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{{good article}}
{{Short description|Initiation rite performed to crown Mindon Min of Burma in 1857}}
{{Short description|1857 ceremony in Mandalay, Burma}}
{{Infobox event
{{Infobox event
| title = <!-- Title to display, if other than page name --> Coronation of Mindon Min
| title = <!-- Title to display, if other than page name --> Coronation of Mindon Min
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| image_alt =
| image_alt =
| caption = A contemporaneous painting of the coronation depicts the king and queen seated in the pavilion, surrounded by a retinue of Brahmins.
| caption = A contemporaneous painting of the coronation depicts the king and queen seated in the pavilion, surrounded by a retinue of Brahmins.
| native_name = မင်းတုန်းမင်း မုဒ္ဓါဘိသေကမင်္ဂလာ
| native_name = မင်းတုန်းမင်း ရာဇာဘိသေက မုဒ္ဓါဘိသိက် ခံယူတော်မူပုံ
| native_name_lang = my
| native_name_lang = my
| english_name = Muddhābhiseka ceremony of Mindon Min
| english_name = Rājābhiseka Muddhābhisik (consecration) ceremony of Mindon Min
| time =
| time =
| timezone =
| timezone =
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| notes =
| notes =
}}
}}

{{Contains special characters|Burmese}}
{{Contains special characters|Burmese}}
⚫
The [[Coronation of the Burmese monarch|coronation]] (''[[Rājyābhiṣeka|Rajabhiseka]]'') of [[Mindon Min]] and [[Setkya Dewi]] as [[List of Burmese monarchs#Konbaung (1752–1885)|king]] and [[List of Burmese royal consorts#Konbaung Dynasty|queen]] of the [[Konbaung Kingdom]] took place at [[Mandalay Palace]] on 14 May 1857.{{sfn|Yi Yi|1982|p=136}}


⚫
During the reign of the king's half brother [[Pagan Min]], the [[Second Anglo-Burmese War]] in 1852 ended with the annexation of [[Lower Burma]] by the [[British Empire]].{{sfn|Myint-U|2001|p=106}} Mindon Min and his younger brother [[Kanaung Mintha|Kanaung Min]] overthrew Pagan Min,{{sfn|Myint-U|2001|pp=105–106}} and Mindon Min ascended the throne on 18 February 1853.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.san.beck.org/20-8-BurmaMalaya1800-1950.html#a1|title=Burma, Malaya and Siam 1800–1950|first=Sanderson|last=Beck|access-date=2007-04-22}}</ref>
⚫
The [[Coronation of the Burmese Monarch|coronation]] (''[[Rājyābhiṣeka|Rajabhiseka]]'') of [[Mindon Min]] and [[Setkya Dewi]] as [[List of Burmese monarchs#Konbaung (1752–1885)|king]] and [[List of Burmese royal consorts#Konbaung Dynasty|queen]] of the [[Konbaung Kingdom]] took place at [[Mandalay Palace]] on 14 May 1857.{{sfn|Yi Yi|1982|p=136}}

⚫
During the reign of Min's half brother [[Pagan Min]], the [[Second Anglo-Burmese War]] in 1852 ended with the annexation of [[Lower Burma]] by the [[British Empire]]. Mindon Min and his younger brother [[Kanaung Mintha|Kanaung Min]] overthrew Pagan Min, and Mindon Min ascended the throne on 18 February 1853.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.san.beck.org/20-8-BurmaMalaya1800-1950.html#a1|title=Burma, Malaya and Siam 1800–1950|first=Sanderson|last=Beck|access-date=2007-04-22}}</ref>


Similar to other southeast Asian traditions, the coronation ceremony was a mix of [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Hindu]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] cultures in which ''Punna'' ([[Brahmin#Outside India: Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and Indonesia|Brahmin]]s){{sfn|Leider|2005|p=160}} played significant roles, as Hindu texts provide guidelines for such social rituals and political ceremonies, while Buddhist texts do not.{{sfn|Leider|2005|p=174}}
Similar to other southeast Asian traditions, the coronation ceremony was a mix of [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Hindu]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] cultures in which ''Punna'' ([[Brahmin#Outside India: Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and Indonesia|Brahmin]]s){{sfn|Leider|2005|p=160}} played significant roles, as Hindu texts provide guidelines for such social rituals and political ceremonies, while Buddhist texts do not.{{sfn|Leider|2005|p=174}}{{refn|group=note|Some Brahmins formed an influential group in Burmese Buddhist kingdoms in 18th- and 19th-century. The court Brahmins were locally called ''Punna''. During the [[Konbaung dynasty]], Buddhist kings relied on their court Brahmins to consecrate them to kingship in elaborate ceremonies, and to help resolve political questions. This role of Hindu Brahmins in a Buddhist kingdom, states Leider, may have been because Hindu texts provide guidelines for such social rituals and political ceremonies, while Buddhist texts do not.}}


Following the ancient customary similar to the coronations of the kings before him,{{sfn|Hpo Hlaing|2004|p=59}} during the service, Mindon Min bathed, took an oath, and was anointed with holy water, invested with regalia, and crowned King of Burma. The oath included instructions on what to do or not to do for the benefit of his people and warned him that if he failed to oblige, he might suffer certain punishments.{{sfn|Leider|2005|p=175}}
Following ancient customs similar to the coronations of the kings before him,{{sfn|Hpo Hlaing|2004|p=59}} during the service, Mindon Min bathed, took an oath, and was anointed with holy water, invested with regalia, and crowned King of Burma. The oath included instructions on what to do or not to do for the benefit of his people and warned him that if he failed to oblige, he might suffer certain punishments.{{sfn|Leider|2005|p=175}}


The coronation was private and attended by royal members and staff only, and no evidence survives to indicate attendance by foreign diplomats.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=273–274}}
The coronation was private and attended by royal members and staff only, and ''[[Konbaung Set Yazawin]]'' shows no evidence survived to indicate attendance by foreign diplomats.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|pp=273–274}}


