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{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{Redirect|Apapane|the racehorse|Apapane (horse)}}
{{Speciesbox
{{Speciesbox
| name = {{okina}}Apapane
| name = {{okina}}Apapane
| image = Himatione sanguinea.jpg
| image = Pezzillo Hosmer ʻApapane-2.jpg
| image_caption =
| image_caption = 'Apapane on pilo
| status = LC
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22720860/0 |title=''Himatione sanguinea'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2012 |access-date=26 November 2013|ref=harv}}</ref>
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2017 |title=''Himatione sanguinea'' |volume=2017 |page=e.T103828426A111174421 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-1.RLTS.T103828426A111174421.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Himatione
| genus = Himatione
| species = sanguinea
| species = sanguinea
| authority = ([[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1788)
| authority = ([[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1788)
| range_map = Himatione_sanguinea_range.png
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision =
| subdivision =
''Himatione sanguinea sanguinea''
''Himatione sanguinea sanguinea''
}}
}}


The '''{{okina}}apapane''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɑː|p|ɑː|ˈ|p|ɑː|n|eɪ}} {{respell|AH|pah|PAH|nay}};<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of apapane {{!}} Dictionary.com |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/apapane |access-date=2022-08-06 |website=www.dictionary.com |language=en}}</ref>) ('''''Himatione sanguinea''''') is a small, crimson species of [[Hawaiian honeycreeper]] [[Endemism|endemic]] to the [[Hawaiian Islands]]. They are the most abundant and widely distributed honeycreeper and are found on the islands of [[Hawaii (island)|Hawai{{okina}}i]], [[Maui]], [[Lanai|Lāna{{okina}}i]], [[Kauai|Kaua{{okina}}i]], [[Molokai|Moloka{{okina}}i]] and [[Oahu|O{{okina}}ahu.]]<ref name="BirdsNorthAm" />
The '''{{okina}}Apapane''' (''Himatione sanguinea'') is a species of [[Hawaiian honeycreeper]] that is [[Endemism|endemic]] to [[Hawaii]]. The bright crimson feathers of the {{okina}}Apapane were once used to adorn the ''{{okina}}ahu{{okina}}ula'' ([[Feather cloak|capes]]), ''[[mahiole]]'' (helmets), and ''[[Lei (Hawaii)|nā lei hulu]]'' (feather leis) of ''[[Ali'i|ali{{okina}}i]]'' (Hawaiian [[nobility]]). {{okina}}Apapane form small flocks when foraging through the [[Canopy (forest)|canopies]] of ''{{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a lehua'' (''[[Metrosideros polymorpha]]'') trees, [[Nectarivore|drinking]] [[nectar]] from the [[flower]]s and simultaneously [[Pollinator|pollinating]] them. They never forage on the forest floor. When flowering of ''{{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a'' is low and if not part of a flock, {{okina}}Apapane will be chased away from flowers by more aggressive competing birds such as the ''[[ʻAkohekohe|ʻakohekohe]]'' and ''[[ʻIʻiwi|{{okina}}i{{okina}}iwi]]''.<ref name="BirdsNorthAm" />


{{okina}}Apapane commonly forage in the [[Canopy (biology)|canopies]] of ''{{okina}}''ōhi{{okina}}a (''[[Metrosideros polymorpha]]'') trees, [[Nectarivore|drinking]] [[nectar]] from the [[flower]]s and serving as important [[pollinator]]s.<ref name="BirdsNorthAm" /> Hawaiians primarily used red feathers from [[ʻiʻiwi]], but also some from ʻapapane, to adorn the {{okina}}ahu{{okina}}ula (capes), [[mahiole]] (helmets), and [[Lei (Hawaii)|nā lei hulu]] (feather leis) of [[Ali'i|ali{{okina}}i]] (Hawaiian [[nobility]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pratt |first1=T.K. |last2=Atkinson |first2=C.T. |last3=Banko |first3=P.C. |last4=Jacobi |first4=J.D. |last5=Woodworth |first5=B.L |title=Conservation Biology of Hawaiian Forest Birds: Implications for Island Avifauna |date=2009 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300141085}}</ref>
The bird is considered to be an active singer. The males are known for their [[Bird song|singing patterns]] at all times of the day. They have six different calls and about ten different recorded song patterns. The contact call or song of a male {{okina}}Apapane is mainly used for [[Animal communication|mate attraction]] and breeding. The male who is most aggressive and sings the loudest is the one who wins the females' attention. Once courtship and pair formation has been established, and copulation is complete, both male and female {{okina}}Apapane are involved in the nesting process. The male role is important for maintaining [[courtship feeding]] during the nest construction and incubation period. The male {{okina}}Apapane sings continuously during incubation, while the female does not sing at all. His loud whistling, and chirping sound chases other male birds away from the nesting tree, while he sits on an adjacent perch guarding the nest. The {{okina}}Apapane has two distinct [[Bird flight|flight patterns]]: straight flight and a circling flight.


