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{{Other uses|Watercolor (disambiguation)}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=October 2019}}
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[[File:Loves Messenger Stillman DAM.jpg|thumb|''[[Love's Messenger]]'', an 1885 watercolor and [[tempera]] by [[Marie Spartali Stillman]]]]
'''Watercolor''' ([[American English]]) or '''watercolour''' ([[British English]]; see [[American and British English spelling differences#-our, -or|spelling differences]]), also '''''aquarelle''''' ({{IPA-fr|akwaʁɛl|lang}}; from Italian diminutive of Latin
The conventional and most common [[Support (art)|support]] — material to which the paint is applied—for watercolor paintings is [[watercolor paper]]. Other supports or substrates include stone, ivory, silk, reed, [[papyrus]], bark papers, plastics, [[vellum]], [[leather]], [[textile|fabric]], wood, and watercolor canvas (coated with a gesso that is specially formulated for use with watercolors). Watercolor paper is often made entirely or partially with cotton.<ref>"100% cotton papers are more absorbent in most brands, but there are papers that have only 50% cotton or even high quality papers, which have no blending with cotton." {{Harvtxt|Viscarra
Watercolor paint is an ancient form of painting, if not the most ancient form of art itself.<ref name="London, Vladimir p. 19" />
Many Western artists, especially in the early 19th century, used watercolor primarily as a sketching tool in preparation for the "finished" work in oil or engraving.<ref>{{
==History==
Watercolor
[[File:Albrecht Dürer - Hare, 1502 - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|[[Albrecht Dürer]], ''[[Young Hare]]'', 1502, watercolor and [[body color]], [[Albertina, Vienna]]|alt=A painting of a hare with large ears.]]
Despite this early start, watercolors were generally used by Baroque easel painters only for sketches, copies or [[modello|cartoons]] (full-scale design drawings)<ref>During the Baroque era, watercolor was frequently used to decorate naturalist books, albums, and scientific publications, as well as to create hand-painted maps and building drawings. Watercolor portraiture on paper, vellum, and ivory was also quite popular. {{Harvtxt|London
===English school===
Several factors contributed to the spread of watercolor painting during the 18th century, particularly in England.<ref>"
In the late 18th century, the English cleric [[William Gilpin (clergyman)|William Gilpin]] wrote a series of hugely popular books describing his [[picturesque]] journeys throughout rural England, and illustrated them with self-made sentimentalized monochrome watercolors of river valleys, ancient castles, and abandoned churches.<ref>"
[[File:Thomas Girtin 006.JPG|thumb|[[Thomas Girtin]], ''[[Jedburgh Abbey]] from the River'', 1798–99, watercolor on paper]]
From the late 18th century through the 19th century, the market for printed books and domestic art contributed substantially to the growth of the medium.<ref>"In 1799 the Napoleonic Wars broke out and Europe was closed to the British traveller." {{Harvtxt|Chaplin
The three English artists credited with establishing watercolor as an independent, mature painting medium are [[Paul Sandby]] (1730–1809), often called the "father of the English watercolor"; [[Thomas Girtin]] (1775–1802), who pioneered its use for large format, romantic or picturesque landscape painting; and [[Joseph Mallord William Turner]] (1775–1851),<ref>"He was born in London on 23 April 1775, and given the names Joseph Mallord William Turner. His family called him William but he is now usually referred to by initials as J. M. W. Turner." Reynolds, Graham. Turner: Second Edition (World of Art) (p. 19). Thames & Hudson. Kindle Edition.</ref> who brought watercolor painting to the highest pitch of power and refinement,<ref>"Girtin and Turner in particular explored the capacity of watercolour for creating atmospheric effects, experimenting with texture and colour." Chaplin, Mike. Painting Expressive Watercolours (p. 8). HarperCollins Publishers. Kindle Edition.