==Preparation==
==Preparation==
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| footer = King Mindon (left) and Chief Queen Setkya Dewi (right)
| footer = King Mindon (left) and Chief Queen Setkya Dewi (right)
}}
}}
A committee was formed to choose [[regnal name|regnal title]]s for the King and his wife. It was chaired by the [[Prince Myo Tu, Prince of Mekkhaya|Prince of Mekkhaya]] and consisted of 14 ministers, including [[:my:ခန်းပတ်မင်းကြီး|Khanpat Mingyi]] and [[:my:မိုင်းခိုင်းမြို့စား|Maigaing Myoza]]; five ''Punna''; and eight [[Burmese Buddhist titles#Konbaung era|accomplished and distinguished Rājaguru]] ''[[sayadaw|sayadaws]]'' (senior [[Bhikkhu|monk]]s): [[:my:ရှင်ဉာဏဝံသ (ဂွေးချိုဆရာတော်)|Gwegyo Sayadaw]], [[:my:ဆီးပန်းနီဆရာတော်|Seebanni Sayadaw]], Mekkhaya Sayadaw, [[:my:ရှင်ဓမ္မ|Thitseint Sayadaw]], Hladwe Sayadaw, [[:my:ဗန်းမော်ဆရာတော်|Bhamo Sayadaw]], Wicittayama Sayadaw, and Bagan Sayadaw.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=269}} The committee met at the three-tiered Zetawun Hall and announced on the following day that, in accordance with the [[Pāli]] and [[Vedic Sanskrit]] grammar and prosody, the regnal titles of the King and the Chief Queen would be ''Sīripavara Vijayānanta Yasapaṇḍita Tribhavanā Dityādhipati Mahādhammarājādhirājā'' ({{lang-my|သီရိပဝရ ဝိဇယာနန္တ ယသပဏ္ဍိတ ဒိတျာဓိပတိ မဟာဓမ္မရာဇာဓိရာဇာ}}, {{lit|Prosperous and Most Excellent Great Just King of Kings, Infinitely Victorious, Famous and Wise}}){{sfn|Yi Yi|1982|p=101}} and ''Sīripavara Atulatiloka Mahārājindādhipati Ratanādevī'' ({{lang-my|သီရိပဝရ အတုလတိလောက မဟာရာဇိန္ဒာဓိပတိ ရတနာဒေဝီ}}) respectively.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=269}} A [[:my:တံဆိပ်ဝန်|minister for decorations]], Minhla Yaza Kyawhtin, was commissioned to inscribe the titles on the golden [[palm-leaf manuscript]]s, which were decorated with ''[[Navaratna|nawarat]]'' (nine esteemed gems) wound by nine [[ruby]] stripes, at an auspicious moment in the same month.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=270}}
A committee was formed to choose [[regnal name|regnal title]]s for the King and his wife. It was chaired by the [[Prince Myo Tu, Prince of Mekkhaya|Prince of Mekkhaya]] and consisted of 14 ministers, including [[:my:ခန်းပတ်မင်းကြီး|Khanpat Mingyi]] and [[:my:မိုင်းခိုင်းမြို့စား|Maigaing Myoza]]; five ''Punna''; and eight [[Burmese Buddhist titles#Konbaung era|accomplished and distinguished Rājaguru]] ''[[sayadaw|sayadaws]]'' (senior [[Bhikkhu|monk]]s): [[:my:ရှင်ဉာဏဝံသ (ဂွေးချိုဆရာတော်)|Gwegyo Sayadaw]], [[:my:ဆီးပန်းနီဆရာတော်|Seebanni Sayadaw]], Mekkhaya Sayadaw, [[:my:ရှင်ဓမ္မ|Thitseint Sayadaw]], Hladwe Sayadaw, [[:my:ဗန်းမော်ဆရာတော်|Bhamo Sayadaw]], Wicittayama Sayadaw, and Bagan Sayadaw.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=269}} The committee met at the three-tiered Zetawun Hall and announced on the following day that, in accordance with the [[Pāli]] and [[Vedic Sanskrit]] grammar and prosody, the regnal titles of the King and the Chief Queen would be ''Sīripavara Vijayānanta Yasapaṇḍita Tribhavanā Dityādhipati Mahādhammarājādhirājā'' ({{lang-my|သီရိပဝရ ဝိဇယာနန္တ ယသပဏ္ဍိတ တြိဘဝနာ ဒိတျာဓိပတိ မဟာဓမ္မရာဇာဓိရာဇာ}}, {{lit|Prosperous and Most Excellent Great Just King of Kings, Infinitely Victorious, Famous and Wise}}){{sfn|Yi Yi|1982|p=101}} and ''Sīripavara Atulatiloka Mahārājindādhipati Ratanādevī'' ({{lang-my|သီရိပဝရ အတုလတိလောက မဟာရာဇိန္ဒာဓိပတိ ရတနာဒေဝီ}}) respectively.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=269}} A [[:my:တံဆိပ်ဝန်|minister for decorations]], Minhla Yaza Kyawhtin, was commissioned to inscribe the titles on the golden [[palm-leaf manuscript]]s, which were decorated with ''[[Navaratna|nawarat]]'' (nine esteemed gems) wound by nine [[ruby]] stripes, at an auspicious moment in the same month.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=270}}