==Description==
== Description ==
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[[File:Juvenile Apapane (6977067480).jpg|thumb|Juvenile {{okina}}apapane|alt=|left]]
An adult {{okina}}Apapane is small, with a length of {{convert|13|cm|in|abbr=on}} when fully grown. Male {{okina}}apapane have a mass {{convert|16|g|oz|abbr=on}}, while females average {{convert|14.4|g|oz|abbr=on}}. The slightly curved bluish black [[Beak|bill]] measures {{convert|15|-|17|mm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="BirdsNorthAm" /> There is a distinct [[Sexual dimorphism|gender difference]] in size. The major traits of an adult {{okina}}Apapane are a bright crimson top and back; white bottom and under tail; with black wings and legs. A unique characteristic of the {{okina}}Apapane is the white undertail coverts which can be seen clearly when the tail is cocked. The white under tail is a distinctive feature that separates the {{okina}}Apapane from the other similar native birds. Juvenile {{okina}}Apapane are pink when hatched and are covered in patches of dull brownish feathers. The brown color changes to crimson at maturity. Along with crimson, it can be white, black and gray with small black eyes with a brown outline. The back of its wings and its tail are colored black, while back bottom is a grayish-white.
{{okina}}Apapane are small at {{convert|13|cm|in|abbr=on}} when fully grown. They are [[sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]] in size: male {{okina}}apapane have a mass of {{convert|16|g|oz|abbr=on}}, while females average {{convert|14.4|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name="BirdsNorthAm" /> Adult {{okina}}apapane are overall bright crimson, with distinct white undertail-coverts and lower abdomen feathers. They have black primaries and retricies. Juvenile {{okina}}apapane are yellow-brown and gray, with the same white plumage as adults, and molt into crimson plumage over the course of two years. 'Apapane are often seen in a tail-up posture, showing off their white feathers.


===Song===
==Distribution and habitat==
'Apapane are active singers, including in flight. There is considerable variation in their calls and songs, but phrases are often repeated. They are known to sing at a perch for 10-30 second intervals, and their song may include repeated squeaks, whistles, rasps, melodic trills, and clicking sounds.<ref name="BirdsNorthAm" />
{{okina}}Apapane are found in [[Hawaiian tropical rainforests#Mixed mesic forests|mesic]] and [[Hawaiian tropical rainforests#Wet forests|wet forests]] dominated by ''{{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a lehua'' (''[[Metrosideros polymorpha]]'') and ''koa'' (''[[Acacia koa]]'') trees. The best habitat also contains ''kōlea lau nui'' ('' [[Myrsine lessertiana]]''), ''naio'' (''[[Myoporum sandwicense]]''), and ''hapu{{okina}}u'' (''[[Cibotium]]'' spp.) [[tree fern]]s, while ''māmane'' (''[[Mamane|Sophora chrysophylla]]'') is a common species in high elevation foraging habitat.<ref name="FactSheet">{{cite web |url=http://www.state.hi.us/dlnr/dofaw/cwcs/files/NAAT%20final%20CWCS/Chapters/Terrestrial%20Fact%20Sheets/Forest%20Birds/apapane%20NAAT%20final%20!.pdf |format=[[PDF]] |title=ʻApapane |work=Hawaii's Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy |publisher=State of Hawaiʻi |date=2005-10-01 |accessdate=2009-03-15}}</ref> Most {{okina}}Apapane are found at an elevation above {{convert|4100|ft|m}}, keeping the birds away from [[mosquito]]es. It lives on the islands of [[Hawaii (island)|Hawai{{okina}}i]], [[Maui]], [[Lanai|Lāna{{okina}}i]], [[Kauai|Kaua{{okina}}i]], [[Molokai|Moloka{{okina}}i]] and [[Oahu|O{{okina}}ahu]]. Most of these birds survive on Hawai{{okina}}i where about 86% or 1,080,000 thrive in the higher ''{{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a'' forests, especially in [[Hawaii Volcanoes National Park|Hawai{{okina}}i Volcanoes National Park]]. The next largest population is found on Maui; it is made up of 110,000 individuals, most of them found in protected forests on the slopes of [[Haleakalā]]. Moloka{{okina}}i is home to a healthy population of 39,000 birds. On Kaua{{okina}}i, there is a population of about 30,000 {{okina}}apapane; most survive in the protected reserves such as the [[Alakai Wilderness Preserve|Alaka{{okina}}i Wilderness Preserve]]. Small relict populations of about 500 birds exist on O{{okina}}ahu and Lāna{{okina}}i.


