A request that this article title be changed to Anti-Black racism is under discussion. Please do not move this article until the discussion is closed. |
Anti-Black sentiment, also called anti-Black racism, anti-Blackness, colourphobia or Negrophobia, is characterised by prejudice, collective hatred, and discrimination or extreme aversion towards people who are racialised as Black people, especially those people from sub-Saharan Africa and its diasporas,[1][2] as well as a loathing of Black culture worldwide. Such sentiment includes, but is not limited to: the attribution of negative characteristics to Black people; the fear, strong dislike or dehumanization of Black men; and the objectification (including sexual objectification) of Black women.[3]
Coined by Canadian scholar Dr. Akua Benjamin, the term anti-Black racism (or ABR)[4][5] applies specifically to racism towards Black people of African descent, as shaped by slavery and European colonialism.[1][2] However, the term Black itself can apply more widely to other groups.[6][7][8] Some scholars have called for more recognition of the shared experiences of Blackness for Pacific and non-Atlantic Blacks (or Blaks), such as Indigenous Australians and Melanesians, although this usage may be controversial.[9][10] The related terms Negrophobia and colourphobia (or colorphobia in American English) were terms created by abolitionists in America to refer specifically to racism towards people of Black African descent, who were known at the time as Negroes or Coloured (or Colored).[11][12][13][14]
Concepts
editAnti-Black racism, colourphobia and negrophobia
editAnti-Black racism, sometimes called negrophobia or colourphobia (or colorphobia),[12][13] is discriminatory sentiment towards people racialised as Black,[15] often because the person believes that their race is superior to the Black race.[16][17] The terms Afrophobia (or Afriphobia) and melanophobia have also been used.[18][19]
Afrophobia
editAfrophobia, or Afriphobia, is often used to describe racism (particularly systemic racism) against Black people of African descent, such as by the European Network Against Racism (ENAR).[18][20] Others use Afrophobia to describe racism and xenophobia against all or some people of African descent, and especially indigenous Africans, for their perceived Africanness. This may also include prejudice against African traditions and culture. For example, Afrophobia is used to describe xenophobia in South Africa against people of other African nationalities for being too racially Black, too culturally African, or both.[21]
Anti-Black racism
editAnti-Black racism was a term first used by Canadian scholar Dr. Akua Benjamin in a 1992 report on Ontario race relations. It is defined as follows:
Anti-Black racism is a specific manifestation of racism rooted in European colonialism, slavery and oppression of Black people since the sixteenth century. It is a structure of iniquities in power, resources and opportunities that systematically disadvantages people of African descent.[1]
Melanophobia
editMelanophobia has been used to refer to both anti-Black racism[22] and colourism (or prejudice against people with darker skin), especially in Latin America, the Middle East and Africa.[23][24][25]
Negrophobia and colourphobia
editThe term racism is not attested before the 20th century,[26] but Negrophobia (first recorded between 1810–1820; often capitalised), and later colourphobia (first recorded in 1834),[27][12] likely originated within the abolitionist movement, where it was used as an analogy to rabies (then called hydrophobia) to describe the "mad dog" mindset behind the pro-slavery cause and its apparently contagious nature.[13][28][29][30] In 1819, the term was used in U.S. Congressional debates to refer to a "violent aversion or hatred of Negroes".[31]
The term negrophobia may also have been inspired by the word nigrophilism, itself first appearing in 1802 in Baudry des Lozières's Les égarements du nigrophilisme.[32] Noting the shift of -phobia terms to cover prejudice and hatred rather than mere fear or aversion, J. L. A. Garcia refers to negrophobia as "the granddaddy of these ‘-phobia’ terms", preceding both xenophobia and homophobia.[29]
Both at the time, and since, critics of the terms negrophobia and colourphobia have argued that, although their use of -phobia is rhetorical, if taken literally they could be used to excuse or justify the behaviour of racists as mental illness or disease. John Dick, publisher of The North Star, voiced such concerns as early as 1848 while legal scholar Jody David Armour has voiced similar concerns in the 21st century.[29][33] Nevertheless, negrophobia had a clinical and satirical edge that made it popular with abolitionists.[29][30] In 1856, abolitionist Harriet Beecher Stowe published Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp, a novel which explored the fear of Blackness within negrophobia via the titular character Dred, a Black revolutionary Maroon.[34]
Changing terminology
editAfter abolition, negrophobia continued to be used to refer to anti-Black racism, but terms based on race also appeared around the turn of the 20th century. Racism first appeared in print in 1903.[35] In December 1921, the terms negrophobia and race hatred were used to describe an outbreak of anti-Black violence in the Dominican Republic by John Sydney de Bourg, a spokesman for the local chapter of the Universal Negro Improvement Association in San Pedro de Macorís.[36] Negrophobia further reappeared in January 1927 in Lamine Senghor's La voix des nègres (The Voice of the Negroes), a monthly anti-colonialist newspaper. The term became more widespread outside of North America and the English-speaking world when French Caribbean psychologist and philosopher Frantz Fanon included it in his works Peaux noires masques blancs (Black Skin, White Masks) and Les Damnés de la Terre (The Wretched of the Earth), again drawing on the rhetoric of racism as disease.[32][37] As a psychiatrist, Fanon explored negrophobia as an individual and societal "neurosis", although he saw it as the psychological structure underpinning colonial racism.[38][39][40]
By the middle of the 20th century, the term "Black" came to be preferred over "Negro", and so related terms became outdated.[14] However, negrophobia is still sometimes used to distinguish anti-Black racism from racism more generally. In this sense, Negrophobia may mean an especially strong, violent or transmissible form of anti-Black racism. In France, Une Autre Histoire describes negrophobia as meaning "the most virulent form of racism targeting those who are perceived as 'blacks' by people considering themselves different from 'blacks'" (translation).[32] Adia A. Brooks, who developed the Multidimensional Negrophobia Index (MNI) to measure anti-Black racism, describes it as a "thought system, or ideology" and "the profound fear or hatred of black people and black culture".[41]
