ʻApapane: Difference between revisions
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== Description == |
== Description == |
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{{okina}}Apapane are small at {{convert|13|cm|in|abbr=on}} when fully grown. There is a distinct [[Sexual dimorphism|gender difference]] in size, male {{okina}}Apapane have a mass {{convert|16|g|oz|abbr=on}}, while females average {{convert|14.4|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name="BirdsNorthAm" /> Adult {{okina}}Apapane are bright crimson and have distinct white undertail-coverts and lower abdomen. 'Apapane are often seen with a tail-up posture, showing off its white feathers. |
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===Song=== |
===Song=== |
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'Apapane are active singers. There is a lot of variation in calls and songs, but phrases are often repeated. They are known to sing at a perch for 10-30 second intervals, and it may include repeated squeaks, whistles, rasps, melodic trills, and clicking sounds. <ref name="BirdsNorthAm" /> |
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There is a lot of variation in calls and songs, but phrases are often repeated. Apapane are considered to be active singers. They are known to sing at a perch for 10-30 second intervals. Songs and calls may include squeaks, whistles, rasps, melodic trills, and clicking sounds. <ref name="BirdsNorthAm" /> The males are known for their [[Bird song|singing patterns]] at all times of the day. They have six different calls and about ten different recorded song patterns. The contact call or song of a male {{okina}}Apapane is mainly used for [[Animal communication|mate attraction]] and breeding. The male who is most aggressive and sings the loudest is the one who wins the females' attention. Once courtship and pair formation has been established, and copulation is complete, both male and female {{okina}}Apapane are involved in the nesting process. The male role is important for maintaining [[courtship feeding]] during the nest construction and incubation period. The male {{okina}}Apapane sings continuously during incubation, while the female does not sing at all. His loud whistling, and chirping sound chases other male birds away from the nesting tree, while he sits on an adjacent perch guarding the nest. The {{okina}}Apapane has two distinct [[Bird flight|flight patterns]]: straight flight and a circling flight. |
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===Diet=== |
===Diet=== |
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{{okina}}Apapane |
{{okina}}Apapane are often found in ''{{okina}}ōhi{{okina}}a'' (''[[Metrosideros polymorpha]]'') trees feeding on nectar and gleaning insects and spiders. Other native trees 'Apapane use for foraging are koa (''[[Acacia koa]]''), naio (''[[Myoporum sandwicense]])'', māmane (''[[Sophora chrysophylla]])'', kōlea (''[[Myrsine lessertiana]])'', alani ([[Melicope|''Melicope'' sp.]]), kanawao (''[[Broussaisia|Broussaisia arguta]]''), koki'o ke'oke'o (''[https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/hawnprop/plants/hib-arno.htm Hibiscus arnottianus]''), and 'ōlapa (''[[Cheirodendron trigynum]]''). |
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===Breeding=== |
===Breeding=== |
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Revision as of 20:18, 31 January 2020
| ʻApapane | |
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| 'Apapane on pilo | |
Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Passeriformes |
| Family: | Fringillidae |
| Subfamily: | Carduelinae |
| Genus: | Himatione |
| Species: | H. sanguinea
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| Binomial name | |
| Himatione sanguinea (Gmelin, 1788)
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| Subspecies | |
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Himatione sanguinea sanguinea | |
The ʻApapane (Himatione sanguinea) is a species of Hawaiian honeycreeper that is endemic to Hawaii. They live on the islands of Hawaiʻi, Maui, Lānaʻi, Kauaʻi, Molokaʻi and Oʻahu.
ʻApapane forage in the canopies of ʻōhiʻa (Metrosideros polymorpha) trees, drinking nectar from the flowers and simultaneously pollinating them. Hawaiians used red feathers from primarily ʻIʻiwi, but also used ʻApapane feathers to adorn the ʻahuʻula (capes), mahiole (helmets), and nā lei hulu (feather leis) of aliʻi (Hawaiian nobility). [2]
Description
ʻApapane are small at 13 cm (5.1 in) when fully grown. There is a distinct gender difference in size, male ʻApapane have a mass 16 g (0.56 oz), while females average 14.4 g (0.51 oz).[3] Adult ʻApapane are bright crimson and have distinct white undertail-coverts and lower abdomen. 'Apapane are often seen with a tail-up posture, showing off its white feathers.
Song
'Apapane are active singers. There is a lot of variation in calls and songs, but phrases are often repeated. They are known to sing at a perch for 10-30 second intervals, and it may include repeated squeaks, whistles, rasps, melodic trills, and clicking sounds. [3]
Diet
ʻApapane are often found in ʻōhiʻa (Metrosideros polymorpha) trees feeding on nectar and gleaning insects and spiders. Other native trees 'Apapane use for foraging are koa (Acacia koa), naio (Myoporum sandwicense), māmane (Sophora chrysophylla), kōlea (Myrsine lessertiana), alani (Melicope sp.), kanawao (Broussaisia arguta), koki'o ke'oke'o (Hibiscus arnottianus), and 'ōlapa (Cheirodendron trigynum).