==Diet==
===Diet===
{{okina}}Apapane have tubular, brush-tipped tongues and decurved bills adapted for nectar feeding. They frequent {{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a trees, feeding on the flowers in conspecific and mixed-species flocks, and range widely to follow''{{okina}}''ōhi{{okina}}a flowering phenology.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Freed|first1=L. A.|last2=Conant|first2=S.|last3=Fleischer|first3=R. C.|date=July 1987|title=Evolutionary ecology and radiation of Hawaiian passerine birds|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21227850/|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|volume=2|issue=7|pages=196–203|doi=10.1016/0169-5347(87)90020-6|issn=0169-5347|pmid=21227850}}</ref> {{okina}}Apapane also glean insects and spiders from leaves and small twigs in the canopy; they do not forage on the ground. In 1953, a study of 63 'apapane found that 87% of them had butterflies and moths ([[Lepidoptera]]) in their stomachs; 75% had eaten hoppers ([[Homoptera]]); 60% ate lacewing larvae ([[Neuroptera]]); and 43% had recently consumed spiders ([[Arachnid]]a).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baldwin |first1=P.H. |title=Annual cycle, environment and evolution in the Hawaiian honeycreepers (Aves: Drepaniidae) |journal=University of California Publications in Zoology |date=1953 |volume=52 |pages=285–398}}</ref> Other native trees that 'apapane use for foraging are māmane (''[[Sophora chrysophylla]]),'' koa (''[[Acacia koa]]''), naio (''[[Myoporum sandwicense]])'', kōlea (''[[Myrsine lessertiana]])'', alani ([[Melicope|''Melicope'' sp.]]), kanawao (''[[Broussaisia|Broussaisia arguta]]''), koki'o ke'oke'o (''[[Hibiscus arnottianus]]''), and 'ōlapa (''[[Cheirodendron trigynum]]'').<ref name="BirdsNorthAm" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hibiscus arnottianus (Koki'o ke'oke'o) |url=https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/hawnprop/plants/hib-arno.htm |access-date=2022-07-09 |website=www.ctahr.hawaii.edu}}</ref>
{{okina}}Apapane generally feed on [[nectar]] from [[flower]]s, preferably from the ''{{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a lehua'' (''[[Metrosideros polymorpha]]'') tree. These birds are mainly found in ''koa'' (''[[Acacia koa]]'') and ''{{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a lehua'' forests where the flower count is high. Although primarily [[Nectarivore|nectarivorous]], the diet of a grown {{okina}}Apapane also includes a variety of [[insect]]s like [[grasshopper]]s, [[caterpillar]]s and [[Hemiptera|bugs]] of all sorts.


==Breeding==
===Breeding===
⚫
The breeding season starts between October and November, peaking between February and June. {{okina}}Apapane nests are often on the terminal branch of {{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a; nests have been found in tree cavities and [[lava tube]]s as well as in the top of koa, kāwa{{okina}}u (''[[Ilex anomala]]'') and hapu{{okina}}u (''[[Cibotium]]'' [[Cyatheales|tree ferns]]).<ref name="BirdsNorthAm">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=[[Birds of North America (book)|Birds of North America]] |first1=Steven G |last1=Fancy |first2=C. John |last2=Ralph |editor1-first=A. |editor1-last=Poole |editor2-first=F. |editor2-last=Gill |title=ʻApapane |volume=296 |year=1997 |publisher=[[Academy of Natural Sciences]] |url=http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/4251/fancy1.pdf }}</ref> The female lays 1-4 eggs and incubates for 13 days.<ref name="BirdsNorthAm" /> Interestingly, during incubation the male does not visit the nest but will feed the female when she is away from the nest.<ref name="BirdsNorthAm" /> While the female does not sing or call from the nest, she locates her singing male and begs for food.<ref name="BirdsNorthAm" /> Once the eggs hatch, nestlings are fed by both parents.<ref name="BirdsNorthAm" /> Young 'apapane are dependent on their parents for less than 4 months.<ref name="BirdsNorthAm" />
⚫
[[File:Juvenile Apapane (6977067480).jpg|thumb|Juvenile {{okina}}apapane]]
⚫
The breeding season is from January through July. The nest of the {{okina}}Apapane is usually placed in the crown of a ''{{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a lehua'' (''[[Metrosideros polymorpha]]''); nests have been found in tree cavities and [[lava tube]]s as well as in the top of ''koa'' (''[[Acacia koa]]''), ''kāwa{{okina}}u'' (''[[Ilex anomala]]'') and ''hapu{{okina}}u'' (''[[Cibotium]]'' [[Cyatheales|tree ferns]]). The extinct [[Laysan honeycreeper]] nested in dense [[Tussock (grass)|grass bunches]] and ''{{okina}}āheahea'' (''[[Chenopodium sandwichensis]]'') shrubs.<ref name="BirdsNorthAm">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=[[Birds of North America]] |first1=Steven G |last1=Fancy |first2=C. John |last2=Ralph |editor1-first=A. |editor1-last=Poole |editor2-first=F. |editor2-last=Gill |title=ʻApapane |volume=296 |year=1997 |publisher=[[Academy of Natural Sciences]] |url=http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/4251/fancy1.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> Only female {{okina}}Apapane incubate. After hatching, both male and female feed the young and care for them until they are ready to fly out on their own time. The female has approximately two to four eggs (white with red markings) a year. Incubation lasts 13 to 14 days and during this time the female does not sing at all. When the chicks are born the eyes are closed and it will take four days for them to open. After the sixth day blotches of brown feathers begin to appear on the back and the mouth lining is pink. After this the chicks are very multicolored. They will be gold, pink, red, green, and black. They will be weaned in a month, but can stay up to four months or a year with the parents.