</ref> and created hundreds of superb historical, topographical, architectural, and mythological watercolor paintings. His method of developing the watercolor painting in stages, starting with large, vague color areas established on wet paper, then refining the image through a sequence of [[wash (visual arts)|washes]] and glazes,<ref>"The seemingly effortless freshness of these watercolours disguises the rigorous planning stage that lies behind them. For, between the pencil sketches and the finished watercolours, Turner evolved a creative process that enabled him to experiment in an open-ended fashion with the structure and relative dispositions of colour and light."How to Paint Like Turner (p. 26). Tate Enterprises Ltd. Kindle Edition.</ref> permitted him to produce large numbers of paintings with "workshop efficiency"<ref>"One charming account recalls how Turner would hang up his moist studies on cords spread across his room, so that his drying sheets, stained with ‘pink and blue and yellow’, would at first glance resemble the laundry of a washerwoman." How to Paint Like Turner (p. 26). Tate Enterprises Ltd. Kindle Edition.</ref> and made him a multimillionaire, partly by sales from his personal art gallery, the first of its kind. Among the important and highly talented contemporaries of Turner and Girtin were [[John Varley (painter)|John Varley]], [[John Sell Cotman]],<ref>"John Varley (1778–1842), Thomas Girtin (1775–1802), John Sell Cotman (1782–1842) and David Cox (1783–1859) ushered in the golden age of British watercolour," Chaplin, Mike. Painting Expressive Watercolours (p. 7). HarperCollins Publishers. Kindle Edition.</ref> [[Copley Fielding|Anthony Copley Fielding]], [[Samuel Palmer]],<ref>"When it is remembered that men of such diverse gifts and temperaments as David Cox and Samuel Palmer, F.O. Finch and Copley Fielding were his [John Varley] pupils it will be apparent that he did not impose his own vision on his scholars but, as education truly signifies, drew out of them what was latent in them." Reynolds, Graham. English Watercolors . New Amsterdam Books. Kindle Edition.</ref> [[William Havell]],<ref>"William Havell was, at the age of twenty-three, the youngest of the exhibiting members in 1805. His work typifies the common approach of the members of the Society: the dependence of composition on the seventeenth-century landscape painters, the aspiration to vie with oil paintings, the rich tonality of the piece." Reynolds, Graham. English Watercolors . New Amsterdam Books. Kindle Edition.</ref> and [[Samuel Prout]]. The Swiss painter [[Abraham-Louis-Rodolphe Ducros]] was also widely known for his large format, romantic paintings in watercolor.▼
▲The three English artists credited with establishing watercolor as an independent, mature painting medium are [[Paul Sandby]] (1730–1809), often called the "father of the English watercolor"; [[Thomas Girtin]] (1775–1802), who pioneered its use for large format, romantic or picturesque landscape painting; and [[Joseph Mallord William Turner]] (1775–1851),<ref>"He was born in London on 23 April 1775, and given the names Joseph Mallord William Turner. His family called him William but he is now usually referred to by initials as J. M. W. Turner." {{Harvtxt|Reynolds
[[File:Jamaica hut4.jpg|thumb|left|An unfinished watercolor by [[William Berryman]], created between 1808 and 1816, using watercolor, ink, and pencil. The use of partial pigmentation draws attention to the central subject.]]▼
▲[[File:Jamaica hut4.jpg|thumb
The confluence of amateur activity, publishing markets, middle class [[art collecting]], and 19th-century technique led to the formation of English watercolor painting societies: the ''Society of Painters in Water Colours'' (1804, now known as the [[Royal Watercolour Society]]) and the ''New Water Colour Society'' (1832, now known as the [[Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours]]). (A ''Scottish Society of Painters in Water Colour'' was founded in 1878, now known as the [[Royal Scottish Society of Painters in Watercolour]].)