The psychology of anti-Black racism
editPsychologists and sociologists have explored the individual and social psychology of anti-Black racism, often in reference to Fanon's work on negrophobia. Jock McCulloch explores Fanon's conception from a psychodynamic perspective, arguing that negrophobia requires psychological projection, and reveals "a certain psychic dependence of the European upon the black". He also points out that negrophobia, though it can be described as an emotional disorder, is theorised to come from the same "psychodynamic mechanism" as antisemitism, and stresses the importance, in Fanon's account, of negrophobia as inherently racist and a product of colonialism.[42] [43] Despite this, the description of negrophobia as an emotional disorder or involuntary reflex has been used as a legal defense to justify violent crimes against Black people,[33] including murder, as a form of self-defense or involuntary reaction.[44][45][46]
Internalised racism
editPsychiatrist Frantz Fanon introduced the concept of internalised racism, or internalised negrophobia, pointing to the hatred of Black people and Black culture by Black people themselves.[3] He asserts that anti-Black sentiment is a form of "trauma for white people of the Negro".[47] Equivalent to internalised racism caused by the trauma of living in a culture defining Black people as inherently evil, Fanon emphasises the slight existing cultural intricacies caused by the vast diversity of Black people and cultures, as well as the nature of their colonisation by White Europeans.[3] The symptoms of such internalised anti-Black sentiment include a rejection of their native or ethnic language in favour of European languages, a marked preference for European cultures over Black cultures, and a tendency to surround themselves with lighter-skinned people rather than darker-skinned ones.[3]
Similarly, the pattern further includes attributing negative characteristics to Black people, culture, and things. Toni Morrison's novel The Bluest Eye (1970) stands as an illustrative work on the destroying effects of anti-Black sentiment among the Black community on themselves.[48] The main character, Pecola Breedlove, through her non-reconciliation with her Black identity, her Black societal indifference, and her craving for symbolic blue eyes, presents all the signs of an internalised anti-Black sentiment.[48] She develops an anti-Black neurosis due to her feeling of non-existence both within the White and her own community.[48]
While the latter theoretical framework is academically debated, Fanon insists on the nature of anti-Black sentiment as a socio-diagnosis, thus characterising not individuals but rather entire societies and their patterns.[3] Fanon thereby implies that anti-Black sentiment is a cross-disciplinary area of research, justifying that its analysis and understanding may not be confined to the psychological field.[3]
Involuntary racism
editIn the book Negrophobia and Reasonable Racism, legal scholar Jody David Armour describes the term Involuntary Negrophobia as the legal precedent of defendants using a victim's Blackness as justification for violent crimes against them.[49] Typically, such arguments rest on the idea that racist revulsion and violence directed at Black people is an involuntary reaction, such as with PTSD, and thus not an intentional criminal act; or that it constitutes a form of self-defence based on their perception of the victim as a threat because of their Blackness. This approach focusses on the personal culpability of the individual defendant, and their state of mind. Armour critiques this view as equating anti-Black sentiment with insanity and allowing a person's racial fear to legally justify and even excuse violent behaviour.[49][44]
Anti-Blackness in education and organisation studies
editIn response to Black Lives Matter organising contemporary scholars of education, human resource development, and critical management studies have begun focusing on anti-Blackness in schools and places of business.[50][51][52][53][54] These efforts build on established critical race discourses in their respective fields and incorporate concepts from Afropessimism.[55][page needed]
Anti-Black racism globally
editAfrica
editSouth Africa
editCape Coloureds
editMixed-race people in South Africa are referred to as Coloureds or Cape Coloureds. This term includes individuals with a mixed-race descent that can include African, Asian, and European ethnic heritage.[60] The term "Coloured" is considered neutral in South African society and is commonly used to refer to individuals who self-identify as such.[61] However, in some Western countries, such as the United Kingdom and the United States, the term "Coloured" has a negative connotation and can be seen as derogatory because it was historically used as a means of categorizing Black individuals and reinforcing racial hierarchies.[62] The word persists as a neutral descriptor in the names of some older organizations, such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in the United States.
The 1911 South African census played a significant role in shaping the country's racial identities. The enumeration process involved specific instructions for classifying individuals into different racial categories, and the category of "Coloured persons" was used to refer to all people of mixed race. This included various ethnicities, such as Khoikhoi, San, Cape Malays, Griquas, Korannas, Creoles, Negroes, and Cape Coloureds. What is particularly noteworthy about the classification of "Coloured persons" is that it included individuals of Black African descent, who were commonly known as Negroes. As a result, Coloureds or Cape Coloureds, as a group of mixed-race descent individuals, also have Black African ancestry and can be considered part of the broader African diaspora.[63]
The racial category of Coloureds is a multifaceted and heterogeneous group that exhibits great diversity. Analogously, they can be compared to Black Americans, whose population is composed of approximately 75% West African and 25% Northern European ancestry. However, the Cape Coloureds possess an even greater level of complexity due to the presence of Bantu ancestry in their genetic makeup, which is closely linked to the predominantly West African heritage of Black Americans.[64][65]
While Coloureds in South Africa do have Black African ancestry, it is important to recognize that they have a distinct identity and experiences that differ from those of Black South Africans. Despite this, there are instances where Coloureds may face discrimination and prejudice based on their mixed-race descent and Black African ancestry. Furthermore, some individuals who hold prejudiced attitudes towards Black people may also hold negative attitudes towards Coloureds, viewing them as inferior or less desirable due to their mixed-race heritage.
