<ref name="NCVS" /> According to the [[Bureau of Justice Statistics]] (BJS), the NCVS reveals that, from 1994 to 2005, violent crime rates declined, reaching the lowest levels ever recorded.<ref name="NCVS" /> Property crimes continue to decline.<ref name="NCVS" />
[[Serial killing]]s are waning in particular, and according to a 2020 ''[[American Bar Association|ABA Journal]]'' report, it's in large part because "people are less vulnerable than in the past."<ref name=Serial>{{cite news|url=https://www.abajournal.com/news/article/serial-killings-are-waning-leading-to-speculation-about-the-cause?|title=Serial killings are waning, leading to speculation about the cause|first=Debra|last=Cassens Weiss|date=December 17, 2020|access-date=December 18, 2020}}</ref> This in turn is due to several societal changes, according to experts and a news reports cited by the ''ABA Journal'': (1) "People don't hitchhike anymore;" (2) "They have means of reaching out in an emergency situation using cellphones;" (3) "There are cameras everywhere;” (4) "parents today are less likely to allow [children] to leave home unsupervised;" (5) "interventions that help troubled children might reform potential killers" (for example, [[social work]], [[school nurse]]s, and [[child psychology]]); (6) "easy access to pornography is providing an outlet that satiates ... sexual impulses"; and (7) "would-be serial killers are turning instead to mass shootings."<ref name=Serial /> Other reports show some evidence that serial killings are (8) [[General deterrence|deterred generally]] by "longer prison sentences" and (9) [[Specific deterrence|deterred specifically]] by "a reduction in parole."<ref name=Serial />
== Victimization in Canada ==
In Canada the [[Office of the Federal Ombudsman for Victims of Crime]] (OFOVC) is an independent resource for victims of [[crime]]. It was created in 2007 to ensure the [[federal government]] meets its responsibilities to victims of crime. The ombudsman provides information to victims about their [[rights]] under [[Canadian federal law]], the services available to them, or to make a complaint about any [[Government agency|federal agency]] or federal [[legislation]] dealing with victims of crime. The ombudsman also works to ensure that policy makers and other [[criminal justice]] personnel are aware of victims' needs and concerns and to identify important issues and trends that may negatively impact victims. Where appropriate, the Ombudsman may also make recommendations to the [[federal government]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victimsfirst.gc.ca/serv/spt-spt.html|title=Home: Federal Ombudsman for Victims of Crime|first=Office of the Federal Ombudsman for Victims of|last=Crime|website=www.victimsfirst.gc.ca|date=2010-10-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pssg.gov.bc.ca/victimservices/financial/|title=Redirect Page|website=www.pssg.gov.bc.ca|access-date=2016-01-06|archive-date=2016-01-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160122051942/http://www.pssg.gov.bc.ca/victimservices/financial/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
== International Crime Victims Survey ==
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== Penal couple ==
The ''penal couple'' is defined as the relationship between perpetrator and victim of a crime. That is, both are involved in the event.<ref>"Criminology Today" (4th ed. Prentice Hall), found at [http://www.prenhall.com/cjcentral/crimtoday4e/glossary/p.html Criminal Justice Glossary at the Prentice Hall website] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121223083938/http://www.prenhall.com/cjcentral/crimtoday4e/glossary/p.html |date=2012-12-23 }}. Retrieved April 1, 2009.</ref> A sociologist invented the term in 1963.<ref name=Harris>Robert Harris, ''Crime, criminal justice, and the probation service'', (Routledge, 1992) {{ISBN|978-0-415-05034-0}}, at 56 (citing Mendelsohn 1963), found at [https://books.google.com/books?id=DT4OAAAAQAAJ
== Rights of victims ==
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[[File:Anna Baldry watches as participants conduct role-play scenarios (4508207576).jpg|thumb|left|[[Anna Costanza Baldry]] (left), senior researcher at the [[Tilburg University|International Victimology Institute Tilburg]] (INTERVICT), watches as participants conduct role-play scenarios during domestic and gender-based violence training at the Central Training Center. [[Afghan National Police]] (ANP)]]
In 1985, the [[UN General Assembly]] adopted the Declaration on the Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/40/a40r034.htm |title=A/RES/40/34. Declaration of basic principles of justice for victims of crime and abuse of power |publisher=Un.org |date=1985-11-29 |
The term ''victimology'', in fact, denotes to the subject, which studies about the harm(s) caused to victims in commission of crime and the relative scope for compensation to the victim as a means of redressal. In criminal jurisprudence, mere
{{clear}}
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*[[British Crime Survey]]
*[[Bullying]]
*[[Child abuse]]
*[[Clandestine abuse]]
*[[Coping]]
*[[Crime victim advocacy program]]
*[[Crime Victims' Rights Week]]
*[[Dehumanization]]
*[[Developmental psychopathology]]
*[[Effects of domestic violence on children]]
*[[Effects of rape and aftermath]]
*[[Hate speech]]
*[[Gérard Lopez (psychiatrist)]]
*"[[Like sheep to the slaughter]]"
*[[Major depressive disorder]]
*[[Mass gathering]]
*[[Physical abuse]]
*[[Psychological abuse]]
*[[Psychological projection]]
*[[Race and crime in the United States]]
*[[Role engulfment]]
*[[Sexual abuse]]
*[[Shame]]
*[[Slut-shaming]]
*[[Social emotional development]]
*[[Social exclusion]]
*[[Social stress]]
*[[Stockholm syndrome]]
*[[Theories of victimology]]
*[[Victim blaming]]
*[[Victim mentality]]
*[[Victim playing]]
*[[Victim study]]
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== Further reading ==
* [https://books.google.com/books
* Croall, H. (2001) ''Understanding White Collar Crime (Open University Press).'' Croall, H. (2001) "The Victims of White Collar Crime," in Lindgren, S. (ed) ''White Collar Crime Research. Old Views and Future Potentials,'' National Council for Crime Prevention, Sweden. Both noted at [http://www.gcal.ac.uk/lss/global/contactmaps/staff/law/hcroall.html Glasgow Caledonian University website page for Hazel Croall, Professor of Criminology, School of Law & Social Sciences]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [[David Lisak|Lisak, David]], "Understanding the Predatory Nature of Sexual Violence," 12 pages, n.d., at [https://web.archive.org/web/20130618224025/http://www.middlebury.edu/media/view/240951/original Middlebury College website]
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* {{cite book |first=Janet K. |last=Wilson |publisher=Praeger |date=August 25, 2009 |isbn=978-0-313-35935-4 |title=The Praeger Handbook of Victimology }}
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{{Commonscat|Victimology}}
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