<ref>"By the nineteenth century, watercolor had become so popular that several art societies were formed, including the Society of Painters in Water Colours (1804, now the Royal Watercolour Society), the New Water Colour Society (1832, now the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours), and the Scottish Society of Painters in Water Colours (1878, now the Royal Scottish Society of Painters in Watercolour). The Watercolour Society of Ireland (WCSI) was established in Ireland in 1870, and the Ulster Watercolour Society (UWS) was founded in Northern Ireland. The Russian Watercolor Society was formed in St. Petersburg, Russia, in 1880." London, Vladimir. The Book on Watercolor (p. 26). Kindle Edition.</ref> These societies provided annual exhibitions and buyer referrals for many artists. They also engaged in petty status rivalries and aesthetic debates, particularly between advocates of traditional ("transparent") watercolor and the early adopters of the denser color possible with [[gouache|body color or gouache]] ("opaque" watercolor). The late Georgian and Victorian periods produced the zenith of the British watercolor, among the most impressive 19th-century works on paper,<ref>{{Citation | first = Graham | last = Reynolds | title = Watercolours, A Concise History | place = London | publisher = [[Thames and Hudson]] | year = 1992 | page = 102}}</ref> due to artists Turner, Varley, Cotman,<ref>" J.S. Cotman was born in Norwich in 1782; and, having decided that he must devote himself to art, came to London at the age of sixteen or seventeen in 1798. Here he was befriended by Dr Monro, and became another instance of that connoisseur’s remarkable flair in choosing promising young men. As were Turner and Girtin five years before, he was set to copy outlines and trace drawings." Reynolds, Graham. English Watercolors . New Amsterdam Books. Kindle Edition.</ref> [[David Cox (artist)|David Cox]], [[Peter de Wint]]<ref>"The early nineteenth century Girtin, Turner, Cotman, Cox, De Wint, Constable, Bonington, and the Exhibiting Societies" Reynolds, Graham. English Watercolors . New Amsterdam Books. Kindle Edition.</ref> [[William Henry Hunt (painter)|William Henry Hunt]], [[John Frederick Lewis]],<ref>"Lewis and Hunt were forerunners in an aesthetic shift which is apparent in the watercolours of the next thirty years, towards brilliance of colour and minuteness of touch." Reynolds, Graham. English Watercolors . New Amsterdam Books. Kindle Edition.</ref> [[Myles Birket Foster]],<ref>" Birket Foster applies these principles[brilliance of colour and minuteness of touch] to landscapes in which the emphasis is laid on the charm of summer fields and country lanes and the inhabitants are idealized into the best behaved children or worthy, handsome peasantry." Reynolds, Graham. English Watercolors . New Amsterdam Books. Kindle Edition.</ref> [[Frederick Walker (painter)|Frederick Walker]],<ref>"In the next generation of artists the acknowledged leader of the illustrative school was Frederick Walker." Reynolds, Graham. English Watercolors . New Amsterdam Books. Kindle Edition.</ref> [[Thomas Collier (painter)|Thomas Collier]], [[Arthur Melville]] and many others. In particular, the graceful, lapidary, and atmospheric watercolors ("genre paintings") by [[Richard Parkes Bonington]]<ref>"Although he only lived to be twenty-five, Bonington crystallized the prevailing tendencies of his time so well that he not only left a body of great work behind him but he had a strong influence on his contemporaries and successors both in France and England." Reynolds, Graham. English Watercolors . New Amsterdam Books. Kindle Edition.</ref> created an international fad for watercolor painting, especially in England and France in the 1820s. In the latter half of the 19th century, portrait painter [[Frederick Havill]] became a key player in the establishment of watercolour in England. Art critic Huntly Carter described Havill as a "founder of the water colour school."<ref>[https://modjourn.org/biography/havill-frederick-1884/ Havill Frederick] biography</ref> ▼
[[File:Remains of the Vicars’ College, Exeter.jpg|thumb|''Remains of the Vicars' College, [[Exeter]]'' by George Townsend; 1885.]]