Asia
editIsrael
editIn April 2012, the Swedish newspaper Svenska Dagbladet reported that tens of thousands of refugees and African migrant workers who have come to Israel in dangerous smuggling routes, live in southern Tel Aviv's Levinsky Park. SvD reported that some Africans in the park sleep on cardboard boxes under the stars, others crowd in dark hovels. Also was noted a situation with African refugees, such as Sudanese from Darfur, Eritreans, Ethiopians and other African nationalities, who stand in queue to the soup kitchen, organized by Israeli volunteers. The interior minister reportedly "wants everyone to be deported".[66]
In May 2012, disgruntlement toward Africans and calls for deportation and "blacks out" in Tel Aviv boiled over into death threats, fire bombings, rioting, and property destruction. Protesters blamed immigrants for worsening crime and the local economy, some of protesters were seen throwing eggs at African immigrants[67][68]
In March 2018, chief Sephardic Rabbi of Israel, Yitzhak Yosef, used the term Kushi to refer to black people, which has Talmudic origins but is a derogatory word for people of African descent in modern Hebrew. He also reportedly likened black people to monkeys.[69][70][71]Japan
editSaudi Arabia
editEurope
editIn Europe, anti-Black sentiment finds its roots in the 17th century due to its extensive historical colonisation and slavery.[76]
France
editIn 2005, an anti-negrophobia brigade (BAN) was created in France to protest against increasing numbers of targeted acts and occurrences of police violence against Black people.[76] The latter protest movements notably underwent severe police violence in the Jardin du Luxembourg in Paris during the 2011 and 2013 abolition of slavery commemorations.[76]
The United Kingdom
editBlack immigrants who arrived in Britain from the Caribbean in the 1950s faced racism. For many Caribbean immigrants, their first experience of discrimination came when trying to find private accommodation. They were generally ineligible for council housing because only people who had been resident in the UK for a minimum of five years qualified for it. At the time, there was no anti-discrimination legislation to prevent landlords from refusing to accept black tenants. A survey undertaken in Birmingham in 1956 found that only 15 of a total of 1,000 white people surveyed would let a room to a black tenant. As a result, many black immigrants were forced to live in slum areas of cities, where the housing was of poor quality and there were problems of crime, violence and prostitution.[77][78] One of the most notorious slum landlords was Peter Rachman, who owned around 100 properties in the Notting Hill area of London. Black tenants sometimes paid twice the rent of white tenants, and lived in conditions of extreme overcrowding.[77]
Historian Winston James argues that the experience of racism in Britain was a major factor in the development of a shared Caribbean identity amongst black immigrants from a range of different island and class backgrounds.[79]North America
editCanada
editIn a 2013 survey of 80 countries by the World Values Survey, Canada ranked among the most racially tolerant societies in the world.[80] Nevertheless, according to Statistics Canada's Ethnic Diversity Survey, released in September 2003, when asked about the five-year period from 1998 to 2002 nearly one-third (32 per cent) of respondents who identified as Black reported that they had been subjected to some form of racial discrimination or unfair treatment "sometimes" or "often".[81]
From the late 1970s to the early 1990s, a number of unarmed Black Canadian men in Toronto were shot or killed by Toronto Police officers.[82][83] In response, the Black Action Defence Committee (BADC) was founded in 1988. BADC's executive director, Dudley Laws, stated that Toronto had the "most murderous" police force in North America, and that police bias against blacks in Toronto was worse than in Los Angeles.[83][84] In 1990, BADC was primarily responsible for the creation of Ontario's Special Investigations Unit, which investigates police misconduct.[83][85] Since the early 1990s, the relationship between Toronto Police and the city's black community has improved;[83] in 2015, Mark Saunders became the first black police chief in the city's history. Carding remained an issue as of 2016;[86] restrictions against arbitrary carding came into effect in Ontario in 2017.[87]
Throughout the years, high-profile cases of racism against Black Canadians have occurred in Nova Scotia.[88][89][90] The province continues to champion human rights and battle against racism, in part by an annual march to end racism against people of African descent.[91][92]
Black ice hockey players in Canada have reported being victims of racism.[93][94][95]United States
editIn the context of racism in the United States, racism against African Americans dates back to the colonial era, and it continues to be a persistent issue in American society in the 21st century.
From the arrival of the first Africans in early colonial times until after the American Civil War, most African Americans were enslaved. Even free African Americans have faced restrictions on their political, social, and economic freedoms, being subjected to lynchings, segregation, Black Codes, Jim Crow laws, and other forms of discrimination, both before and after the Civil War. Thanks to the civil rights movement, formal racial discrimination was gradually outlawed by the federal government, and gradually came to be perceived as socially and morally unacceptable by large elements of American society. Despite this, racism against Black Americans remains widespread in the U.S., as does socioeconomic inequality between black and white Americans.[a][97] In 1863, two years prior to emancipation, Black people owned 0.5 percent of the national wealth, while in 2019 it is just over 1.5 percent.[98]
In recent years research has uncovered extensive evidence of racial discrimination in various sectors of modern U.S. society, including the criminal justice system, businesses, the economy, housing, health care, the media, and politics. In the view of the United Nations and the US Human Rights Network, "discrimination in the United States permeates all aspects of life and extends to all communities of color."[99]Oceania
editAustralia
editAfrican Australians
editSouth America
editBrazil
editMany Brazilians still think that race impacts life in their country. A research article published in 2011 indicated that 63.7% of Brazilians believe that race interferes with the quality of life, 59% believe it makes a difference at work, and 68.3% in questions related to police justice. According to Ivanir dos Santos (the former Justice Ministry's specialist on race affairs), "There is a hierarchy of skin color: where blacks, mixed race and dark skinned people are expected to know their place in society."[104] Although 54% of the population is black or has black ancestry, they represented only 24% of the 513 chosen representatives the legislature as of 2018.[105]
For many decades, discussions of inequality in Brazil largely ignored the disproportionate correlation between race and class. Under the racial democracy thesis, it was assumed that any disparity in wealth between white and non-white Brazilians was due to the legacy of slavery and broader issues of inequality and lack of economic mobility in the country. The general consensus was that the problem would fix itself given enough time. This hypothesis was examined in 1982 by sociologist José Pastore in his book Social Mobility in Brazil. In his book, Pastore examines the 1973 household survey and compares the income and occupations of father-son pairs. Based on his findings, he concluded that the level of economic mobility in Brazil should have been enough to overcome inequality left from slavery had opportunities been available equally.[106]
Racial inequality is seen primarily through lower levels of education and income for non-whites than whites.[107] Economic inequality is most dramatically seen in the near absence of non-whites from the upper levels of Brazil's income bracket. According to sociologist Edward Telles, whites are five times more likely to be earning in the highest income bracket (more than $2,000/month).[108] Overall, The salary of Whites in Brazil are, on average, 46% over the salary of Blacks.[104]
Additionally, racial discrimination in education is a well documented phenomenon in Brazil. Ellis Monk, Professor of sociology at Harvard University, found that one unit of darkness in a student's skin corresponds to a 26 percent lower chance of the student receiving more education as compared to lighter-skinned students.[107] Further, a study on racial bias in teacher evaluations in Brazil found that Brazilian math teachers gave better grading assessments of white students than equally proficient and equivalently well-behaved black students.[109]
Quality of Life Indicators vs. Race
Indicators | White Brazilian | Black & Multiracial Brazilian |
---|---|---|
Illiteracy[110] | 3.4% | 7.4% |
University degree[111] | 15.0% | 4.7% |
Life expectancy[112] | 76 | 73 |
Unemployment[113] | 6.8% | 11.3% |
Average annual income[114][115] | R$37,188 | R$21,168 |
Homicide deaths[116] | 29% | 65.5% |
Racism against non-African Black groups
editThough anti-Black racism specifically refers to people of Black African descent, there are other groups who are identified as Black and whose experiences of racism may share similarities to those of Black Africans.[1][9] These groups include Indigenous Australians (Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders) and Melanesians.