===Habitat and distribution===
==Threats==
{{okina}}Apapane are found in native [[Hawaiian tropical rainforests#Mixed mesic forests|mesic]] and [[Hawaiian tropical rainforests#Wet forests|wet forests]] dominated by ''{{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a'' and ''koa'' trees. Their range is extensive and their densities change as they undergo frequent temporal and seasonal migrations in search of flowering {{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a''.'' They are detected at low elevations on most islands, however, most {{okina}}apapane are found at elevations above {{convert|4100|ft|m}}, where there are fewer [[mosquito]]es and therefore less disease pressure. 'Apapane live on the islands of [[Hawaii (island)|Hawai{{okina}}i]] (~86% of the population: 1,080,000 ± 25,000 est. 1986), [[Maui]] (228,480 ± 19,855 est. 2017 for East Maui<ref name="Judge">{{cite book |last1=Judge |first1=S.W. |last2=Camp |first2=R.J. |last3=Warren |first3=C.C. |last4=Berthold |first4=L.K. |last5=Mounce |first5=H.L. |last6=Hart |first6=P.J. |last7=Monello |first7=R.J. |title=Pacific Island Landbird Monitoring Annual Report, Haleakala National Park and East Maui Island, 2017 |date=July 2019 |publisher=National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior}}</ref> and 20,521 ± 1,687 est. 2009 for West Maui <ref name="Camp" />), [[Kauai|Kaua{{okina}}i]] (98,506 est. 2012<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Paxton |first1=E.H. |last2=Camp |first2=R.J. |last3=Gorresen |first3=P.M. |last4=Crampton |first4=L.H. |last5=Leonard |first5=D.L. |last6=VanderWerf |first6=E.A. |title=Collapsing avian community on a Hawaiian island |journal=Science Advances |date=September 2016 |volume=2 |issue=9 |pages=e1600029 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1600029|pmid=27617287 |pmc=5014469 |doi-access=free }}</ref>), [[Molokai|Moloka{{okina}}i]] (38,643 ± 2,360 est. 1979), [[Oahu|O{{okina}}ahu]] (24,000 ± 2,600 est. 1991), and [[Lanai|Lāna{{okina}}i]] (540 ± 213 est. 1979).<ref name="Camp">{{cite book |last1=Camp |first1=R.J. |last2=Gorresen |first2=P.M. |last3=Pratt |first3=T.K. |last4=Woodworth |first4=B.L. |title=Technical Report HCSU-012: Population Trends of Native Hawaiian Forest Birds 1976-2008: the data and statistical analyses |date=November 2009 |publisher=Hawai'i Cooperative Studies Unit, University of Hawai'i at Hilo}}</ref> Their populations are stable and are considered a species of least concern by IUCN.<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" />
The {{okina}}Apapane can be found on six of the eight [[Hawaiian Islands#Main islands|windward Hawaiian islands]], where it resides at high altitudes to protect itself from predators like [[small Asian mongoose]]s, [[rat]]s, and deadly [[avian malaria]] carrying [[mosquito]]es. These predators are the cause of great declines in the {{okina}}Apapane population. The total population of the {{okina}}Apapane was estimated at more than 1,300,000 in 1995.<ref name="OurLiving">{{cite book |title=Our living resources: a report to the nation on the distribution, abundance and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems |first=J.D. |last=Jacobi |first2=C.T. |last2=Atkinson |editor=LaRoe, E.T. |editor2=G.S. Farris |editor3=C.E. Puckett |editor4=P.D. Doran |editor5=M.J. Mac |chapter=Hawaii's endemic birds |location=Washington, DC, US |publisher=National Biological Service |year=1995 |pages=376–381 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-a3HjWpMWuMC&pg=PA378}}</ref> Although still low in numbers, the {{okina}}Apapane is not considered to be an [[endangered species]]. The species has the highest prevalence of [[avian malaria]] (''Plasmodium relictum''). This is because seasonal migrations to lower elevation forest put it in contact with mosquitoes, which are absent from the best {{okina}}Apapane habitat.<ref name="FactSheet" /> Malaria is a [[blood]] [[parasite]], and death is usually cause by [[anemia]], the loss of [[red blood cell]]s.<ref name="malaria">{{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2005/3151/report.pdf |format=[[PDF]] |title=Ecology and Diagnosis of Introduced Avian Malaria in Hawaiian Forest Birds |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |date=December 2005 |accessdate=24 April 2014}}</ref> [[Fowlpox]] (''Poxvirus avium'') is a [[virus]] lethal to {{okina}}Apapane, which, like avian malaria, is transmitted by mosquitoes. Fowlpox causes [[wart]]-like lesions to form around the bird's eyes, beak, legs, or feet, inhibiting feeding, seeing, or perching.<ref name="pox">{{cite web |url=http://www.abcbirds.org/conservationissues/threats/disease/avian_pox.html |title=Avian pox (''Poxvirus avium'') |work=Mortality Threats to Birds - Disease Pathogens |publisher=[[American Bird Conservancy]] |accessdate=2009-03-15}}</ref> Birds infected with fowlpox are more at risk to be infected with malaria.<ref name="FactSheet" /> It is believed that at least a small portion of the population is becoming resistant to malaria, as some pairs have been seen breeding in mid-elevation forests where the rate of malaria transmission is high.<ref name="BirdsNorthAm" />