The popularity of watercolors stimulated many innovations, including heavier and more [[sizing|sized]] [[wove paper]]s, and brushes (called "pencils") manufactured expressly for watercolor. Watercolor tutorials were first published in this period by Varley, Cox, and others, establishing the step-by-step painting instructions that still characterize the genre today; ''The Elements of Drawing'', a watercolor tutorial by English art critic [[John Ruskin]], has been out of print only once since it was first published in 1857. Commercial brands of watercolor were marketed and paints were packaged in metal tubes or as dry cakes that could be "rubbed out" (dissolved) in studio porcelain or used in portable metal paint boxes in the field. Breakthroughs in chemistry made many new pigments available, including synthetic [[ultramarine blue]], [[cobalt blue]], [[viridian]], [[cobalt violet]], [[cadmium yellow]], [[aureolin]] ([[potassium cobaltinitrite]]), [[zinc white]], and a wide range of [[carmine]] and [[madder lake]]s. These pigments, in turn, stimulated a greater use of color with all painting media, but in English watercolors, particularly by the [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]].▼
▲The confluence of amateur activity, publishing markets, middle class [[art collecting]], and 19th-century technique led to the formation of English watercolor painting societies: the ''Society of Painters in Water Colours'' (1804, now known as the [[Royal Watercolour Society]]) and the ''New Water Colour Society'' (1832, now known as the [[Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours]]). (A ''Scottish Society of Painters in Water Colour'' was founded in 1878, now known as the [[Royal Scottish Society of Painters in Watercolour]].)<ref>"By the nineteenth century, watercolor had become so popular that several art societies were formed, including the Society of Painters in Water Colours (1804, now the Royal Watercolour Society), the New Water Colour Society (1832, now the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours), and the Scottish Society of Painters in Water Colours (1878, now the Royal Scottish Society of Painters in Watercolour). The Watercolour Society of Ireland (WCSI) was established in Ireland in 1870, and the Ulster Watercolour Society (UWS) was founded in Northern Ireland. The Russian Watercolor Society was formed in St. Petersburg, Russia, in 1880." {{Harvtxt|London
▲The popularity of watercolors stimulated many innovations, including heavier and more [[sizing|sized]] [[wove paper]]s, and brushes (called "pencils") manufactured expressly for watercolor. Watercolor tutorials were first published in this period by Varley, Cox, and others, establishing the step-by-step painting instructions that still characterize the genre today; ''The Elements of Drawing'', a watercolor tutorial by English art critic [[John Ruskin]], has been out of print only once since it was first published in 1857. Commercial brands of watercolor were marketed and paints were packaged in metal tubes or as dry cakes that could be "rubbed out" (dissolved) in studio porcelain or used in portable metal paint boxes in the field. Breakthroughs in chemistry made many new pigments available, including synthetic [[ultramarine blue]], [[cobalt blue]], [[viridian]], [[cobalt violet]], [[cadmium yellow]], [[aureolin]] ([[potassium cobaltinitrite]]), [[zinc white]], and a wide range of [[carmine]] and [[madder lake]]s. These pigments, in turn, stimulated a greater use of color with all painting media, but in English watercolors, particularly by the [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]].
[[File:The Blue Boat 1892 Winslow Homer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Winslow Homer]], ''The Blue Boat'', 1892]]
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====United States====
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - White Ships - John Singer Sargent.jpg|thumb|right|John Singer Sargent, ''White Ships''. [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]
Watercolor painting also became popular in the United States during the 19th century; outstanding early practitioners included [[John James Audubon]], as well as early [[Hudson River School]] painters such as [[William H. Bartlett]] and [[George Harvey (painter)|George Harvey]]. By mid-century, the influence of John Ruskin led to increasing interest in watercolors, particularly the use of a detailed "Ruskinian" style by such artists as John W. Hill Henry, [[William Trost Richards]], [[Roderick Newman]], and [[Fidelia Bridges]]. The ''American Society of Painters in Watercolor'' (now the [[American Watercolor Society]]) was founded in 1866. Late-19th-century American exponents of the medium included [[Thomas Moran]], [[Thomas Eakins]], [[John LaFarge]], [[John Singer Sargent]],<ref>"Watercolor extended its reach to the American continent with European painters documenting the "new world
===Europe===
[[File:Stanisław Masłowski (1853-1926), Autumn landscape in Rybiniszki, 1902.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Stanisław Masłowski]], ''Pejzaż jesienny z Rybiniszek'' (Autumn landscape of [[Riebiņi|Rybiniszki]]), watercolor, 1902]]
Watercolor was less popular in Continental Europe. In the 18th century, [[gouache]] was an important medium for the Italian artists [[Marco Ricci]] and [[Francesco Zuccarelli]], whose landscape paintings were widely collected.<ref>Brown, David Blayney. "Watercolour." ''Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online''. Oxford University Press. Retrieved April 26, 2014.</ref> Gouache was used by a number of artists in France as well. In the 19th century, the influence of the English school helped popularize "transparent" watercolor in France, and it became an important medium for [[Eugène Delacroix]], [[François Marius Granet]], [[Henri-Joseph Harpignies]], and the satirist [[Honoré Daumier]]. Other European painters who worked frequently in watercolor were [[Adolph Menzel]] in Germany and [[Stanisław Masłowski]] in Poland.