Indigenous Australians
editIndigenous peoples of Australia, comprising Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders peoples, have lived in Australia for at least 65,000 years[117][118] before the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788. The colonisation of Australia and development into a modern nation, saw explicit and implicit racial discrimination against Indigenous Australians.
Indigenous Australians continue to be subjected to racist government policy and community attitudes. Racist community attitudes towards Aboriginal people have been confirmed as continuing both by surveys of Indigenous Australians[119] and self-disclosure of racist attitudes by non-Indigenous Australians.[120]
Since 2007, government policy considered to be racist include the Northern Territory Intervention which failed to produce a single child abuse conviction,[121] cashless welfare cards trialled almost exclusively in Aboriginal communities,[122] the Community Development Program that has seen Indigenous participants fined at a substantially higher rate than non-Indigenous participants in equivalent work-for-the-dole schemes,[123] and calls to shut down remote Indigenous communities[124] despite the United Nation's Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples specifying governments must facilitate the rights of Indigenous people to live on traditional land.
In 2016, police raids and behaviour on Palm Island following a death in custody were found to have breached the Racial Discrimination Act 1975,[125] with a record class action settlement of $30 million awarded to victims in May 2018.[126] The raids were found by the court to be "racist" and "unnecessary, disproportionate" with police having "acted in these ways because they were dealing with an Aboriginal community."[125]See also
edit- Negrophilia
- Afrophobia
- Missing white woman syndrome
- Discrimination based on skin color
- Ethnocentrism
- Index of racism-related articles
- List of phobias
- Nativism (politics)
- Racial bias in criminal news
- Racism against African Americans
- Stereotypes of Africa
- Stereotypes of African Americans
- Supremacism#Racial
- Xenophobia
Notes
edit- ^ In his 2009 visit to the US, the [UN] Special Rapporteur on Racism noted that "Socio-economic indicators show that poverty, race and ethnicity continue to overlap in the United States. This reality is a direct legacy of the past, in particular, it is a direct legacy of slavery, segregation and the forcible resettlement of Native Americans, which was confronted by the United States during the civil rights movement. However, whereas the country managed to establish equal treatment and non-discrimination in its laws, it has yet to redress the socioeconomic consequences of the historical legacy of racism."[96]
References
edit- ^ a b c d Husbands, Winston; Lawson, Daeria O.; Etowa, Egbe B.; Mbuagbaw, Lawrence; Baidoobonso, Shamara; Tharao, Wangari; Yaya, Sanni; Nelson, LaRon E.; Aden, Muna; Etowa, Josephine (2022-10-01). "Black Canadians' Exposure to Everyday Racism: Implications for Health System Access and Health Promotion among Urban Black Communities". Journal of Urban Health. 99 (5): 829–841. doi:10.1007/s11524-022-00676-w. ISSN 1468-2869. PMC 9447939. PMID 36066788.
- ^ a b Dryden, OmiSoore; Nnorom, Onye (2021-01-11). "Time to dismantle systemic anti-Black racism in medicine in Canada". CMAJ. 193 (2): E55–E57. doi:10.1503/cmaj.201579. ISSN 0820-3946. PMC 7773037. PMID 33431548.
- ^ a b c d e f Brooks, Adia A. (2012). "Black Negrophobia and Black Self-Empowerment: Afro-Descendant Responses to Societal Racism in São Paulo, Brazil" (PDF). UW-L Journal of Undergraduate Research. XV: 2. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
- ^ Rakotovao, Lucina; Simeoni, Michelle; Bennett-AbuAyyash, Caroline; Walji, Taheera; Abdi, Samiya (2024-06-28). "Addressing anti-Black racism within public health in North America: a scoping review". International Journal for Equity in Health. 23 (1): 128. doi:10.1186/s12939-024-02124-4. ISSN 1475-9276. PMC 11212177. PMID 38937746.
- ^ Gregory, Virgil L.; Clary, Kelly Lynn (2022-01-02). "Addressing Anti-Black Racism: The Roles of Social Work". Smith College Studies in Social Work. 92 (1): 1–27. doi:10.1080/00377317.2021.2008287. ISSN 0037-7317.
- ^ MacMaster, Neil (2001), MacMaster, Neil (ed.), "Anti-Black Racism in an Age of Total War", Racism in Europe 1870–2000, London: Macmillan Education UK, pp. 117–139, doi:10.1007/978-1-4039-4033-9_5, ISBN 978-1-4039-4033-9, retrieved 2024-07-21
- ^ Library, Web. "Guides: Anti-Black Racism: Definitions and Introductory Texts". libraryguides.mcgill.ca. Retrieved 2024-07-21.
- ^ Shilliam, Robbie (2015). The Black Pacific: Anti-Colonial Struggles and Oceanic Connections (1 ed.). Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. doi:10.5040/9781474218788.ch-003. ISBN 978-1-4742-1878-8.
- ^ a b Barwick, Daniel; Nayak, Anoop (2024-07-08). "The Transnationalism of the Black Lives Matter Movement: Decolonization and Mapping Black Geographies in Sydney, Australia". Annals of the American Association of Geographers: 1–17. doi:10.1080/24694452.2024.2363782. ISSN 2469-4452.