== Threats and conservation ==
==Conservation==
[[File:JJeffreyApapaneMosquito.jpg|thumb|A mosquito taking a blood meal from an 'apapane]]
Today there are no direct actions being taken concerning this species, however anything that is being done to help rarer species of birds throughout Hawaii will also help the {{okina}}Apapane. The removal of [[ungulate]]s, including [[goat]]s, [[cattle]], and [[Wild boar#Feral pigs|pigs]], prevents habitat degradation. Furthermore, pigs create wallows, which are important breeding ground for disease-carrying [[mosquito]]es. Extermination of [[rat]]s, which prey on eggs, and [[cat]]s, which are able to catch adults, has been beneficial to the {{okina}}Apapane. Some of its habitat, including the parts under federal jurisdiction, are highly managed and devoid of invasive ungulates due to fencing strategies employed by resource managers. Unattended areas, however, are often highly degraded and have many of the pre-management ungulates that help to create habitat for predators and mosquitoes.
‘Apapane are the most abundant honeycreeper species with the largest range. The total population has been estimated at more than 1.5 million individuals with the largest populations on Hawaii and Maui Islands. The main threats for 'apapane are habitat loss, disease and the introduction of alien species. ‘Apapane can be found on all of the main Hawaiian Islands except Niihau and Kaho’olawe, where it is primarily found at high elevations where rates of avian malaria are comparatively low. The species is also threatened by non-native mammalian predators such as [[Herpestes javanicus palustris|Small Indian mongooses]], rats, and feral cats.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-01-21 |title=Feral Cats |url=https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc/info/invasive-species-profiles/feral-cats/ |access-date=2022-07-09 |website=Hawaii Invasive Species Council |language=en}}</ref> The species has the highest reported prevalence of [[avian malaria]] (''[[Plasmodium relictum]]''), but their mortality is lower than most other honeycreeper species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Samuel|first1=Michael D.|last2=Woodworth|first2=Bethany L.|last3=Atkinson|first3=Carter T.|last4=Hart|first4=Patrick J.|last5=LaPointe|first5=Dennis A.|date=June 2015|title=Avian malaria in Hawaiian forest birds: infection and population impacts across species and elevations|journal=Ecosphere|language=en|volume=6|issue=6|pages=art104|doi=10.1890/ES14-00393.1|issn=2150-8925|doi-access=free}}</ref> Their high infection prevalence may be the result of their seasonal migrations to lower elevation forests putting individuals in contact with mosquitoes, particularly the introduced [[Culex quinquefasciatus|southern house mosquito]], the primary vector of avian malaria, which are less common at higher elevations.<ref name="BirdsNorthAm" /> 'Apapane are therefore suspected to be a significant reservoir for malaria transmission. ''P. relictum'' is a blood [[parasite]], and host death is usually caused by [[anemia]]. [[Avian pox]], which causes wart-like lesions to form around a bird's eyes, beak, legs, or feet, may also be lethal to ʻapapane if the lesions inhibit feeding, seeing, or perching. Like avian malaria, avian pox is transmitted by mosquitoes and birds infected with one are often [[Coinfection|coinfected]] with the other. The [[Synergy|synergistic]] effects of co-infection may have additional impacts on infected 'apapane's survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Samuel|first1=Michael D.|last2=Woodworth|first2=Bethany L.|last3=Atkinson|first3=Carter T.|last4=Hart|first4=Patrick J.|last5=LaPointe|first5=Dennis A.|date=November 2018|title=The epidemiology of avian pox and interaction with avian malaria in Hawaiian forest birds|journal=Ecological Monographs|language=en|volume=88|issue=4|pages=621–637|doi=10.1002/ecm.1311|issn=1557-7015|doi-access=free}}</ref> It is believed that at least a small portion of the population is becoming resistant to malaria, as some pairs have been seen breeding in mid-elevation forests, ~300m, where the rate of malaria transmission is high.