[[File:Paul Cézanne 151.jpg|thumb|[[Paul Cézanne]], self-portrait]]
The adoption of brightly colored, petroleum-derived aniline dyes (and pigments compounded from them), which all fade rapidly on exposure to light, and the efforts to properly conserve the twenty thousand [[J. M. W. Turner]] paintings inherited by the British Museum in 1857, led to a negative reevaluation of the permanence of pigments in watercolor.<ref>{{
===20th and 21st centuries===
Among the many 20th-century artists who produced important works in watercolor were [[Wassily Kandinsky]], [[Emil Nolde]], [[Paul Klee]], [[Egon Schiele]], and [[Raoul Dufy]]. In America, the major exponents included [[Charles Burchfield]], [[Edward Hopper]], [[Georgia O'Keeffe]], [[Charles Demuth]], and [[John Marin]] (80% of his total work is watercolor). In this period, American watercolor painting often emulated European Impressionism and Post-Impressionism,<ref>"The European forms of Impressionism and Post-Impressionism were frequently emulated in the United States." {{Harvtxt|London
Although the rise of [[abstract expressionism]], and the trivializing influence of amateur painters and advertising- or workshop-influenced painting styles, led to a temporary decline in the popularity of watercolor painting after
==Watercolor paint==
[[File:Watercolours.jpg|thumb|A set of watercolors]]
Watercolor paint consists of four principal ingredients:<ref>"It consists of a mixture of pigments, binders such as gum arabic
The more general term ''[[watermedia]]'' refers to any painting medium that uses water as a solvent and that can be applied with a [[brush]], [[pen]], or sprayer. This includes most [[ink]]s, [[watercolor]]s, [[tempera]]s, [[casein paint|casein]]s, [[gouache]]s, and modern [[acrylic paint]]s.
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The term "watercolor" refers to paints that use water-soluble, complex carbohydrates as a binder. Originally (in the 16th to 18th centuries), watercolor binders were sugars and/or hide glues, but since the 19th century, the preferred binder is natural [[gum arabic]], with [[glycerin]] and/or [[honey]] as additives to improve plasticity and solubility of the binder, and with other chemicals added to improve product shelf life.
The term "[[bodycolor]]" refers to paint that is opaque rather than transparent. It usually refers to opaque watercolor, known as [[gouache]].<ref>
===Commercial watercolors===
Watercolor painters before the turn of the 18th century had to make paints themselves using pigments purchased from an [[apothecary]] or specialized "colorman", and mixing them with gum arabic or some other binder. The earliest commercial paints were small, resinous blocks that had to be wetted and laboriously "rubbed out" in water to obtain a usable color intensity. [[William Reeves (colourman)|William Reeves]] started his business as a colorman around 1766. In 1781, he and his brother, Thomas Reeves, were awarded the Silver Palette of the [[Society of Arts]], for the invention of the moist watercolor ''paint-cake'', a time-saving convenience, introduced in the "golden age" of English watercolor painting. The "cake" was immediately soluble when touched by a wet brush.<ref>"...more user-friendly soft watercolour blocks had been introduced by the
[[File:Watercolors by William Reeves, London, inventor of watercolors in cakes, undated - Joseph Allen Skinner Museum - DSC07847.JPG|left|thumb|upright|A Reeves box]]
Modern commercial watercolor paints are available in tubes, pans and liquids.<ref>"...in general it can be liquid, creamy in tubes, solid, in the form of pans, chalk pastels, waxes, markers, pencils, etc." {{Harvtxt|Viscarra
Owing to modern [[Industrial technology|industrial]] [[organic chemistry]], the variety, [[colorfulness|saturation]], and permanence of artists' colors available today has been vastly improved. Correct and non-toxic [[primary colors]] are now present through the introduction of [[hansa yellow]], [[phthalo blue]] and [[quinacridone]] (PV 122). From such a set of three colors, in principle all others can be mixed, as in a classical technique no white is used. The modern development of pigments was not driven by artistic demand. The [[art materials]] industry is too small to exert any market leverage on global dye or pigment manufacture. With rare exceptions such as aureolin, all modern watercolor paints utilize pigments that have a wider industrial use. Paint manufacturers buy, by industrial standards very small, supplies of these pigments, [[Mill (grinding)|mill]] them with the vehicle, solvent, and additives, and package them. The milling process with inorganic pigments, in more expensive brands, reduces the particle size to improve the color flow when the paint is applied with water.