- ^ Fredericks, Bronwyn; Bradfield, Abraham (2021-04-27). "'I'm Not Afraid of the Dark': White Colonial Fears, Anxieties, and Racism in Australia and Beyond". M/C Journal. 24 (2). doi:10.5204/mcj.2761. ISSN 1441-2616.
- ^ Gemeinhardt, April (2016-01-01). ""The Most Poisonous of All Diseases of Mind or Body": Colorphobia and the Politics of Reform". Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers.
- ^ a b c "Colourphobia | Colorphobia, N., Etymology." Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford UP, July 2023, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/9131678901.
- ^ a b c "Negrophobia, N., Etymology." Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford UP, July 2023, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/5704106894.
- ^ a b “Negro, N. & Adj.” Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford UP, March 2024, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/2341880472.
- ^ The Congregational Review, Volume 2. J.M. Whittemore. 1862. p. 629. Retrieved 10 December 2015.
- ^ Hankela 2014, p. 88.
- ^ Berwanger, Eugene H. (1972). "Negrophobia in Northern Proslavery and Antislavery Thought". Phylon (1960-). 33 (3): 266–275. doi:10.2307/273527. ISSN 0031-8906. JSTOR 273527.
- ^ a b Privot, M., 2014. Afrophobia and the ‘Fragmentation of Anti-racism.’. Visible Invisible Minority: Confronting Afrophobia and Advancing Equality for People of African Descent and Black Europeans in Europe, pp.31-38.
- ^ Chinweizu, C., 2003. Afrocentric Rectification of Terms: Excerpt from: What Slave Trade? And other Afrocentric reflections on the Race War. TINABANTU: Journal of Advanced Studies of African Society, 1(2).
- ^ Momodou, J. and Pascoët, J., 2014. Towards a European strategy to combat Afrophobia. European Network Against Racism, Invisible visible minority: Confronting Afrophobia and advancing equality for people of African descent and Black Europeans in Europe, pp.262-272.
- ^ Koenane, M.L.J. and Maphunye, K.J., 2015. Afrophobia, moral and political disguises: Sepa leholo ke la moeti. Td: The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa, 11(4), pp.83-98.
- ^ Biale, D., Galchinsky, M. and Heschel, S. eds., 1998. Insider/outsider: American Jews and multiculturalism. Univ of California Press.
- ^ Madden, R., 2006. Tez de mulato. Colonialism and Race in Luso-Hispanic Literature, p.114.
- ^ Torres-Saillant, S., 2003. Inventing the race: Latinos and the ethnoracial pentagon. Latino Studies, 1, pp.123-151.
- ^ Mirmotahari, E., 2015. A Cloud of Semitic Mohammedanism: The African Novel and the Muslim Question in the National Age. Interventions, 17(1), pp.45-63.
- ^ "Definition of RACISM". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2024-07-20.
- ^ "Definition of COLORPHOBIA". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2024-07-20.
- ^ "Dictionary.com | Meanings & Definitions of English Words". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2024-07-20.
- ^ a b c d Garcia, J. L .A. "Racism and the Discourse of Phobias: Negrophobia, Xenophobia and More---Dialogue with Kim and Sundstrom". SUNY Open Access Repository. p. 2. Retrieved 2024-07-03.
- ^ a b "The Anti-Slavery Roots of Today's "-Phobia" Obsession". The New Republic. ISSN 0028-6583. Retrieved 2024-07-20.
- ^ "Negrophobia | Etymology of Negrophobia by etymonline". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 2024-07-20.
- ^ a b c Une Autre Histoire (13 January 2015). "Négrophobie". une-autre-histoire.org. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
- ^ a b Armour, Jody David (1997), "Introduction: ʺRATIONALʺ DISCRIMINATION AND THE BLACK TAX", Negrophobia and Reasonable Racism, The Hidden Costs of Being Black in America, NYU Press, p. 2, JSTOR j.ctt9qfpg3.4, retrieved 2024-07-20
- ^ McLaughlin, Don James (2019). "Dread: The Phobic Imagination in Antislavery Literature". J19: The Journal of Nineteenth-Century Americanists. 7 (1): 21–48. doi:10.1353/jnc.2019.0001. ISSN 2166-7438.
- ^ “Racism, N.” Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford UP, July 2023, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/1101660185.
- ^ Wright, Micah (2015-04-03). "An Epidemic of Negrophobia: Blackness and the Legacy of the US Occupation of the Dominican Republic". The Black Scholar. 45 (2): 21–33. doi:10.1080/00064246.2015.1012994. ISSN 0006-4246.
- ^ Brooks, Adia A. (2012). "Black Negrophobia and Black Self-Empowerment: Afro-Descendant Responses to Societal Racism in São Paulo, Brazil" (PDF). UW-L Journal of Undergraduate Research. XV: 2. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
- ^ Yokum, N. (2024). "A call for psycho-affective change: Fanon, feminism, and white negrophobic femininity." Philosophy & Social Criticism, 50(2), 343-368. https://doi.org/10.1177/01914537221103897
- ^ Sandra Lee Bartky, Femininity and Domination: Studies in the Phenomenology of Oppression (New York: Routledge, 1990), p. 22.
- ^ Mary Ann Doane, ‘Dark Continents: Epistemologies of Racial and Sexual Difference in Psychoanalysis and the Cinema’, in Femmes Fatales: Feminism, Film Theory, and Psychoanalysis (New York: Routledge, 2013/1991: 209–248), 217.
- ^ Brooks, Adia A. (2012). "Black Negrophobia and Black Self-Empowerment: Afro-Descendant Responses to Societal Racism in São Paulo, Brazil" (PDF). UW-L Journal of Undergraduate Research. Retrieved 2024-07-03.
- ^ McCulloch, Jock (16 May 2002). Black Soul, White Artifact: Fanon's Clinical Psychology and Social Theory. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52025-6. pp. 72–3. 233.
