Government

For government in linguistics, see Government (linguistics).

Government is broadly defined as the administrative organization with authority to govern a political state. In British English (and that of the Commonwealth of Nations), a government more narrowly refers to the particular administrative bureaucracy in control of a state at a given time—known in American English as an administration. In American English, government refers to the larger system by which any state is organized. Furthermore, government is occasionally used in English as a synonym for governance.

In the case of its broad definition, government normally consists of legislators, administrators, and arbitrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. A form of government, or form of state governance, refers to the set of political institutions by which a government of a state is organized.

States are served by a continuous succession of different governments. Each successive government is composed of a body of individuals who control and exercise control over political decision-making. Their function is to make and enforce laws and arbitrate conflicts. In some societies, this group is often a self-perpetuating or hereditary class. In other societies, such as democracies, the political roles remain, but there is frequent turnover of the people actually filling the positions.

Government of any kind currently affects every human activity in many important ways. For this reason, political scientists generally argue that government should not be studied by itself; but should be studied along with anthropology, economics, history, philosophy, science, and sociology.

Government

Every country in the world is ruled by a system of governance that combines at least 2 (or more) of the following attributes (for example, the United States is not a true capitalist society, since the government actually provides social services for its citizens). Additionally, one person's opinion of the type of government may differ from another's (for example, some may argue that the United States is a plutocracy rather than a democracy since they may believe it is ruled by the wealthy).

Descriptions of governments can be based on the following attributes:

By elements of where power is held

Aristarchic attributes

Governments with Aristarchy attributes are traditionally ruled by a small group of the most-qualified people, with no intervention from the most part of society; this small group usually shares some common trait. The opposite of a Aristarchic government is Kakistocracy.

Term	Definition
Aristocracy	Rule by elite citizens; a system of governance in which a person who rules in an aristocracy is an aristocrat. It has come to mean rule by "the aristocracy" who are people of noble birth. An aristocracy is a government by the "best" people. A person who rules in an aristocracy is an aristocrat. Aristocracy is different from nobility, in that nobility means that one bloodline would rule, an aristocracy would mean that a few or many bloodlines would rule, or that rulers be chosen in a different manner.
Geniocracy	Rule by the intelligent; a system of governance where creativity, innovation, intelligence and wisdom are required for those who wish to govern. See Aristocracy of the wise.
Kratocracy	Rule by the strong; a system of governance where those strong enough to seize power through physical force, social maneuvering or political cunning. The process can mimic darwinian selection.
Meritocracy	Rule by the meritorious; a system of governance where groups are selected on the basis of people's ability, knowledge in a given area, and contributions to society.
Technocracy	Rule by the educated; a system of governance where people who are skilled or proficient govern in their respective areas of expertise in technology would be in control of all decision making. Doctors, engineers, scientists, professionals and technologists who have knowledge, expertise, or skills, would compose the governing body, instead of politicians, businessmen, and economists. In a technocracy, decision makers would be selected based upon how knowledgeable and skillful they are in their field.

Autocratic attributes

Governments with Autocratic attributes are ruled by one person who has all the power over the people in a country. The Roman Republic made Dictators to lead during times of war; the Roman dictators only held power for a small time. In modern times, an Autocrat's rule is not stopped by any rules of law, constitutions, or other social and political institutions. After World War II, many governments in Latin America, Asia, and Africa were ruled by autocratic governments. Examples of Autocrats include Idi Amin, Muammar Gaddafi, Adolf Hitler and Gamal Abdul Nasser.

Term	Definition
Authoritarian	Rule by authoritarian governments are characterized by an emphasis on the authority of the state in a republic or union. It is a political system controlled by unelected rulers who usually permit some degree of individual freedom.
Autocracy	Rule by one individual, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regularized mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for implicit threat). Autocrat needs servants while despot needs slaves.
Despotism	Rule by a single entity with absolute power. That entity may be an individual, as in an autocracy, or it may be a group,[1] as in an oligarchy. The word despotism means to "rule in the fashion of a despot" and does not necessarily require a single, or individual, "despot". Despot needs slaves while Autocrat needs servants.
Dictatorship	Rule by an individual who has full power over the country. The term may refer to a system where the dictator came to power, and holds it, purely by force; but it also includes systems where the dictator first came to power legitimately but then was able to amend the constitution so as to, in effect, gather all power for themselves. In a military dictatorship, the army is in control. Usually, there is little or no attention to public opinion or individual rights. See also Autocracy and Stratocracy.
Fascism	Rule by leader base only. Focuses heavily on patriotism and national identity. The leader(s) has the power to make things illegal that do not relate to nationalism, or increase belief in national pride. They believe their nation is based on commitment to an organic national community where its citizens are united together as one people through a national identity. It exalts nation and race above the individual and stands for severe economic and social regimentation, and forcible suppression of opposition.
Totalitarian	Rule by a totalitarian government that regulates nearly every aspect of public and private life.