Today there are no direct actions being taken concerning this species. However, conservation actions to help rarer species of birds throughout Hawaii will also help the {{okina}}apapane. Organizations throughout the islands have established nature reserves to protect native habitats. Fencing off sections of land to keep out feral ungulates, especially pigs, goats, and axis deer enables native plants to recover from [[overgrazing]] and helps restore native bird habitat.
⚫
{{Commons category|Himatione sanguinea}}

In recent years another threat has put native bird habitat at risk. Conservation groups are diligently working to reduce the risk of spreading a fungal disease called [[Rapid ʻŌhiʻa Death]] (ROD).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cms.ctahr.hawaii.edu/rod/|title=RAPID ʻŌHIʻA DEATH|website=College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources at the University of Hawaii at Manoa|access-date=3 January 2020}}</ref> This disease, along with {{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a dieback and {{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a rust, could lead to a rapid decline in {{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a forests, an important nectar source for {{Okina}}apapane.


==References==
==References==
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==External links==
==External links==
⚫
{{Commons category|Himatione sanguinea}}
* [http://www.tsuru-bird.net/a_species/apapane Images] - Monte M. Taylor
* [http://www.tsuru-bird.net/a_species/apapane Images] - Monte M. Taylor
*[http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/apapane-himatione-sanguinea Videos, photos and sounds] - Internet Bird Collection
*[http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/apapane-himatione-sanguinea Videos, photos and sounds] - Internet Bird Collection
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[[Category:Hawaiian honeycreepers]]
[[Category:Hawaiian honeycreepers]]
[[Category:Himatione]]
[[Category:Himatione]]
[[Category:Birds of Hawaii]]
[[Category:Endemic birds of Hawaii]]
[[Category:Endemic fauna of Hawaii]]
[[Category:Least concern biota of Oceania]]
[[Category:Least concern biota of Oceania]]
[[Category:Least concern biota of the United States]]
[[Category:Least concern biota of the United States]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1788]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1788]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Gmelin]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Taxonomy articles created by Polbot]]
[[Category:Taxonomy articles created by Polbot]]

Latest revision as of 15:42, 13 January 2024

"Apapane" redirects here. For the racehorse, see Apapane (horse).

ʻApapane
'Apapane on pilo
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Fringillidae
Subfamily: Carduelinae
Genus: Himatione
Species:
H. sanguinea
Binomial name
Himatione sanguinea
(Gmelin, 1788)
Subspecies

Himatione sanguinea sanguinea

The ʻapapane (⫽ˌɑːpɑːˈpɑːneɪ⫽ AH-pah-PAH-nay;[2]) (Himatione sanguinea) is a small, crimson species of Hawaiian honeycreeper endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. They are the most abundant and widely distributed honeycreeper and are found on the islands of Hawaiʻi, Maui, Lānaʻi, Kauaʻi, Molokaʻi and Oʻahu.[3]

ʻApapane commonly forage in the canopies of ʻōhiʻa (Metrosideros polymorpha) trees, drinking nectar from the flowers and serving as important pollinators.[3] Hawaiians primarily used red feathers from ʻiʻiwi, but also some from ʻapapane, to adorn the ʻahuʻula (capes), mahiole (helmets), and nā lei hulu (feather leis) of aliʻi (Hawaiian nobility).[4]

Description[edit]

Juvenile ʻapapane

ʻApapane are small at 13 cm (5.1 in) when fully grown. They are sexually dimorphic in size: male ʻapapane have a mass of 16 g (0.56 oz), while females average 14.4 g (0.51 oz).[3] Adult ʻapapane are overall bright crimson, with distinct white undertail-coverts and lower abdomen feathers. They have black primaries and retricies. Juvenile ʻapapane are yellow-brown and gray, with the same white plumage as adults, and molt into crimson plumage over the course of two years. 'Apapane are often seen in a tail-up posture, showing off their white feathers.