- ^ Burman, E. (2016). "Fanon’s Lacan and the Traumatogenic Child: Psychoanalytic Reflections on the Dynamics of Colonialism and Racism." Theory, Culture & Society, 33(4), 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263276415598627
- ^ a b Armour, Jody D. (1994). "Race Ipsa Loquitur: Of Reasonable Racists, Intelligent Bayesians, and Involuntary Negrophobes". Stanford Law Review. 46 (4): 781–816. doi:10.2307/1229093. ISSN 0038-9765. JSTOR 1229093.
- ^ Hill, Brandon (2014-08-29). "Negrophobia: Michael Brown, Eric Garner, and America's Fear of Black People". TIME. Retrieved 2024-07-03.
- ^ Bauerlein, Mark (2001). Negrophobia: A Race Riot in Atlanta, 1906. Encounter Books. ISBN 978-1-893554-23-8. p. 3, 238.
- ^ Anthony C. Alessandrini (3 August 2005). Frantz Fanon: Critical Perspectives. Routledge. p. 153. ISBN 978-1-134-65657-8.
- ^ a b c Maleki, Nasser and Haj'jari and Mohammad-Javad (2015). "Negrophobia and Anti-Negritude in Morrison's The Bluest Eye". Epiphany: Journal of Transdisciplinary Studies. 8: 69. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
- ^ a b Armour, Jody David (1997). Negrophobia and Reasonable Racism: The Hidden Costs of Being Black in America. NYU Press. JSTOR j.ctt9qfpg3. pp. 64–5.
- ^ Bell, Myrtle P.; Berry, Daphne; Leopold, Joy; Nkomo, Stella (January 2021). "Making Black Lives Matter in academia: A Black feminist call for collective action against anti-blackness in the academy". Gender, Work & Organization. 28 (S1): 39–57. doi:10.1111/gwao.12555. hdl:2263/85604. ISSN 0968-6673. S2CID 224844343.
- ^ Bohonos, Jeremy W (July 2023). "Workplace hate speech and rendering Black and Native lives as if they do not matter: A nightmarish autoethnography". Organization. 30 (4): 605–623. doi:10.1177/13505084211015379. ISSN 1350-5084. S2CID 236294224.
- ^ Dumas, Michael J. (2016-01-02). "Against the Dark: Antiblackness in Education Policy and Discourse". Theory into Practice. 55 (1): 11–19. doi:10.1080/00405841.2016.1116852. ISSN 0040-5841. S2CID 147252566.
- ^ Dumas, Michael J.; ross, kihana miraya (April 2016). ""Be Real Black for Me": Imagining BlackCrit in Education". Urban Education. 51 (4): 415–442. doi:10.1177/0042085916628611. ISSN 0042-0859. S2CID 147319546.
- ^ Bohonos, Jeremy W.; Sisco, Stephanie (June 2021). "Advocating for social justice, equity, and inclusion in the workplace: An agenda for anti-racist learning organizations". New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. 2021 (170): 89–98. doi:10.1002/ace.20428. ISSN 1052-2891. S2CID 240576110.
- ^ Wilderson 2021.
- ^ a b c d Houston, Gregory (2022). "Racial Privilege in Apartheid South Africa". In Houston, Gregory; Kanyane, Modimowabarwa; Davids, Yul Derek (eds.). Paradise Lost: Race and Racism in Post-apartheid South Africa. Africa-Europe Group for Interdisciplinary Studies. Vol. 28. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 35–72. doi:10.1163/9789004515949_003. ISBN 978-90-04-51594-9. ISSN 1574-6925.
- ^ a b c d e f Bradshaw, Debbie; Norman, Rosana; Laubscher, Ria; Schneider, Michelle; Mbananga, Nolwazi; Steyn, Krisela (2004). "Chapter 19: An Exploratory Investigation into Racial Disparities in the Health of Older South Africans". In Anderson, N. B.; Bulatao, R. A.; Cohen, B. (eds.). Critical Perspectives on Racial and Ethnic Differences in Health in Late Life. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press on behalf of the National Research Council Panel on Race, Ethnicity, and Health in Later Life. pp. 703–736. doi:10.17226/11086. ISBN 978-0-309-16570-9. PMID 20669464. NBK25536.
- ^ a b c "Race in South Africa: 'We haven't learnt we are human beings first'". BBC News. London. 21 January 2021. Archived from the original on 5 November 2022. Retrieved 10 November 2022.
- ^ Kaziboni, Anthony (2022). "Apartheid Racism and Post-apartheid Xenophobia: Bridging the Gap". In Rugunanan, Pragna; Xulu-Gama, Nomkhosi (eds.). Migration in Southern Africa: IMISCOE Regional Reader. IMISCOE Research Series. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature. pp. 201–213. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-92114-9_14. ISBN 978-3-030-92114-9. ISSN 2364-4095.
- ^ Kline Jr. 1958, p. 8254.
- ^ Stevenson & Waite 2011, p. 283.
- ^ "Is the word 'coloured' offensive?". BBC News. 9 November 2006. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
- ^ Moultrie, Tom A.; Dorrington, Rob E. (August 2012). "Used for ill; used for good: a century of collecting data on race in South Africa". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 35 (8): 1447–1465. doi:10.1080/01419870.2011.607502.
- ^ Khan, Razib (June 16, 2011). "The Cape Coloureds are a mix of everything". Discover. Retrieved March 2, 2023.
- ^ Christopher, A. J. (2002). "'To Define the Indefinable': Population Classification and the Census in South Africa". Area. 34 (4): 401–408. Bibcode:2002Area...34..401C. doi:10.1111/1475-4762.00097. ISSN 0004-0894. JSTOR 20004271.
- ^ Bitte Hammargren (28 April 2012). "Israel vill utvisa afrikanska immigranter". Svenska Dagbladet (in Swedish). Retrieved 2012-07-08.
- ^ Sheera Frenkel (24 May 2012). "Violent Riots Target African Nationals Living In Israel". NPR.
- ^ Gilad Morag (28 May 2012). "Video: Israeli hurls egg at African migrant". Ynet.