===Making coronation costumes===
===Making coronation costumes===
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===Constructing mandats===
===Constructing mandats===
[[File:Lion Throne of Myanmar.jpg|thumb|left|The original Lion Throne at [[National Museum of Myanmar (Yangon)|National Museum Yangon]]]]
[[File:Lion Throne of Myanmar.jpg|thumb|left|The original Lion Throne at [[National Museum of Myanmar (Yangon)|National Museum Yangon]]]]
A specially designated plot of land due east of the palace was harrowed by bankers' sons wearing yellow clothes, rich men's sons dressed in red, and farmland-lords' sons wearing green clothes with gold, silver and tin ploughs attached to bulls (not oxen as usual).{{sfn|Yi Yi|1982|p=136}} This was followed by splashing milk, sprinkling [[cow dung]] powder and scattering [[barley]], [[sesame]], [[cotton]], [[maize]], [[rice]], [[pea]]s and [[bean]]s thoroughly over the ground. The plot was fenced with a type of latticework called ''Daunggyan''.{{sfn|Yi Yi|1982|p=137}} ''Punna'' performed [[Homa (ritual)|fire rituals]]{{sfn|Raymond|1987|p=217–218}} and started chanting [[mantra]]s from ''Rajamattan''{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=271}}<ref group=note>A standard reference for ceremonies at the royal court compiled during [[Bodawpaya]]'s reign</ref> when carts carrying statues of [[Chandi]], [[Parameshwara (god)|Parameshwara]] and [[Vishnu]] arrived.{{sfn|Yi Yi|1982|p=137}} Then, representative monks of all ''[[Nikāya#Monastic divisions|nikaya]]''s and 12 court Brahmins recited ''[[paritta]]''s, such as [[Maṅgala Sutta]] and [[Ratana Sutta]], and ''Kammavaca''<ref group=note>A selected collection of sacred Pali texts written in a square script</ref> as ''Punna'' devoted to ''[[Nat (deity)|nat]]'' spirits blew ''[[Shankha|Khayuthin]]'' ([[conch shell]]s) and chanted the mantra ''Karanasrishanta''.{{sfn|Yi Yi|1982|p=137}}
A specially designated plot of land due east of the palace was harrowed by bankers' sons wearing yellow clothes, rich men's sons dressed in red, and farmland-lords' sons wearing green clothes with gold, silver and tin ploughs attached to bulls (not oxen as usual).{{sfn|Yi Yi|1982|p=136}} This was followed by splashing milk, sprinkling [[cow dung]] powder and scattering [[barley]], [[sesame]], [[cotton]], [[maize]], [[rice]], [[pea]]s and [[bean]]s thoroughly over the ground. The plot was fenced with a type of latticework called ''Daunggyan''.{{sfn|Yi Yi|1982|p=137}} ''Punna'' performed [[Homa (ritual)|fire rituals]]{{sfn|Raymond|1987|pp=217–218}} and started chanting [[mantra]]s from ''Rajamattan''{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=271}}{{refn|group=note|A standard reference for ceremonies at the royal court compiled during [[Bodawpaya]]'s reign}} when carts carrying statues of [[Chandi]], [[Parameshwara (god)|Parameshwara]] and [[Vishnu]] arrived.{{sfn|Yi Yi|1982|p=137}} Then, representative monks of all ''[[Nikāya#Monastic divisions|nikaya]]''s and 12 court Brahmins recited ''[[paritta]]''s, such as [[Maṅgala Sutta]] and [[Ratana Sutta]], and ''Kammavaca''<ref group=note>A selected collection of sacred Pali texts written in a square script</ref> as ''Punna'' devoted to ''[[Nat (deity)|nat]]'' spirits blew ''[[Shankha|Khayuthin]]'' ([[conch shell]]s) and chanted the mantra ''Karanasrishanta''.{{sfn|Yi Yi|1982|p=137}}


After wood, bamboo, [[rattan]] and building materials were washed with [[Holy water#Buddhism|lustral water]], eight astrologers and four family members waited while the site was staked by sailors, ''paritta''-chanting ''Punna'' and landowners; these were dressed in brown, red and green and held gold, silver and tin stakes respectively. The staking was scheduled to occur under the influence of auspicious constellations and signaled by firing seven flintlocks seven times.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=271}} The ''athes'' (civilians) built three ceremonial ''mandats'' ([[pavilion]]s):{{sfn|Yi Yi|1982|p=137}}
After wood, bamboo, [[rattan]] and building materials were washed with [[Holy water#Buddhism|lustral water]], eight astrologers and four family members waited while the site was staked by sailors, ''paritta''-chanting ''Punna'' and landowners; these were dressed in brown, red and green and held gold, silver and tin stakes respectively. The staking was scheduled to occur under the influence of auspicious constellations and signaled by firing seven flintlocks seven times.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=271}} The ''athes'' (civilians) built three ceremonial ''mandats'' ([[pavilion]]s):{{sfn|Yi Yi|1982|p=137}}
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The middle part of the route from the palace to the ''mandat''s was shaded with gold and silver cloth so that no sunlight could fall on the path.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=273}}
The middle part of the route from the palace to the ''mandat''s was shaded with gold and silver cloth so that no sunlight could fall on the path.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=273}}


In the van of the procession were twelve regiments with members of legislatures to the left and right, the front ranks of the palace guarding commanders and the left ranks of the palace guarding commanders; in the rear were twelve regiments with members of legislatures to the left and right, the back ranks of the palace guarding commanders and the right ranks of the palace guarding commanders, all formally arranged.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=274}} These were followed by 100 ''abhiseka'' ''Punna'' headed by two [[Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)|Chakravarti]]s on each side; the [[Thathanabaing of Burma#List of Thathanabaing|Thathanabaing sayadaw]]; Brahma Chandra, the Chief Puroheit, carrying a [[Dakshinavarti Shankh]] in a golden basket with joined hands; 100 ''Huyas'' (astrologer Brahmins); 100 ''Punna'' who sacrificed to ''nat'' spirits; 100 harpist ''Punna''; 100 ''Punna'' reciting ''paritta''s; 100 ''Punna'' offering flowers; eight princesses; eight ''Punna'''s daughters; eight bankers' daughters; and eight rich men's daughters. All 500 ''Punna'' blew on ''Khayuthin''s.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=274}} The King and Chief Queen, each proceeded and followed by a princess wearing ''Ghanamatthaka'' clothes, processed in a golden palanquin to the ''akhazaunt'' ''mandat'' to await the auspicious moment for beginning the ceremony.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=274}}
In the vanguard of the procession were twelve regiments with members of legislatures to the left and right, the front ranks of the palace guard commanders and the left ranks of the palace guard commanders; in the rear were twelve regiments with members of legislatures to the left and right, the back ranks of the palace guard commanders and the right ranks of the palace guard commanders, all formally arranged.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=274}} These were followed by 100 ''abhiseka'' ''Punna'' headed by two [[Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)|Chakravarti]]s on each side; the [[Thathanabaing of Burma#List of Thathanabaing|Thathanabaing sayadaw]]; Brahma Chandra, the Chief Puroheit, carrying a [[Dakshinavarti Shankh]] in a golden basket with joined hands; 100 ''Huyas'' (astrologer Brahmins); 100 ''Punna'' who sacrificed to ''nat'' spirits; 100 harpist ''Punna''; 100 ''Punna'' reciting ''paritta''s; 100 ''Punna'' offering flowers; eight princesses; eight ''Punna'''s daughters; eight bankers' daughters; and eight rich men's daughters. All 500 ''Punna'' blew on ''Khayuthin''s.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=274}} The King and Chief Queen, each proceeded and followed by a princess wearing ''Ghanamatthaka'' clothes, processed in a golden palanquin to the ''akhazaunt'' ''mandat'' to await the auspicious moment for beginning the ceremony.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=274}}