Song[edit]

'Apapane are active singers, including in flight. There is considerable variation in their calls and songs, but phrases are often repeated. They are known to sing at a perch for 10-30 second intervals, and their song may include repeated squeaks, whistles, rasps, melodic trills, and clicking sounds.[3]

Diet[edit]

ʻApapane have tubular, brush-tipped tongues and decurved bills adapted for nectar feeding. They frequent ʻōhiʻa trees, feeding on the flowers in conspecific and mixed-species flocks, and range widely to followʻōhiʻa flowering phenology.[5] ʻApapane also glean insects and spiders from leaves and small twigs in the canopy; they do not forage on the ground. In 1953, a study of 63 'apapane found that 87% of them had butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera) in their stomachs; 75% had eaten hoppers (Homoptera); 60% ate lacewing larvae (Neuroptera); and 43% had recently consumed spiders (Arachnida).[6] Other native trees that 'apapane use for foraging are māmane (Sophora chrysophylla), koa (Acacia koa), naio (Myoporum sandwicense), kōlea (Myrsine lessertiana), alani (Melicope sp.), kanawao (Broussaisia arguta), koki'o ke'oke'o (Hibiscus arnottianus), and 'ōlapa (Cheirodendron trigynum).[3][7]

Breeding[edit]

The breeding season starts between October and November, peaking between February and June. ʻApapane nests are often on the terminal branch of ʻōhiʻa; nests have been found in tree cavities and lava tubes as well as in the top of koa, kāwaʻu (Ilex anomala) and hapuʻu (Cibotium tree ferns).[3] The female lays 1-4 eggs and incubates for 13 days.[3] Interestingly, during incubation the male does not visit the nest but will feed the female when she is away from the nest.[3] While the female does not sing or call from the nest, she locates her singing male and begs for food.[3] Once the eggs hatch, nestlings are fed by both parents.[3] Young 'apapane are dependent on their parents for less than 4 months.[3]

Habitat and distribution[edit]

ʻApapane are found in native mesic and wet forests dominated by ʻōhiʻa and koa trees. Their range is extensive and their densities change as they undergo frequent temporal and seasonal migrations in search of flowering ʻōhiʻa. They are detected at low elevations on most islands, however, most ʻapapane are found at elevations above 4,100 feet (1,200 m), where there are fewer mosquitoes and therefore less disease pressure. 'Apapane live on the islands of Hawaiʻi (~86% of the population: 1,080,000 ± 25,000 est. 1986), Maui (228,480 ± 19,855 est. 2017 for East Maui[8] and 20,521 ± 1,687 est. 2009 for West Maui [9]), Kauaʻi (98,506 est. 2012[10]), Molokaʻi (38,643 ± 2,360 est. 1979), Oʻahu (24,000 ± 2,600 est. 1991), and Lānaʻi (540 ± 213 est. 1979).[9] Their populations are stable and are considered a species of least concern by IUCN.[1]

Threats and conservation[edit]

A mosquito taking a blood meal from an 'apapane

‘Apapane are the most abundant honeycreeper species with the largest range. The total population has been estimated at more than 1.5 million individuals with the largest populations on Hawaii and Maui Islands. The main threats for 'apapane are habitat loss, disease and the introduction of alien species. ‘Apapane can be found on all of the main Hawaiian Islands except Niihau and Kaho’olawe, where it is primarily found at high elevations where rates of avian malaria are comparatively low. The species is also threatened by non-native mammalian predators such as Small Indian mongooses, rats, and feral cats.[11] The species has the highest reported prevalence of avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum), but their mortality is lower than most other honeycreeper species.[12] Their high infection prevalence may be the result of their seasonal migrations to lower elevation forests putting individuals in contact with mosquitoes, particularly the introduced southern house mosquito, the primary vector of avian malaria, which are less common at higher elevations.[3] 'Apapane are therefore suspected to be a significant reservoir for malaria transmission. P. relictum is a blood parasite, and host death is usually caused by anemia. Avian pox, which causes wart-like lesions to form around a bird's eyes, beak, legs, or feet, may also be lethal to ʻapapane if the lesions inhibit feeding, seeing, or perching. Like avian malaria, avian pox is transmitted by mosquitoes and birds infected with one are often coinfected with the other. The synergistic effects of co-infection may have additional impacts on infected 'apapane's survival.[13] It is believed that at least a small portion of the population is becoming resistant to malaria, as some pairs have been seen breeding in mid-elevation forests, ~300m, where the rate of malaria transmission is high.