- ^ Surkes, Sue (20 March 2018). "Chief rabbi calls black people 'monkeys'". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
- ^ Kra-Oz, Tal (14 May 2018). "Israeli Chief Rabbi Calls African Americans 'Monkeys'". The Tablet. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
- ^ Cohen, Hayley (21 March 2018). "ADL Slams Chief Rabbi of Israel for Calling Black People 'Monkeys'". Haaretz. Retrieved 14 May 2018.
- ^ Reicheneker, Sierra (January 2011). "The Marginalization of Afro-Asians in East Asia: Globalization and the Creation of Subculture and Hybrid Identity". Global Tides. 5 (1). Retrieved 4 July 2012.
The products of both prostitution and legally binding marriages, these children were largely regarded as illegitimate. When the military presence returned to America, the distinction between the two was, for all practical purposes, null. As the American military departed, any previous preferential treatment for biracial people ended and was replaced with a backlash due to the return of ethnically-based national pride.
- ^ "Middle East :: SAUDI ARABIA". CIA The World Factbook. 14 November 2023.
- ^ "The New Arab – Dark-skinned and beautiful: Challenging Saudi Arabia's perception of beauty". 8 March 2017.
- ^ "46 Saudis marry African women". 7 December 2015.
- ^ a b c Une Autre Histoire (13 January 2015). "Négrophobie". une-autre-histoire.org. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
- ^ a b Cloake, J. A.; Tudor, M. R. (2001). Multicultural Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-0199134243.
- ^ Phillips, Deborah; Karn, Valerie (1991). "Racial Segregation in Britain: Patterns, Processes, and Policy Approaches". In Huttman, Elizabeth D. (ed.). Urban Housing Segregation of Minorities in Western Europe and the United States. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. pp. 63–91. ISBN 978-0822310600.
- ^ James, Winston (1992). "Migration, Racism and Identity: The Caribbean Experience in Britain" (PDF). New Left Review. I/193: 15–55.
- ^ Fisher, Max (15 May 2013). "A fascinating map of the world's most and least racially tolerant countries". Washington Post. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
- ^ "Statistics Canada". Statcan.ca. 26 September 2003. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ Philip Mascoll, "Sherona Hall, 59: Fighter for justice", Toronto Star, 9 January 2007
- ^ a b c d James, Royson (25 March 2011). "James: Dudley Laws stung and inspired a generation". thestar.com. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
- ^ K. K. Campbell, "LAWS CHARGES METRO POLICE BIAS AGAINST BLACKS `WORSE THAN L.A.' Archived 3 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine" Eye Weekly, 1 October 1992
- ^ Winsa, Patty (24 March 2011). "'Fearless' black activist Dudley Laws dies at age 76". thestar.com. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
- ^ Gillis, Wendy (1 January 2016). "Police chief Mark Saunders claims he is not afraid of change — and assures it's coming in 2016". thestar.com. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
- ^ Draaisma, Muriel (1 January 2017). "New Ontario rule banning carding by police takes effect". CBC News. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
- ^ Moore, Oliver (24 February 2010). "This page is available to GlobePlus subscribers". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. Retrieved 26 July 2010.
- ^ Lowe, Lezlie (29 January 2009). "Halifax's hidden racism". The Coast Halifax. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
- ^ Discrimination Against Blacks in Nova Scotia: The Criminal Justice System, by Wilson A. Head; Donald H. J. Clairmont; Royal Commission on the Donald Marshall, Jr., Prosecution (N.S.) State or province government publication, Publisher: [Halifax, N.S.] : The Commission, 1989.
- ^ "BreakingNews – Protest targets racism in Halifax". TheSpec.com. 23 February 2010. Retrieved 26 July 2010.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Beltrame, Julian (9 November 1985). "Blacks in Nova Scotia burdened by lingering racism". Ottawa Citizen. p. B6. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
- ^ Harris, Cecil (2003). Breaking the ice : the Black experience in professional hockey. Toronto [Ont.]: Insomniac Press. ISBN 1-894663-58-6.
- ^ Bell, Susan; Longchap, Betsy; Smith, Corinne. "First Nations hockey team subjected to racist taunts, slurs at Quebec City tournament". CBC News. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
- ^ Jeffrey, Andrew; Saba, Rosa (30 November 2019). "Hockey's race problem: Canadian players reflect on racism in the sport they love". thestar.com. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
- ^ CERD Task Force of the US Human Rights Network (August 2010). "From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Implementing US Obligations Under the International Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD)". Universal Periodic Review Joint Reports: United States of America. p. 44.
- ^ Henry, P. J., David O. Sears. Race and Politics: The Theory of Symbolic Racism. University of California, Los Angeles. 2002.
- ^ "Why the racial wealth gap persists, more than 150 years after emancipation". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 27, 2024.
- ^ U.S. Human Rights Network (August 2010). "The United States of America: Summary Submission to the UN Universal Periodic Review". Universal Periodic Review Joint Reports: United States of America. p. 8.
- ^ Mapedzahama, Virginia; Kwansah-Aidoo, Kwamena (2017). "Blackness as Burden? The Lived Experience of Black Africans in Australia". SAGE Open. 7 (3). SAGE Publications: 1–13. doi:10.1177/2158244017720483. ISSN 2158-2440. pdf Text from this source is available under a Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence.
- ^ Gatwiri, Kathomi (3 April 2019). "Growing Up African in Australia: Racism, resilience and the right to belong". The Conversation. Retrieved 3 November 2020.
Review: Growing Up African in Australia, edited by Maxine Beneba Clarke, Magan Magan and Ahmed Yussuf
- ^ Mergia, Ayalew (October 2005). Black African immigrants in Australia: An exploratory analysis of the impacts of race and class on their lived experiences and adaptation processes (PhD). University of Melbourne. Retrieved 4 November 2020 – via Minerva Access. PDF
- ^ Udah, Hyacinth; Singh, Parlo; Hiruy, Kiroy; Mwanri, Lillian (21 July 2019). "African Immigrants to Australia: Barriers and Challenges to Labor Market Success". Journal of Asian and African Studies. 54 (8). SAGE Publications: 1159–1174. doi:10.1177/0021909619861788. ISSN 0021-9096. S2CID 200076025.