==Event==
==Event==
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===Crowning, anointing and oath-taking===
===Crowning, anointing and oath-taking===
[[File:Great Audience Hall, Mandalay.jpg|thumb|right|Great Audience Hall where the King was invested with ''Thanlyet'' and ''Taungmway'']]
[[File:Great Audience Hall, Mandalay.jpg|thumb|right|Great Audience Hall where the King was invested with ''Thanlyet'' and ''Taungmway'']]
[[File:Golden door behind the throne, Mandalay Palace.jpg|150px|thumb|left|The ''Ugin'', the golden door behind the throne]]
Around 7 am, the diamond-decorated silver ''[[Makuṭa|magaik]]'', flame-like epaulettes attached to ''[[Burmese clothing|duyin]]'', left-and-right ''sulya'', three-layer ''shebon'' and ''bwebyu'', after being praised by eight ''Punna'', were offered to the King by [[Supayagyi|Mai Noung Supaya]], [[Salin Supaya]] and [[Supayalay|Yamethin Supaya]] in order.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=275}}
Around 7 am, the diamond-decorated silver ''[[Makuṭa|magaik]]'', flame-like epaulettes attached to ''[[Burmese clothing|duyin]]'', left-and-right ''sulya'', three-layer ''shebon'' and ''bwebyu'', after being praised by eight ''Punna'', were offered to the King by [[Supayagyi|Mai Noung Supaya]], [[Salin Supaya]] and [[Supayalay|Yamethin Supaya]] in order.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=275}}


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{{quote|Oh King! look after everyone as yourself. Guard their welfare as your own. Do not be harsh to your vassals. Be just in your taxation. Eschew the unjust and the foolish. Consult the wise men and take their advice.}}{{sfn|Yi Yi|1982|p=141}}
{{quote|Oh King! look after everyone as yourself. Guard their welfare as your own. Do not be harsh to your vassals. Be just in your taxation. Eschew the unjust and the foolish. Consult the wise men and take their advice.}}{{sfn|Yi Yi|1982|p=141}}


{{quote|Oh King! May you receive the tax according to the ''[[Tithe|Thathameda]]'' law. May the kings of many countries bow their heads before you, may there be no thieves or robbers. Oh King! if you break your oath, may the world be ruined by earthquakes, hell-fires, rebels and witches.}}{{sfn|COLLINS|1996|p=634–635}}
{{quote|Oh King! May you receive the tax according to the ''[[Tithe|Thathameda]]'' law. May the kings of many countries bow their heads before you, may there be no thieves or robbers. Oh King! if you break your oath, may the world be ruined by earthquakes, hell-fires, rebels and witches.}}{{sfn|Collins|Huxley|1996|pp=634–635}}


===End of the event===
===End of the event===
Mindon Min then proclaimed, "I am foremost in all the world! I am most excellent in all the world! I am peerless in all the world!",{{sfn|Harvey|1925|p=325}} gave a speech in which he asked to be "victorious over his dangerous enemies" and to "attain the [[white elephant]] and the treasures [to become, in other words, [[Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)|Chakravarti]]s]",{{sfn|COLLINS|1996|p=635}} and made an invocation by pouring water from a golden ewer.{{sfn|Harvey|1925|p=325}} The ceremony ended with the king taking refuge in the [[Refuge (Buddhism)|Three Jewels]].{{sfn|Harvey|1925|p=325}}
Mindon Min then proclaimed, "I am foremost in all the world! I am most excellent in all the world! I am peerless in all the world!",{{sfn|Harvey|1925|p=325}} gave a speech in which he asked to be "victorious over his dangerous enemies" and to "attain the [[white elephant]] and the treasures [to become, in other words, [[Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)|Chakravarti]]s]",{{sfn|Collins|Huxley|1996|p=635}} and made an invocation by pouring water from a golden ewer.{{sfn|Harvey|1925|p=325}} The ceremony ended with the king taking refuge in the [[Refuge (Buddhism)|Three Jewels]].{{sfn|Harvey|1925|p=325}}


Then ''bhisikpan'' (flowers) were offered to eight abhiseka-performing ''Punna'' by the minister of royal treasurers (Minhla Sithu).{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=277}} Princesses who had been given the honor of making speeches beat a silver gong and [[cymbal]].{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=278}} Afterward, meals were offered to a ''Nanthint'' Buddha image<ref group=note>A Buddha image sculpted to reference a particular planet corresponding to one's name.</ref> before being given away to a person and a cat.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=278}} About one hour later, the King and Chief Queen had their lunch, then left the Great Audience Hall.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=278}}
Then ''bhisikpan'' (flowers) were offered to eight abhiseka-performing ''Punna'' by the minister of royal treasurers, Minhla Sithu.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=277}} Princesses who had been given the honor of making speeches beat a silver gong and [[cymbal]].{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=278}} Afterward, meals were offered to a ''Nanthint'' Buddha image<ref group=note>A Buddha image sculpted to reference a particular planet corresponding to one's name.</ref> before being given away to a person and a cat.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=278}} About one hour later, the King and Chief Queen had their lunch, then left the Great Audience Hall.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=278}}