Democratic attributes

Governments with Democratic attributes are most common in the Western world and in some countries of the east. In democracies, all of the people in a country can vote during elections for representatives or political parties that they prefer. The people in democracies can elect representatives who will sit on legislatures such as the Parliament or Congress. Political parties are organizations of people with similar ideas about how a country or region should be governed. Different political parties have different ideas about how the government should handle different problems. Democracy is the government of the people, by the people, for the people.

Term	Definition
Democracy	Rule by a government chosen by election where most of the populace are enfranchised. The key distinction between a democracy and other forms of constitutional government is usually taken to be that the right to vote is not limited by a person's wealth or race (the main qualification for enfranchisement is usually having reached a certain age). A Democratic government is, therefore, one supported (at least at the time of the election) by a majority of the populace (provided the election was held fairly). A "majority" may be defined in different ways. There are many "power-sharing" (usually in countries where people mainly identify themselves by race or religion) or "electoral-college" or "constituency" systems where the government is not chosen by a simple one-vote-per-person headcount.
Direct democracy	Variant of democracy; government in which the people represent themselves and vote directly for new laws and public policy
Representative democracy	Variant of democracy; also known as a republic, wherein the people or citizens of a country elect representatives to create and implement public policy in place of active participation by the people.
Social democracy	Variant of democracy; social democracy rejects the "either/or" phobiocratic/polarization interpretation of capitalism versus socialism. It claims that fostering a progressive evolution of capitalism will gradually result in the evolution of capitalist economy into socialist economy. Social democracy argues that all citizens should be legally entitled to certain social rights. These are made up of universal access to public services such as: education, health care, workers' compensation, public transportation, and other services including child care and care for the elderly. Social democracy is connected with the trade union labour movement and supports collective bargaining rights for workers. Contemporary social democracy advocates freedom from discrimination based on differences of: ability/disability, age, ethnicity, sex, gender, language, race, religion, sexual orientation, and social class.

Monarchic attributes

Governments with Monarchic attributes are ruled by a king/emperor or a queen/emperess who inherits their position from their family, which is often called the "royal family." There are at two opposing types of monarchies: absolute monarchies and constitutional monarchies. In an absolute monarchy, the ruler has no limits on their wishes or powers. In a constitutional monarchy a ruler's powers are limited by a document called a constitution. The constitution was put in place to put a check to these powers

Term	Definition
Absolute monarchy	Variant of monarchy; a system of governance in which a monarch exercises ultimate governing authority as head of state and head of government.
Constitutional monarchy	Variant of monarchy; a system of governance that has a monarch, but one whose powers are limited by law or by a formal constitution, such as that in the United Kingdom
Elective monarchy	Variant of monarchy; a system of governance that has an elected monarch, in contrast to a hereditary monarchy in which the office is automatically passed down as a family inheritance. The democratic manner of election, the nature of candidate qualifications, and the electors vary from case to case.
Emirate	Similar to a monarchy or sultanate; a system of governance in which the supreme power is in the hands of an emir (the ruler of a Muslim state); the emir may be an absolute overlord or a sovereign with constitutionally limited authority.
Federal monarchy	Variant of monarchy; a system of governance where a federation of states with a single monarch as over-all head of the federation, but retaining different monarchs, or a non-monarchical system of government, in the various states joined to the federation.
Monarchy	Rule by royalty; a system of governance where an individual who has inherited the role and expects to bequeath it to their heir.

Oligarchic attributes

Governments with Oligarchic attributes are ruled by a small group of powerful and/or influential people, who usually share similar interests and/or family relations. These people may spread power equally or not equally. An oligarchy is different from a true democracy because very few people are given the chance to change things. An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or monarchic. An oligarchy does not have one clear ruler, but several powerful people. Some historical examples of oligarchy are the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Apartheid in South Africa. Some critics of representative democracy think of the United States as an oligarchy; this view is shared by anarchists.