Breeding
The breeding season is from January through July. The nest of the ʻApapane is usually placed in the crown of a ʻōhiʻa lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha); nests have been found in tree cavities and lava tubes as well as in the top of koa (Acacia koa), kāwaʻu (Ilex anomala) and hapuʻu (Cibotium tree ferns). The extinct Laysan honeycreeper nested in dense grass bunches and ʻāheahea (Chenopodium sandwichensis) shrubs.[3] Only female ʻApapane incubate. After hatching, both male and female feed the young and care for them until they are ready to fly out on their own time. The female has approximately two to four eggs (white with red markings) a year. Incubation lasts 13 to 14 days and during this time the female does not sing at all. When the chicks are born the eyes are closed and it will take four days for them to open. After the sixth day blotches of brown feathers begin to appear on the back and the mouth lining is pink. After this the chicks are very multicolored. They will be gold, pink, red, green, and black. They will be weaned in a month, but can stay up to four months or a year with the parents.
Habitat and Distribution
ʻApapane are found in mesic and wet forests dominated by ʻōhiʻa lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) and koa (Acacia koa) trees. The best habitat also contains kōlea lau nui ( Myrsine lessertiana), naio (Myoporum sandwicense), and hapuʻu (Cibotium spp.) tree ferns, while māmane (Sophora chrysophylla) is a common species in high elevation foraging habitat.[4] Most ʻApapane are found at an elevation above 4,100 feet (1,200 m), keeping the birds away from mosquitoes. It lives on the islands of Hawaiʻi, Maui, Lānaʻi, Kauaʻi, Molokaʻi and Oʻahu. Most of these birds survive on Hawaiʻi where about 86% or 1,080,000 thrive in the higher ʻōhiʻa forests, especially in Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park. The next largest population is found on Maui; it is made up of 110,000 individuals, most of them found in protected forests on the slopes of Haleakalā. Molokaʻi is home to a healthy population of 39,000 birds. On Kauaʻi, there is a population of about 30,000 ʻapapane; most survive in the protected reserves such as the Alakaʻi Wilderness Preserve. Small relict populations of about 500 birds exist on Oʻahu and Lānaʻi.
Threats and Conservation
The ‘Apapane can be found on all of the main Hawaiian Islands except, Niihau and Kaho’olawe, where it is primarily found at high elevations where rates of avian malaria are comparatively low. The species is also threatened by non-native mammalian predators like Small Indian Mongooses (Herpestes javanicus), Rats (Rattus spp.), and feral cats (Felis catus) <add link>. ‘Apapane are the most abundant honeycreeper species with the largest range. The total population has been estimated at more than 1.5 million individuals with the largest populations on Hawaii and Maui Islands. The species has the highest reported prevalence of avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum <add link>) but mortality is lower than most other honeycreeper species. This may be in part because seasonal migrations to lower elevation forest put it in contact with mosquitoes, which are less common at higher elevation. Malaria is a blood parasite, and death is usually cause by anemia, the loss of red blood cells. Like other honeycreepers, fowlpox (Poxvirus avium) may also be lethal to ʻapapane, which, like avian malaria, is transmitted by mosquitoes. Fowlpox causes wart-like lesions to form around the bird's eyes, beak, legs, or feet, inhibiting feeding, seeing, or perching. It is believed that at least a small portion of the population is becoming resistant to malaria, as some pairs have been seen breeding in mid-elevation forests, ~300m, where the rate of malaria transmission is high.
Today there are no direct actions being taken concerning this species, however anything that is being done to help rarer species of birds throughout Hawaii will also help the ʻApapane. The removal of ungulates, including goats, cattle, and pigs, prevents habitat degradation. Furthermore, pigs create wallows, which are important breeding ground for disease-carrying mosquitoes. Extermination of rats, which prey on eggs, and cats, which are able to catch adults, has been beneficial to the ʻApapane. Some of its habitat, including the parts under federal jurisdiction, are highly managed and devoid of invasive ungulates due to fencing strategies employed by resource managers. Unattended areas, however, are often highly degraded and have many of the pre-management ungulates that help to create habitat for predators and mosquitoes.
References
- ^ BirdLife International (2012). "Himatione sanguinea". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2012. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
{{cite journal}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - ^ Pratt, T.K.; Atkinson, C.T.; Banko, P.C.; Jacobi, J.D.; Woodworth, B.L (2009). Conservation Biology of Hawaiian Forest Birds: Implications for Island Avifauna. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300141085.
- ^ a b c Fancy, Steven G; Ralph, C. John (1997). "ʻApapane" (PDF). In Poole, A.; Gill, F. (eds.). Birds of North America. Vol. 296. Academy of Natural Sciences.
- ^ "ʻApapane" (PDF). Hawaii's Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy. State of Hawaiʻi. 2005-10-01. Retrieved 2009-03-15.
External links
- Images - Monte M. Taylor
- Videos, photos and sounds - Internet Bird Collection