==Commemorations==
==Commemorations==
[[File:Saya Chone's "Royal Audience".png|thumb|left|A painting depicts the King and Queen giving the royal audience]]
[[File:Saya Chone's "Royal Audience".png|thumb|A painting depicts the King and Queen giving the royal audience]]
As part of the coronation, the square ''[[Myanmar units of measurement#Length|yuzana]]'' (12.72 square [[Mile|mi]]) around the capital was designated a [[sanctuary]]; all prisoners were released; and firewood, flowers and fruits were donated to all monks and ''Punna''.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=277}} The edicts were received by ''Thandawsint'' and was transmitted to ''Nagandaw'' (who presented matters to the King for his decision and relayed the decision to those concerned).{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=277}}
As part of the coronation, the square ''[[Myanmar units of measurement#Length|yuzana]]'' (12.72 square [[Mile|mi]]) around the capital was designated a [[sanctuary]]; all prisoners were released; and firewood, flowers and fruits were donated to all monks and ''Punna''.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=277}} The edicts were received by ''Thandawsint'' and were transmitted to ''Nagandaw'' (who presented matters to the King for his decision and relayed the decision to those concerned).{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=277}}


Seven days later, around 11:30 am, the King (dressed as Brahma) and Chief Queen (dressed as a Queen of the ''[[devaloka]]'') gave royal audiences to ministers and generals.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=278}}
Seven days later, around 11:30 am, the King (dressed as Brahma) and Chief Queen (dressed as a Queen of the ''[[devaloka]]'') gave royal audiences to ministers and generals.{{sfn|Maung Maung Tin|2004|p=278}} After that, the king and members of the royal family made an inaugural procession, circling [[Mandalay Palace#The moat|the city moat]] on a gilt state barge, amid festive music and spectators.{{sfn|Scott|1882|p=450}}


==Notes==
==Notes==
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===Sources===
===Sources===
* {{cite journal |last1=COLLINS |first1=STEVEN |last2=HUXLEY |first2=ANDREW |title=The Post-Canonical Adventures of Mahāsammata |journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |date=1996 |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=623–648 |doi=10.1007/BF00165541 |jstor=23447964 |s2cid=170908946 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23447964 |issn=0022-1791}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Steven |last2=Huxley |first2=Andrew |title=The Post-Canonical Adventures of Mahāsammata |journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |date=1996 |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=623–648 |doi=10.1007/BF00165541 |jstor=23447964 |s2cid=170908946 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23447964 |issn=0022-1791}}
* {{cite book |last1=Harvey |first1=G. E |title=History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824. |date=1925 |publisher=Frank Cass & Co. Ltd. |location=London}}
* {{cite book |last1=Harvey |first1=G. E |title=History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824. |date=1925 |publisher=Frank Cass & Co. Ltd. |location=London}}
* {{cite book|last=[[Pho Hlaing|Hpo Hlaing]]|others=L.E. Bagshawe (translator)|title=Rajadhammasangaha|date=2004|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/THE_RAJADHAMMASANGAHA.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=[[Pho Hlaing|Hpo Hlaing]]|others=L.E. Bagshawe (translator)|title=Rajadhammasangaha|date=2004|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/THE_RAJADHAMMASANGAHA.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Leider |first1=Jacques P. |title=Specialists for Ritual, Magic, and Devotion: The Court Brahmins (Punna) of the Konbaung Kings (1752-1885) |journal=Journal of Burma Studies |date=2005 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=159–202 |doi=10.1353/jbs.2005.0004 |s2cid=162305789 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Leider |first1=Jacques P. |title=Specialists for Ritual, Magic, and Devotion: The Court Brahmins (Punna) of the Konbaung Kings (1752–1885) |journal=Journal of Burma Studies |date=2005 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=159–202 |doi=10.1353/jbs.2005.0004 |s2cid=162305789 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Maung Maung Tin |first1=U |title=Konbaung Set Yazawin (Chronicle of Konbaung Dynasty) |date=October 2004 |volume=3 |publisher=Department of Universities History Research, University of Yangon |location=Yangon |edition=4th |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1-DXDE7KLPj9d6-naxzQQ2M6S-f0Kt-Wj/view?usp=drivesdk |language=my}}
* {{cite book |last1=Maung Maung Tin |first1=U |title=Konbaung Set Yazawin (Chronicle of Konbaung Dynasty) |date=October 2004 |volume=3 |publisher=Department of Universities History Research, University of Yangon |location=Yangon |edition=4th |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1-DXDE7KLPj9d6-naxzQQ2M6S-f0Kt-Wj/view?usp=drivesdk |language=my}}
* {{cite book |last1=Myint-U |first1=Thant |title=The Making of Modern Burma |date=26 March 2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-78021-6 |edition=1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Raymond |first1=Catherine |title=Etude de cultes populaires en Birmanie dans l'art et les textes birmans |date=1987 |publisher=Université de Paris iii-Sorbonne nouvelle |location=Paris}}
* {{cite book |last1=Raymond |first1=Catherine |title=Etude de cultes populaires en Birmanie dans l'art et les textes birmans |date=1987 |publisher=Université de Paris iii-Sorbonne nouvelle |location=Paris}}
* {{cite book |title=The Burman, His Life and Notions |last=Scott |first=James George |author-link=James George Scott |year=1882 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |url=https://archive.org/stream/burmanhislifenot00scot}}
* {{cite book |last1=Yi Yi |first1=Dr |title=Life at the Burmese Court under the Konbaung Kings |date=1982 |publisher=Department of Universities History Research, University of Yangon |location=Yangon |pages=100–147 |url=https://www.burmalibrary.org/en/life-at-the-burmese-court-under-the-konbaung-kings |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Yi Yi |first1=Dr |title=Life at the Burmese Court under the Konbaung Kings |date=1982 |publisher=Department of Universities History Research, University of Yangon |location=Yangon |pages=100–147 |url=https://www.burmalibrary.org/en/life-at-the-burmese-court-under-the-konbaung-kings |language=en}}