Term	Definition
Bureaucracy	Rule by a system of governance with many bureaus, administrators, and petty officials
Ergatocracy	Rule by the proletariat, the workers, or the working class. Examples of ergatocracy include communist revolutionaries and rebels which control most of society and create an alternative economy for people and workers. See Dictatorship of the proletariat.
Kritarchy	Rule by judges; a system of governance composed of law enforcement institutions in which the state and the legal systems are traditionally the same thing.
Netocracy	Rule by social connections; a term invented by the editorial board of the American technology magazine Wired in the early 1990s. A portmanteau of Internet and aristocracy, netocracy refers to a perceived global upper-class that bases its power on a technological advantage and networking skills, in comparison to what is portrayed as a bourgeoisie of a gradually diminishing importance. The netocracy concept has been compared with Richard Florida's concept of the creative class. Bard and Söderqvist have also defined an under-class in opposition to the netocracy, which they refer to as the consumtariat.
Oligarchy	Rule by a system of governance with small group of people who share similar interests or family relations.
Plutocracy	Rule by the rich; a system of governance composed of the wealthy class. Any of the forms of government listed here can be plutocracy. For instance, if all of the voted representatives in a republic are wealthy, then it is a republic and a plutocracy.
Stratocracy	Rule by military service; a system of governance composed of military government in which the state and the military are traditionally and/or constitutionally the same entity. Citizens with voluntary active military service, or have been honorably discharged, have the right to govern. (Not to be confused with "military junta" or "military dictatorship".)
Timocracy	Rule by honor; a system of governance ruled by honorable citizens and property owners. European-feudalism and post-Revolutionary America are historical examples of this type.
Theocracy	Rule by a religious elite; a system of governance composed of religious institutions in which the state and the church are traditionally and/or constitutionally the same entity. Citizens who are clergy have the right to govern. The Vatican's (see Pope) and the Tibetan government's (see Dalai Lama) are historically considered theocracies.

Pejorative attributes

Regardless of the form of government, the actual governance may be influenced by sectors with political power which are not part of the formal government. Certain actions of the governors, such as corruption, demagoguery, or fear mongering, may disrupt the intended way of working of the government if they are spreaded enough.

Term	Definition
Bankocracy	Rule by banks; a system of governance where the excessive power or influence of banks on public policy-making. It can also refer to a form of government where financial institutions rule society. See Trapezocracy.
Corporatocracy	Rule by corporations; a system of governance where an economic and political system is controlled by corporations or corporate interests. Its use is generally pejorative. Fictional examples include OCP in Robocop
Nepotocracy	Rule by nephews; favoritism granted to relatives regardless of merit; a system of governance in which importance is given to the relatives of those already in power, like a nephew (where the word comes from). In such governments even if the relatives aren't qualified they are given positions of authority just because they know someone who already has authority. Pope Alexander VI (Borgia) was accused of this.
Kakistocracy	Rule by the stupid; a system of governance where the worst or least-qualified citizens govern or dictate policies. See Idiocracy.
Kleptocracy (Mafia state)	Rule by thieves; a system of governance where its officials and the ruling class in general pursue personal wealth and political power at the expense of the wider population. In strict terms kleptocracy is not a form of government but a characteristic of a government engaged in such behavior. Examples include Mexico as being considered a Narcokleptocracy, since its democratic government is perceived to be corrupted by those who profit from trade in illegal drugs smuggled into the United States.
Ochlocracy	Rule by the general populace; a system of governance where mob rule is government by mob or a mass of people, or the intimidation of legitimate authorities. As a pejorative for majoritarianism, it is akin to the Latin phrase mobile vulgus meaning "the fickle crowd", from which the English term "mob" was originally derived in the 1680s. Ochlocratic governments are often a democracy spoiled by demagoguery, "tyranny of the majority" and the rule of passion over reason; such governments can be more oppressive then autocratic-Tyrants. Ochlocracy is synonymous in meaning and usage to the modern, informal term "Mobocracy," which emerged from a much more recent colloquial etymology.
Phobiocracy	Rule by fear and hate; a system of governance where the basic organizing principles is the use of fear mongering to keep those being ruled in line; this attribute is preferred tool of control that all forms of governments seemed to have in common over the centuries. What makes this extremely effective is the (unfortunately) common human trait of not trusting people one doesn't know. The most commonly used fear throughout history is fear of "rapacious outsiders" (i.e. barbarians, communists, terrorists, etc.), who would "rampage over the homeland if not for the brave military"; the United States has been accused of "hardliner phobiocratic-policies" which triggered racial segregation and the Cold War. Add to this the policy of making the populace fear themselves and/or the rulers as well; the pattern is to have the ruled be too afraid to resist the rulers, who were usually local; to manipulate the citizenry into activities deemed desirable by the rulers, and to divide the populace into small/fearful/ignorant groups; and at the same time fear the possibility of invasion, or at least banditry, even more due to the consequences of noncompliance in the population. Well-informed people are less fearful than those who are ignorant or uneducated; fear makes people do stupid things.