Today there are no direct actions being taken concerning this species. However, conservation actions to help rarer species of birds throughout Hawaii will also help the ʻapapane. Organizations throughout the islands have established nature reserves to protect native habitats. Fencing off sections of land to keep out feral ungulates, especially pigs, goats, and axis deer enables native plants to recover from overgrazing and helps restore native bird habitat.

In recent years another threat has put native bird habitat at risk. Conservation groups are diligently working to reduce the risk of spreading a fungal disease called Rapid ʻŌhiʻa Death (ROD).[14] This disease, along with ʻōhiʻa dieback and ʻōhiʻa rust, could lead to a rapid decline in ʻōhiʻa forests, an important nectar source for ʻapapane.

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b BirdLife International (2017). "Himatione sanguinea". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T103828426A111174421. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-1.RLTS.T103828426A111174421.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. ^ "Definition of apapane | Dictionary.com". www.dictionary.com. Retrieved 2022-08-06.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Fancy, Steven G; Ralph, C. John (1997). "ʻApapane" (PDF). In Poole, A.; Gill, F. (eds.). Birds of North America. Vol. 296. Academy of Natural Sciences.
  4. ^ Pratt, T.K.; Atkinson, C.T.; Banko, P.C.; Jacobi, J.D.; Woodworth, B.L (2009). Conservation Biology of Hawaiian Forest Birds: Implications for Island Avifauna. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300141085.
  5. ^ Freed, L. A.; Conant, S.; Fleischer, R. C. (July 1987). "Evolutionary ecology and radiation of Hawaiian passerine birds". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 2 (7): 196–203. doi:10.1016/0169-5347(87)90020-6. ISSN 0169-5347. PMID 21227850.
  6. ^ Baldwin, P.H. (1953). "Annual cycle, environment and evolution in the Hawaiian honeycreepers (Aves: Drepaniidae)". University of California Publications in Zoology. 52: 285–398.
  7. ^ "Hibiscus arnottianus (Koki'o ke'oke'o)". www.ctahr.hawaii.edu. Retrieved 2022-07-09.
  8. ^ Judge, S.W.; Camp, R.J.; Warren, C.C.; Berthold, L.K.; Mounce, H.L.; Hart, P.J.; Monello, R.J. (July 2019). Pacific Island Landbird Monitoring Annual Report, Haleakala National Park and East Maui Island, 2017. National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior.
  9. ^ a b Camp, R.J.; Gorresen, P.M.; Pratt, T.K.; Woodworth, B.L. (November 2009). Technical Report HCSU-012: Population Trends of Native Hawaiian Forest Birds 1976-2008: the data and statistical analyses. Hawai'i Cooperative Studies Unit, University of Hawai'i at Hilo.
  10. ^ Paxton, E.H.; Camp, R.J.; Gorresen, P.M.; Crampton, L.H.; Leonard, D.L.; VanderWerf, E.A. (September 2016). "Collapsing avian community on a Hawaiian island". Science Advances. 2 (9): e1600029. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1600029. PMC 5014469. PMID 27617287.
  11. ^ "Feral Cats". Hawaii Invasive Species Council. 2016-01-21. Retrieved 2022-07-09.
  12. ^ Samuel, Michael D.; Woodworth, Bethany L.; Atkinson, Carter T.; Hart, Patrick J.; LaPointe, Dennis A. (June 2015). "Avian malaria in Hawaiian forest birds: infection and population impacts across species and elevations". Ecosphere. 6 (6): art104. doi:10.1890/ES14-00393.1. ISSN 2150-8925.
  13. ^ Samuel, Michael D.; Woodworth, Bethany L.; Atkinson, Carter T.; Hart, Patrick J.; LaPointe, Dennis A. (November 2018). "The epidemiology of avian pox and interaction with avian malaria in Hawaiian forest birds". Ecological Monographs. 88 (4): 621–637. doi:10.1002/ecm.1311. ISSN 1557-7015.
  14. ^ "RAPID ʻŌHIʻA DEATH". College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources at the University of Hawaii at Manoa. Retrieved 3 January 2020.

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Himatione sanguinea.
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