{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Mindon Min}}
{{Burmese monarchs}}
{{Burmese monarchs}}
{{Coronation}}
{{Coronation}}
{{Regalia and crown jewels by country}}
{{Regalia and crown jewels by country}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Mindon, Coronation of King}}
[[Category:Coronations by monarchy]]
[[Category:Coronations of Burmese monarchs]]
[[Category:Burmese monarchy]]
[[Category:Burmese monarchy]]
[[Category:Konbaung dynasty]]
[[Category:Konbaung dynasty]]
[[Category:Burmese culture]]
[[Category:Culture of Myanmar]]
[[Category:19th century in Burma]]
[[Category:19th century in Burma]]
[[Category:19th-century Burmese monarchs]]
[[Category:19th-century Burmese monarchs]]

Latest revision as of 18:55, 14 May 2024

Coronation of Mindon Min
A contemporaneous painting of the coronation depicts the king and queen seated in the pavilion, surrounded by a retinue of Brahmins.
Native name မင်းတုန်းမင်း ရာဇာဘိသေက မုဒ္ဓါဘိသိက် ခံယူတော်မူပုံ
English nameRājābhiseka Muddhābhisik (consecration) ceremony of Mindon Min
Date14 May 1857 (1857-05-14)
VenueMandalay Palace
LocationMandalay, Burma
Participants
This article contains Burmese script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Burmese script.

The coronation (Rajabhiseka) of Mindon Min and Setkya Dewi as king and queen of the Konbaung Kingdom took place at Mandalay Palace on 14 May 1857.[1]

During the reign of the king's half brother Pagan Min, the Second Anglo-Burmese War in 1852 ended with the annexation of Lower Burma by the British Empire.[2] Mindon Min and his younger brother Kanaung Min overthrew Pagan Min,[3] and Mindon Min ascended the throne on 18 February 1853.[4]

Similar to other southeast Asian traditions, the coronation ceremony was a mix of Hindu and Buddhist cultures in which Punna (Brahmins)[5] played significant roles, as Hindu texts provide guidelines for such social rituals and political ceremonies, while Buddhist texts do not.[6][note 1]

Following ancient customs similar to the coronations of the kings before him,[7] during the service, Mindon Min bathed, took an oath, and was anointed with holy water, invested with regalia, and crowned King of Burma. The oath included instructions on what to do or not to do for the benefit of his people and warned him that if he failed to oblige, he might suffer certain punishments.[8]

The coronation was private and attended by royal members and staff only, and Konbaung Set Yazawin shows no evidence survived to indicate attendance by foreign diplomats.[9]

Preparation

[edit]

Choosing regnal titles

[edit]
King Mindon (left) and Chief Queen Setkya Dewi (right)

A committee was formed to choose regnal titles for the King and his wife. It was chaired by the Prince of Mekkhaya and consisted of 14 ministers, including Khanpat Mingyi and Maigaing Myoza; five Punna; and eight accomplished and distinguished Rājaguru sayadaws (senior monks): Gwegyo Sayadaw, Seebanni Sayadaw, Mekkhaya Sayadaw, Thitseint Sayadaw, Hladwe Sayadaw, Bhamo Sayadaw, Wicittayama Sayadaw, and Bagan Sayadaw.[10] The committee met at the three-tiered Zetawun Hall and announced on the following day that, in accordance with the Pāli and Vedic Sanskrit grammar and prosody, the regnal titles of the King and the Chief Queen would be Sīripavara Vijayānanta Yasapaṇḍita Tribhavanā Dityādhipati Mahādhammarājādhirājā (Burmese: သီရိပဝရ ဝိဇယာနန္တ ယသပဏ္ဍိတ တြိဘဝနာ ဒိတျာဓိပတိ မဟာဓမ္မရာဇာဓိရာဇာ, lit. 'Prosperous and Most Excellent Great Just King of Kings, Infinitely Victorious, Famous and Wise')[11] and Sīripavara Atulatiloka Mahārājindādhipati Ratanādevī (Burmese: သီရိပဝရ အတုလတိလောက မဟာရာဇိန္ဒာဓိပတိ ရတနာဒေဝီ) respectively.[10] A minister for decorations, Minhla Yaza Kyawhtin, was commissioned to inscribe the titles on the golden palm-leaf manuscripts, which were decorated with nawarat (nine esteemed gems) wound by nine ruby stripes, at an auspicious moment in the same month.[12]

Making coronation costumes

[edit]

Managed by the royal treasurers, 23 dressmakers and embroiders wearing nawarat rings made the diamond-decorated silver magaik (Imperial crown), flame-like epaulettes for the duyin, left-and-right sulya (shawls), three-layer shebon (aprons) and bwebyu (robes).[12] The duyin, sulya and shebon, with silver jingle bells decorating the lining, were embroidered with silver silk in the shape of a star, a jackfruit tubercle and a gourd tendril.[13] When the outfits were completed, they were put onto peacock frames, and Buddhist Parittas were chanted by eight monks.[13]

Constructing mandats

[edit]
The original Lion Throne at National Museum Yangon

A specially designated plot of land due east of the palace was harrowed by bankers' sons wearing yellow clothes, rich men's sons dressed in red, and farmland-lords' sons wearing green clothes with gold, silver and tin ploughs attached to bulls (not oxen as usual).[1] This was followed by splashing milk, sprinkling cow dung powder and scattering barley, sesame, cotton, maize, rice, peas and beans thoroughly over the ground. The plot was fenced with a type of latticework called Daunggyan.[14] Punna performed fire rituals[15] and started chanting mantras from Rajamattan[13][note 2] when carts carrying statues of Chandi, Parameshwara and Vishnu arrived.[14] Then, representative monks of all nikayas and 12 court Brahmins recited parittas, such as Maṅgala Sutta and Ratana Sutta, and Kammavaca[note 3] as Punna devoted to nat spirits blew Khayuthin (conch shells) and chanted the mantra Karanasrishanta.[14]

After wood, bamboo, rattan and building materials were washed with lustral water, eight astrologers and four family members waited while the site was staked by sailors, paritta-chanting Punna and landowners; these were dressed in brown, red and green and held gold, silver and tin stakes respectively. The staking was scheduled to occur under the influence of auspicious constellations and signaled by firing seven flintlocks seven times.[13] The athes (civilians) built three ceremonial mandats (pavilions):[14]

  • A Sihasana mandat (with Lion Throne), draped in white and attended by the paritta-reciting Punna.
  • A Gajasana mandat (with Elephant Throne), decorated in red with sailors in attendance.
  • A Morasana mandat (with Peacock Throne), decked in brown and presented by athes.