Other characteristic attributes

Term	Definition
Adhocracy	Rule by a government based on type of organization that operates in opposite fashion to a bureaucracy.
Anarchism	Sometimes said to be non-governance; it is a structure which strives for non-hierarchical voluntary associations among agents.
Band Society	Rule by a government based on small (usually family) unit with a semi-informal hierarchy, with strongest (either physical strength or strength of character) as leader. Very much like a pack seen in other animals, such as wolves.
Chiefdom (Tribal)	Rule by a government based on small complex society of varying degrees of centralization that is led by an individual known as a chief.
Constitutional republic	Rule by a government whose powers are limited by law or a formal constitution, and chosen by a vote amongst at least some sections of the populace (Ancient Sparta was in its own terms a republic, though most inhabitants were disenfranchised. The United States is a federal republic). Republics that exclude sections of the populace from participation will typically claim to represent all citizens (by defining people without the vote as "non-citizens").
Cybersynacy	Ruled by a data fed group of secluded individuals that regulates aspects of public and private life using data feeds and technology having no interactivity with the citizens but using "facts only" to decide direction.
Nomocracy	Rule by a government under the sovereignty of rational laws and civic right as opposed to one under theocratic systems of government. In a nomocracy, ultimate and final authority (sovereignty) exists in the law.
Republic	Rule by a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. A common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Montesquieu included both democracies, where all the people have a share in rule, and aristocracies or oligarchies, where only some of the people rule, as republican forms of government.

Speculative attributes

Term	Definition
Magocracy	Rule by a government ruled by the highest and main authority being either a magician, sage, sorcerer, wizard or witch. This is often similar to a theocratic structured regime and is largely portrayed in fiction and fantasy genre categories.
Uniocracy	Ruled by a singularity of all human minds connected via some form of technical or non technical telepathy acting as a form of super computer to make decisions based on shared patterned experiences to deliver fair and accurate decisions to problems as they arrive. Also known as the hive mind principle, differs from voting in that each person would make a decision while in the "hive" the synapses of all minds work together following a longer path of memories to make "one" decision.

By socio-economic attributes

Historically, most political systems originated as socio-economic movements; experience with those movements in power, and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government, can cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves.

Term	Definition
Capitalism	In a capitalist or free-market economy, people own their own businesses and property and must buy services for private use, such as healthcare.
Communism	In a communist country, the people, through cooperatives, owns all businesses and farms and shares the healthcare, education and welfare.
Feudalism	A system of land ownership and duties. Under feudalism, all the land in a kingdom was the king's. However, the king would give some of the land to the lords or nobles who fought for him. These presents of land were called manors. Then the nobles gave some of their land to vassals. The vassals then had to do duties for the nobles. The lands of vassals were called fiefs.
Socialism	Socialist governments own many of the larger industries and provide education, health and welfare services while allowing citizens some economic choices
Welfare state	Concept of government in which the state plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the economic and social well-being of its citizens. It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for those unable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life.

By significant attributes

Certain major characteristics are defining of certain types; others are historically associated with certain types of government.

• Rule according to higher law
• Separation of church and state
• Civilian control of the military
• Totalitarianism/Authoritarianism vs. liberty
  • Police state
• Economic system (e.g. capitalism, socialism, welfare state, feudalism)
• Patriarchy or matriarchy - dominance of a particular gender

By approach to regional autonomy

This list focuses on differing approaches that political systems take to the distribution of sovereignty, and the autonomy of regions within the state.

• Sovereignty located exclusively at the center of political jurisdiction.
  • Empire
  • Unitary state
• Sovereignty located at the centre and in peripheral areas.
  • Hegemony
  • Federation and Federal republic
  • Confederation
  • Federal Monarchy
• Diverging degrees of sovereignty.
  • Asymmetrical federalism
  • Federacy
  • Associated state
  • Devolved state - sovereignty can be abolished without changing the constitution.

Classifying governments

In political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of polities, as typologies of political systems are not obvious. It is especially important in the political science fields of comparative politics and international relations.