- ^ a b Brazilians Think Race Intefere [sic] on Quality of Life, but not Everyone is Concerned About Equality (in English)
- ^ The Brazilian Report (November 20, 2018). "Ethnic Representation in Brazil's Congress: a long road ahead". The Brazilian Report.
- ^ Pastore, Jose (1982). Social Mobility in Brazil. University of Wisconsin Press.[page needed]
- ^ a b Monk, Ellis P. (August 2016). "The Consequences of "Race and Color" in Brazil". Social Problems. 63 (3): 413–430. doi:10.1093/socpro/spw014. S2CID 6738969.
- ^ Telles 2006, p. 110.
- ^ Botelho, Fernando; Madeira, Ricardo A.; Rangel, Marcos A. (1 October 2015). "Racial Discrimination in Grading: Evidence from Brazil". American Economic Journal: Applied Economics. 7 (4): 37–52. doi:10.1257/app.20140352. S2CID 145711236.
- ^ "Analfabetismo entre negros é mais que o dobro do registrado entre brancos". Folha de S.Paulo (in Brazilian Portuguese). 2023-06-07. Retrieved 2023-07-14.
- ^ Academic degree between Whites and Blacks in Brazil (in Portuguese)
- ^ "A expectativa de vida no Brasil, por gênero, raça ou cor, e estado". www.nexojornal.com.br (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 2023-07-14.
- ^ "Desemprego é maior entre mulheres e negros, diz IBGE". Agência Brasil (in Brazilian Portuguese). 2023-05-18. Retrieved 2023-07-14.
- ^ "IBGE: renda média de trabalhador branco é 75,7% maior que de pretos". Agência Brasil (in Brazilian Portuguese). 2022-11-11. Retrieved 2023-07-14.
- ^ "Brancos recebem cerca de 70% a mais do que pretos e pardos por hora de trabalho". O Popular (in Brazilian Portuguese). 2022-11-11. Retrieved 2023-07-14.
- ^ http://ultimainstancia.uol.com.br/conteudo/colunas/54059/mais+de+65%25+dos+assassinados+no+brasil+sao+negros.shtml Homicide rate in Brazil (2009) (in Portuguese)]
- ^ Davidson & Wahlquist 2017.
- ^ Wright 2017.
- ^ McGinn, Christine (6 April 2018). "New report reveals extent of online racial abuse towards Indigenous Australians". SBS Australia. Retrieved 4 June 2019.
- ^ "Racism causing mental health issues in Indigenous communities, survey shows". Guardian Australia. 29 July 2014. Retrieved 4 June 2019.
- ^ Pazzano, Chiara (20 June 2012). "Factbox: The 'Stronger Futures' legislation". SBS World News Australia. Archived from the original on 2016-08-16. Retrieved 28 April 2013.
- ^ Gooda, Mick (16 October 2015). "New report reveals extent of online racial abuse towards Indigenous Australians". ABC News. Retrieved 4 June 2019.
- ^ Conifer, Dan (4 October 2018). "Indigenous communities slapped with more fines under Government work-for-the-dole scheme, data shows". ABC News. Retrieved 4 June 2019.
- ^ Griffiths, Emma (11 March 2015). "Indigenous advisers slam Tony Abbott's 'lifestyle choice' comments as 'hopeless, disrespectful'". ABC News. Retrieved 4 June 2019.
- ^ a b "Queensland police breached discrimination act on Palm Island, court finds". Brisbane Times. 5 December 2016. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
- ^ Lily, Nothling (2 May 2018). "Palm Island riots class action payout 'slap in face' to police, union says". The Courier Mail. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
Works cited
edit- Achola, Paul P.W. (1992). "9". In Ndeti, Kivuto; Gray, Kenneth R. (eds.). The Second Scramble for Africa: A Response & a Critical Analysis of the Challenges Facing Contemporary Sub-Saharan Africa. Kenya: Professors World Peace Academy - Kenya. ISBN 978-9966-835-73-4.
- Adem, Seifudein; Mazrui, Ali A. (2 May 2013). Afrasia: A Tale of Two Continents. University Press of America. ISBN 978-0-7618-4772-4.
- Armour, Jody David (1997). Negrophobia and Reasonable Racism: The Hidden Costs of Being Black in America. NYU Press. JSTOR j.ctt9qfpg3.
- Bauerlein, Mark (2001). Negrophobia: A Race Riot in Atlanta, 1906. Encounter Books. ISBN 978-1-893554-23-8.
- Davidson, Helen; Wahlquist, Calla (20 July 2017). "Australian dig finds evidence of Aboriginal habitation up to 80,000 years ago". The Guardian.
- Hankela, Elina (28 May 2014). Ubuntu, Migration and Ministry: Being Human in a Johannesburg Church. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-27413-6.
- James, Darius (19 February 2019). Negrophobia: An Urban Parable. New York Review of Books. ISBN 978-1-68137-348-5.
- Klaffke, Pamela (2003). Spree: A Cultural History of Shopping. Arsenal pulp press. ISBN 9781551521435.
- Kline Jr., Hibberd V. B. (1958). "The Union of South Africa". The World Book Encyclopedia. Vol. 17. Chicago, Field Enterprises Educational Corp.
- Lincoln, Abraham (2013). Ball, Terence (ed.). Lincoln: Political writings and speeches. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. ISBN 978-0521897280.
- McCulloch, Jock (16 May 2002). Black Soul, White Artifact: Fanon's Clinical Psychology and Social Theory. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52025-6.
- Rieger, Jeorg (2013). Religion, Theology, and Class: Fresh Engagements after Long Silence. New Approaches to Religion and Power. Palgrave Macmillan US. ISBN 978-1-137-33924-9.
- Telles, Edward E. (2006). Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12792-7.
- Stevenson, Angus; Waite, Maurice (2011). "Coloured". Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Luxury Edition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960111-0.
- Wilderson, Frank B. (28 September 2021). Afropessimism. National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-1-324-09051-9.
- Wolfrum, Rüdiger (7 September 1999). Frowein, Jochen A.; Wolfrum, Rüdiger (eds.). Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-90-411-9753-5.
- Wright, Tony (20 July 2017). "Aboriginal archaeological discovery in Kakadu rewrites the history of Australia". The Sydney Morning Herald.