Collecting anointing water

[edit]

A group involving eight supayas with gold pots, eight daughters of puroheits (court Punna) with silver pots, eight daughters of ministers with earthen pots, eight daughters of bankers with brass pots and eight daughters of rich men with iron pots went to the Irrawaddy River together with eight abhiseka-performing Punna led by the Thathanabaing sayadaw.[14] The water had to be taken from midstream; all embarked on separate boats according to their grades.[14]

When they arrived at the riverside, participants dressed up as Ganga (the guardian spirit of the river) said three times, "Why do you all come?" "According to tradition, as in the case of his forbear, the King intends to hold an abhiseka ceremony. Thus have we come to draw water," the puroheits replied.[16] Ganga asked, "Will he work for the religion (Sasana), the Samgha and the people and act according to the law?"; "The King wishes so to act and thus wants the water," they answered.[16]

Ganga said, "Very well! Very well! May the King live a hundred years and look after the interests of the religion, the Samgha and the people. May his children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren prosper," and allowed them to get water.[16]

The holy water obtained by the supayas and daughters of puroheits was placed at the Sihasana mandat, that of the ministers' daughters at the Gajasana mandat and that of the bankers' and rich men's daughters at the Morasana mandat.[16]

Procession to the mandat

[edit]

The middle part of the route from the palace to the mandats was shaded with gold and silver cloth so that no sunlight could fall on the path.[17]

In the vanguard of the procession were twelve regiments with members of legislatures to the left and right, the front ranks of the palace guard commanders and the left ranks of the palace guard commanders; in the rear were twelve regiments with members of legislatures to the left and right, the back ranks of the palace guard commanders and the right ranks of the palace guard commanders, all formally arranged.[18] These were followed by 100 abhiseka Punna headed by two Chakravartis on each side; the Thathanabaing sayadaw; Brahma Chandra, the Chief Puroheit, carrying a Dakshinavarti Shankh in a golden basket with joined hands; 100 Huyas (astrologer Brahmins); 100 Punna who sacrificed to nat spirits; 100 harpist Punna; 100 Punna reciting parittas; 100 Punna offering flowers; eight princesses; eight Punna's daughters; eight bankers' daughters; and eight rich men's daughters. All 500 Punna blew on Khayuthins.[18] The King and Chief Queen, each proceeded and followed by a princess wearing Ghanamatthaka clothes, processed in a golden palanquin to the akhazaunt mandat to await the auspicious moment for beginning the ceremony.[18]

Event

[edit]

Preceding the King and Chief Queen into the mandat was the Tipitaka carried by the Thathanabaing sayadaw, Vinayadhara (ဝိနည်းဓိုရ်; custodian of the Vinaya)[note 4] and 12 puroheit. After a prescribed interval it was removed to the palace where 108 monks were chanting parittas.[18] Then the palace was cleaned by the Pyisogyi minister (registrar general; ပြည်စိုးကြီးအမတ်).[18]

Bathing of the King

[edit]

The King and Chief Queen proceeded to the Morasana mandat and put on the dresses offered by the Nanya Mibayas (Senior Queens); they continued to the Gajasana mandat, where the King was anointed by Myadaung Supaya with Thagyayezin holy water from a golden bowl and by three ministers with 20 golden pots.[19] The King's hairline was washed by Yamethin Supaya and Grahashanti-reciting Bhidra with the Dakshinavarti Shankh.[19] Afterwards, offerings were donated to seven Buddha images.[note 5][19]

Crowning, anointing and oath-taking

[edit]
Great Audience Hall where the King was invested with Thanlyet and Taungmway
The Ugin, the golden door behind the throne

Around 7 am, the diamond-decorated silver magaik, flame-like epaulettes attached to duyin, left-and-right sulya, three-layer shebon and bwebyu, after being praised by eight Punna, were offered to the King by Mai Noung Supaya, Salin Supaya and Yamethin Supaya in order.[19]

The King and Chief Queen made a variety of donations while the Pyaut Gyi Hmue (captain of the footguards) read the ceremonial yadu (ode); the Navagraha (heavenly deities) were given offerings by Punna.[19] Later, the King and Chief Queen went clockwise round the Sihasana mandat, stopping on the eastern side.[19] In front of the Great Audience Hall, the King was invested with the Thanlyet (sceptre) and Taungmway (staff).[19]

When the princesses opened the U-gin[note 6] holding the Thanlyet and Taungmway, the King recited:[19]

Buddhañca Dhammañca Saṃghañca saranaṃ gato, upāsakattaṃ desesi. Sakyaputtassa sāsane, sadāguṇa mupehīti.

[note 7]

The King and Chief Queen sat in state on the gold-covered figwood in the Sihasana mandat.[20]

Eight Punna handed the King the five components of the coronation regalia: the Hti byu (white umbrella), Magaik, Thanlyet, Che nin (sandals) and Thamee yet (fly-whisk made of yak tail).[19] Yaw Atwinwun read the regnal title of the King from the golden palm-leaf manuscript, which, together with its ruby-studded stand, was then offered to the King by the Prince of Mekkhaya. The regnal title of the Chief Queen was read by Kanni Atwinwun and offered to her by the Prince of Nyaungyan.[19]

At 8:30 am, eight supayas dressed in Ghanamattaka, holding Dakshinavarti Shankh filled with water from five rivers by Yamethin Supaya, poured water on the King's head[21] while saying:

Oh King! please act always as the good and righteous kings from Mahāsammata at the beginning of the world onwards. Oh King! do not be harsh to your vassals, bestow rewards on all deserving people, love compassionately everyone as though they are children of your bosom, guard the welfare of everyone, treasure their lives as though your own. May you be free of the obstructions of greed and anger, and give light to the darkness of stupidity. Oh King! your actions must be only those that bring you credit, so must your words, your thoughts and zeal.