On the surface, identifying a form of government appears to be easy, as all governments have an official form. The United States is a federal republic, while the former Soviet Union was a socialist republic. However self-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, defining regimes can be tricky. For example, elections are a defining characteristic of a democracy, but in practice elections in the former Soviet Union were not "free and fair" and took place in a single party state. Thus in many practical classifications it would not be considered democratic.

Another complication is that a large number of political systems originate as socio-economic movements and are then carried into governments by specific parties naming themselves after those movements. Experience with those movements in power, and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government, can cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves.

Etymology

From Middle English government, from Old French government (French gouvernement), from Latin gubernatio ("management, government"). Government is a compound formed from the Ancient Greek κυβερνάω (kubernaō, "I steer, drive, guide, pilot") and the Latin -mente, ablative singular of mēns (“mind”).

Maps

States by their systems of government. For the complete list of systems by country, see List of countries by system of government.

---

  Presidential republics

  Semi-presidential republics

  Parliamentary republics

  Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency elected by and dependent on parliament

  Parliamentary constitutional monarchies in which the monarch does not personally exercise power

  Constitutional monarchies in which the monarch personally exercises power, often alongside a weak parliament

  Absolute monarchies

  Republics whose constitutions grant only one party the right to govern

  Monarchies where constitutional provisions for government have been suspended

  States that do not fit in any of the above listed systems

  No government

Countries highlighted in blue are designated "electoral democracies" in Freedom House's 2010 survey "Freedom in the World". Freedom House considers democracy in practice, not merely official claims.

File:Formas de governo.PNG

A world map distinguishing countries of the world as monarchies (red) from other forms of government (blue). Many monarchies are considered electoral democracies because the monarch is largely ritual; in other cases the monarch is the only powerful political authority.

See also

• Central government
• Civics
• Comparative government
• Constitutional economics
• Legal rights
• List of countries by system of government
• List of European Union member states by political system
• Ministry
• Political economy
• Politics
• State (polity)
• Voting system
• World government

References

Arnheim, M.T.W. Aristocracy in Greek Society. London: Thames and Hudson, 1997.

Further reading

• Kjaer, Anne Mette (2004). Governance. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-7456-2979-7.
• Foundations of Comparative Politics. Cambridge University Press. 2005. ISBN 0-521-53620-0. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
• Sharma, Urmila & Sharma, S.K. (2000). "Forms of Government". Principles and Theory of Political Science. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. ISBN 978-81-7156-938-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Boix, Carles (2003). Democracy and Redistribution. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Bunce, Valerie. 2003. "Rethinking Recent Democratization: Lessons from the Postcommunist Experience." World Politics 55(2):167-192.
• Colomer, Josep M. (2003). Political Institutions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Dahl, Robert Polyarchy Yale University Press (1971)
• Heritage, Andrew, Editor-in-Chief. 2000. World Desk Reference
• Lijphart, Arend (1977). Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration. New Haven: Yale University Press.
• Linz, Juan. 2000. Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.
• Linz, Juan, and Stepan, Alfred. 1996. Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southernn Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.
• Lichbach, Mark and Alan Zukerman, eds. 1997. Comparative Politics: Rationality, Culture, and Structure, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
• Luebbert, Gregory M. 1987. "Social Foundations of Political Order in Interwar Europe," World Politics 39, 4.
• Moore, Barrington, Jr. 1966. Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World. Cambridge: Beacon Press, ch. 7-9.
• Comparative politics : interests, identities, and institutions in a changing global order/edited by Jeffrey Kopstein, Mark Lichbach, 2nd ed, Cambridge University Press, 2005.
• O'Donnell, Guillermo. 1970. Modernization and Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism. Berkeley: University of California.
• O'Donnell, Guillermo, Schmitter, Philippe C., and Whitehead, Laurence, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: comparative Perspectives. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Przeworski, Adam. 1992. Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America, New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Przeworski, Adam, Alvarez, Michael, Cheibub, Jose, and Limongi, Fernando. 2000. Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well Being in the World, 1950-1990. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Shugart, Mathhew and John M. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics, New York, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992.
• Taagepera, Rein and Matthew Shugart. 1989. Seats and votes: The effects and determinants of electoral systems, Yale Univ. Press.

External links

• The Phrontistery Word List: Types of Government and Leadership
• What Are the Different Types of Governments?
• Types of Governments from Historical Atlas of the 20th Century
• Other classifications examples from Historical Atlas of the 20th Century
• http://stutzfamily.com/mrstutz/WorldAffairs/typesofgovt.html
• Regime Types
• CBBC Newsround : types of government
• Phobiocracy by Chris Claypoole