===Transparency===
In the partisan debates of the 19th-century English art world, gouache was emphatically contrasted to traditional watercolors and denigrated for its high [[hiding power]] or lack of "transparency"; "transparent" watercolors were exalted. The aversion to opaque paint had its origin in the fact that well into the 19th century [[lead white]] was used to increase the covering quality. That pigment tended to soon discolor into black under the influence of sulphurous air pollution, totally ruining the artwork.<ref>
==See also==
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* [[Oil painting]]
* [[:Category:Watercolorists]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
===Works cited===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chaplin |first=Mike |title=Painting Expressive Watercolours |date=2001 |publisher=Collins |edition=Kindle |location=London |asin=B00KV2RLEA}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chilvers |first=Ian |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=USA}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Kraaijpoel |first1=D. |title=Het kunstschilderboek — handboek voor materialen en technieken |last2=Herenius |first2=C. |date=2007 |publisher=Cantecleer |language=nl}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ling |first=Roger |title=Roman Painting |date=1991 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}
* {{Cite book |last=London |first=Vladimir |title=The Book on Watercolor |date=2021 |edition=Kindle |asin=B0B1VFHMC1}}{{self published inline|date=April 2023}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mann |first=Eleanor |title=The Watercolour Book: How to Paint Anything |date=2016 |edition=Kindle |asin=B01AIOM0Z0}}{{self published inline|date=April 2023}}
* {{Cite book |title=How to Paint Like Turner |date=2010 |publisher=Tate |editor-last=Moorby |editor-first=Nicola |edition=Kindle |location=London |asin=B00XULC1FI |editor-last2=Chaplin |editor-first2=Mike |editor-last3=Warrell |editor-first3=Ian |editor-last4=Smibert |editor-first4=Tony}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Redgrave |first1=Richard |last2=Redgrave |first2=Samuel |title=A Century of Painters of the English School |date=1866 |author-link=Richard Redgrave |author2-link=Samuel Redgrave}}
* {{Cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Graham |title=Watercolours, A Concise History |date=1992 |publisher=[[Thames and Hudson]] |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Graham |title=English Watercolors: an introduction |date=1998 |publisher=New Amsterdam |edition=Kindle |location=New York |asin=B00FF9PY98}}
* {{Cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Graham |title=Turner |date=2020 |publisher=Thames and Hudson |edition=Second, Kindle |location=London |asin=B0BDRNNKVW}}
* {{Cite book |last=Viscarra |first=Alejandra |title=How to Paint in Watercolor from the Beginning |date=2020 |edition=Kindle |asin=B0852QZCND}}{{self published inline|date=April 2023}}
* {{Cite book |last=Waterhouse |first=Ellis Kirkham |title=Painting in Britain, 1530 to 1790 |date=1994 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]]}}
{{Refend}}
==Further reading==
===History===
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* [http://www.nationalwatercolorsociety.org/ National Watercolor Society (USA)]
* [http://www.aquarelinstituut.be Belgian Watercolor Institute]
* {{Cite web |
{{Authority control}}
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