[20]

Holding Dakshinavarti Shankh filled by Brahma Chandra the Chief Puroheit, eight Punna of pure blood also anointed the King,[21] saying:

Please make the Sasana and its attributes shine forth. Oh King! love all beings as your own children, their weal and their lives must be as your own. Oh King! do not be harsh to your vassals. Be just, attend to the sayings of the wise, and look after your kith and kin. This you must always do.

[22]

Then, holding Dakshinavarti Shankh filled by Maha Thiri Dhanaraja, eight bankers and rich men anointed the King[21] with these words:

Oh King! look after everyone as yourself. Guard their welfare as your own. Do not be harsh to your vassals. Be just in your taxation. Eschew the unjust and the foolish. Consult the wise men and take their advice.

[22]

Oh King! May you receive the tax according to the Thathameda law. May the kings of many countries bow their heads before you, may there be no thieves or robbers. Oh King! if you break your oath, may the world be ruined by earthquakes, hell-fires, rebels and witches.

[23]

End of the event

[edit]

Mindon Min then proclaimed, "I am foremost in all the world! I am most excellent in all the world! I am peerless in all the world!",[24] gave a speech in which he asked to be "victorious over his dangerous enemies" and to "attain the white elephant and the treasures [to become, in other words, Chakravartis]",[25] and made an invocation by pouring water from a golden ewer.[24] The ceremony ended with the king taking refuge in the Three Jewels.[24]

Then bhisikpan (flowers) were offered to eight abhiseka-performing Punna by the minister of royal treasurers, Minhla Sithu.[26] Princesses who had been given the honor of making speeches beat a silver gong and cymbal.[27] Afterward, meals were offered to a Nanthint Buddha image[note 8] before being given away to a person and a cat.[27] About one hour later, the King and Chief Queen had their lunch, then left the Great Audience Hall.[27]

Commemorations

[edit]
A painting depicts the King and Queen giving the royal audience

As part of the coronation, the square yuzana (12.72 square mi) around the capital was designated a sanctuary; all prisoners were released; and firewood, flowers and fruits were donated to all monks and Punna.[26] The edicts were received by Thandawsint and were transmitted to Nagandaw (who presented matters to the King for his decision and relayed the decision to those concerned).[26]

Seven days later, around 11:30 am, the King (dressed as Brahma) and Chief Queen (dressed as a Queen of the devaloka) gave royal audiences to ministers and generals.[27] After that, the king and members of the royal family made an inaugural procession, circling the city moat on a gilt state barge, amid festive music and spectators.[28]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Some Brahmins formed an influential group in Burmese Buddhist kingdoms in 18th- and 19th-century. The court Brahmins were locally called Punna. During the Konbaung dynasty, Buddhist kings relied on their court Brahmins to consecrate them to kingship in elaborate ceremonies, and to help resolve political questions. This role of Hindu Brahmins in a Buddhist kingdom, states Leider, may have been because Hindu texts provide guidelines for such social rituals and political ceremonies, while Buddhist texts do not.
  2. ^ A standard reference for ceremonies at the royal court compiled during Bodawpaya's reign
  3. ^ A selected collection of sacred Pali texts written in a square script
  4. ^ A sayadaw learned in the Vinayas who delivers judgement on disputes involving the ecclesiastic code.
  5. ^ The seven images represent the seven Buddhas: Gautama Buddha and the six preceding Samma Sambuddhas.
  6. ^ The uppermost part of the back of the throne.
  7. ^ Translation: "Having taken refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha, he pointed out the fact of his being a lay-disciple. Always trust in the virtue of the biddings of the Sakyaputta. i.e. the Buddha."
  8. ^ A Buddha image sculpted to reference a particular planet corresponding to one's name.

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Yi Yi 1982, p. 136.
  2. ^ Myint-U 2001, p. 106.
  3. ^ Myint-U 2001, pp. 105–106.
  4. ^ Beck, Sanderson. "Burma, Malaya and Siam 1800–1950". Retrieved 2007-04-22.
  5. ^ Leider 2005, p. 160.
  6. ^ Leider 2005, p. 174.
  7. ^ Hpo Hlaing 2004, p. 59.
  8. ^ Leider 2005, p. 175.
  9. ^ Maung Maung Tin 2004, pp. 273–274.
  10. ^ a b Maung Maung Tin 2004, p. 269.
  11. ^ Yi Yi 1982, p. 101.
  12. ^ a b Maung Maung Tin 2004, p. 270.
  13. ^ a b c d Maung Maung Tin 2004, p. 271.
  14. ^ a b c d e f Yi Yi 1982, p. 137.
  15. ^ Raymond 1987, pp. 217–218.
  16. ^ a b c d Yi Yi 1982, p. 138.
  17. ^ Maung Maung Tin 2004, p. 273.
  18. ^ a b c d e Maung Maung Tin 2004, p. 274.
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Maung Maung Tin 2004, p. 275.
  20. ^ a b Yi Yi 1982, p. 140.
  21. ^ a b c Maung Maung Tin 2004, p. 276.
  22. ^ a b Yi Yi 1982, p. 141.
  23. ^ Collins & Huxley 1996, pp. 634–635.
  24. ^ a b c Harvey 1925, p. 325.
  25. ^ Collins & Huxley 1996, p. 635.
  26. ^ a b c Maung Maung Tin 2004, p. 277.
  27. ^ a b c d Maung Maung Tin 2004, p. 278.
  28. ^ Scott 1882, p. 450.

Sources

[edit]


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