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Looting of Polish artwork at the Zachęta building by German forces during the Occupation of Poland, 1944

Cultural genocide or culturicide is a concept described by Polish lawyer Raphael Lemkin in 1944, in the same book that coined the term genocide.^[1] The destruction of culture was a central component in Lemkin's formulation of genocide.^[1] Though the precise definition of cultural genocide remains contested, the United Nations makes it clear that genocide is "the intent to destroy a national, ethnic, racial or religious group... it does not include political groups or so called 'cultural genocide'" and that "Cultural destruction does not suffice, nor does an intention to simply disperse a group" thus this is what "makes the crime of genocide so unique".^[2] While the Armenian Genocide Museum defines culturicide as "acts and measures undertaken to destroy nations' or ethnic groups' culture through spiritual, national, and cultural destruction",^[3] which appears to be essentially the same as ethnocide. The drafters of the 1948 Genocide Convention initially considered using the term, but later dropped it from inclusion.^[4]^[5]^[6]

Culturicide involves the eradication and destruction of cultural artifacts, such as books, artworks, and structures.^[7] The issue is addressed in multiple international treaties, including the Geneva Conventions and the Rome Statute, which define war crimes associated with the destruction of culture. Cultural genocide may also involve forced assimilation, as well as the suppression of a language or cultural activities that do not conform to the destroyer's notion of what is appropriate.^[7] Among many other potential reasons, cultural genocide may be committed for religious motives (e.g., iconoclasm which is based on aniconism); as part of a campaign of ethnic cleansing in an attempt to remove the evidence of a people from a specific locale or history; as part of an effort to implement a Year Zero, in which the past and its associated culture is deleted and history is "reset".

Some ethnologists, such as Robert Jaulin, use the term ethnocide as a substitute for cultural genocide,^[8] although this usage has been criticized as risking the confusion between ethnicity and culture.^[9]

The term "cultural genocide" has been considered in various draft United Nations declarations, but it is not used by the UN Genocide Convention.^[8]

History

Etymology

The notion of 'cultural genocide' was acknowledged as early as 1944, when lawyer Raphael Lemkin distinguished a cultural component of genocide.^[10] In 1989, Robert Badinter, a French criminal lawyer known for his stance against the death penalty, used the term "cultural genocide" on a television show to describe what he said was the disappearance of Tibetan culture in the presence of the 14th Dalai Lama.^[11] The Dalai Lama would later use the term in 1993^[12] and again in 2008.^[13]

Proposed inclusion in the UN's DRIP

The concept of cultural genocide was originally included in drafts of the 1948 Genocide Convention^[4]^[5]^[6] but was later dropped due to vetoing by France and Great Britain.^[14]

Article 7 of a 1994 draft of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (DRIP) uses the phrase "cultural genocide" but does not define what it means.^[15] The complete article in the draft read as follows:

Indigenous peoples have the collective and individual right not to be subjected to ethnocide and cultural genocide, including prevention of and redress for:

(a) Any action which has the aim or effect of depriving them of their integrity as distinct peoples, or of their cultural values or ethnic identities;

(b) Any action which has the aim or effect of dispossessing them of their lands, territories or resources;

(c) Any form of population transfer which has the aim or effect of violating or undermining any of their rights;

(d) Any form of assimilation or integration by other cultures or ways of life imposed on them by legislative, administrative or other measures;

(e) Any form of propaganda directed against them.

This wording only ever appeared in a draft. The DRIP—which was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly during its 62nd session at UN Headquarters in New York City on 13 September 2007—only makes reference to genocide once, when it mentions "genocide, or any other act of violence" in Article 7. Though the concept of "ethnocide" and "cultural genocide" was removed in the version adopted by the General Assembly, the sub-points from the draft noted above were retained (with slightly expanded wording) in Article 8 that speaks to "the right not to be subject to forced assimilation."^[16]

List of cultural genocides

The term has been used to describe the destruction of cultural heritage in connection with various events which mostly occurred during the 20th century:

Europe

Historian Stephen Wheatcroft states that the Soviet peasantry was subject to cultural destruction during the creation of the "New Soviet man",^[17] Lynne Viola makes a similar characterization of Collectivization in the Soviet Union adding a noted colonial character to the project in their observation of the event.^[18]
In reference to the Axis powers (primarily, Nazi Germany)'s policies towards some nations during World War II (ex. the German occupation of Poland & the destruction of Polish culture).^[19]^[20]
In the Bosnian War during the Siege of Sarajevo, cultural genocide was committed by Bosnian Serb forces. The National and University Library of Bosnia and Herzegovina was specifically targeted and besieged by cannons positioned all around the city. The National Library was completely destroyed in the fire, along with 80 per cent of its contents. Some 3 million books were destroyed, along with hundreds of original documents from the Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian monarchy.^[21]
2004 unrest in Kosovo.^[22] In an urgent appeal,^[23] issued on 18 March by the extraordinary session of the Expanded Convocation of the Holy Synod of Serbian Orthodox Church (SPC), it was reported that a number of Serbian churches and shrines in Kosovo had been damaged or destroyed by Albanian rioters. At least 30 sites were completely destroyed, more or less destroyed, or further destroyed (sites that had been previously damaged).^[24]
After the Greek Civil War, Greek authorities had conducted a cultural genocide upon Slavic Macedonians in Northern Greece through prohibition of communication in Slavic languages, renaming of cities, towns and villages (Lerin/Лерин to Florina etc.), deportation of Slavic Macedonians, particularly women and children, as well as many other actions intended to marginalize and oppress the Slavic Macedonians residing in Northern Greece. While some of these actions had been motivated by political ideology, as many of the Slavic Macedonians had sided with the defeated communists, the majority of actions were committed to wipe out any traces of Slavic Macedonians or their culture in Northern Greece.^[25]^[26]
Turkey: Especially in the island of Imbros. The island was primarily inhabited by ethnic Greeks from antiquity until approximately the 1960s, when many were forced to flee due to a campaign of cultural genocide and discrimination enacted by the Turkish government.^[27] Massive scale persecution against the local Greeks started in 1961, as part of the Eritme Programmi operation that aimed at the elimination of Greek education and the enforcement of economic, psychological pressure and violence. Under these conditions, the Turkish government approved the appropriation of >90% of the cultivated areas of the island and the settlement of additional 6,000 ethnic Turks from mainland Turkey.^[28]^[29] Finally, the island was also officially renamed by Turkey in 1970 to Gökçeada to finalize the removal of any remaining Greek influence.
Francoist Spain: the alleged prohibition of the use of minority languages such as Catalan or Galician in the public space, from schools to shops, public transport, or even in the streets, the banning of the use of Catalan or Galician birth names for children, the renaming of cities, streets and all toponyms from Catalan, Basque or Galician to Castilian-Spanish, and the abolition of government and all cultural institutions in Catalonia as well as in Basque Country and Galicia with the goal of total cultural suppression and assimilation.^[30]
- John D. Hargreaves writes that "A policy of cultural genocide was implemented: the Catalan language and key symbols of Catalan independent identity and nationhood, such as the flag (the senyera), the national hymn ('Els Segadors') and the national dance (the sardana), were proscribed. Any sign of independence or opposition, in fact, was brutally suppressed. Catalan identity and consequently the Catalan nation were threatened with extinction."^[31]
- Although Josep Pla and other Catalan authors published books in Catalan in the 1950s, and even there were prizes of Catalan Literature during Francoism like the Premi Sant Jordi de novel·la, editorial production in Catalan never recovered the peak levels it had reached before Spanish Civil War^[32] Història de l'edició a Catalunya. A prominent case of popularization of Catalan was Joan Manuel Serrat: although he could compose Catalan songs and gained certain notoriety, he was not allowed to sing in Catalan in the Eurovision contest its La, la, la. theme, and was replaced by Spanish singer Massiel, who won the Eurovision contest.^[33] Overall, despite some tolerance as Franco's regime relaxed in the late 60s and early 70s, Catalan and the rest of minority languages of Spain were strictly banned from higher education, administration and all official endeavors, thus being in practice confined to the private sphere and domestic uses (see Language policies of Francoist Spain).
The cultural relationship between the Welsh and English has been shaped by the military, political, economic and cultural power exercised by the more populous English over the Welsh for many centuries. The Anglo-Norman kings of England had conquered Wales militarily by the 13th century, and under Henry VIII the country was incorporated into the Kingdom of England by the Laws in Wales Acts in the 16th century.^[34] 19th-century Anglo-Saxonism led to theories of English racial superiority that described the Welsh as racially inferior. Around the same time, English and Scottish industrialists began establishing iron works and other heavy industry in the coalfield of south Wales. Many elements of the Welsh economy and society since then have been shaped by demands from England.^[34] For example, in the mid-19th century, Welsh was demoted to the language of the crass and uneducated by the British government in Wales' schools.^[34] This has led to a decline in the use of the Welsh language and is seen by some as representative of an overall loss of Welsh culture at the hands of the English. The rise of second homes, from England, in Wales is also contributing to the decline of the Welsh language. In some places, the concentration of second homes is so high that up to 46% of the local housing stock can be empty for parts of the year, with the Welsh natives set to become a minority in their own country.^[35]^[36] This is pushing out many younger Welsh speakers, As more communities become places for holiday lets, rural and village schools close. This in turn weakens the predominance of Welsh as the default language in particular communities.^[37]
Map showing the distribution of the Irish language in 1871
Ireland has been described as enduring cultural genocide under British rule, which aimed to eradicate the Irish language, Irish culture, and the Catholic faith.^[38]^[39]^[40] Ireland's cultural genocide is discussed in the Dictionary of Genocide (2007), as well as by Christopher Murray (1997) in reference to the suppression of the Irish language;^[41] Hilary M. Carey (1997) in reference to the transportation of Irish convicts to Australia;^[42] and by Tomás Mac Síomóin (2018).^[43]
France's policies (also known as Vergonha, "shame," in Occitan) towards its various regional and minority languages, referring to non-standard French as patois, have been described as genocide by professor of Catalan philology at the University of the Balearic Islands Jaume Corbera i Pou who argues,^[44]

When at the mid-19th century, primary school is made compulsory all across the State, it is also made clear that only French will be taught, and the teachers will severely punish any pupil speaking in patois. The aim of the French educational system will consequently not be to dignify the pupils' natural humanity, developing their culture and teaching them to write their language, but rather to humiliate them and morally degrade them for the simple fact of being what tradition and their nature made them. The self-proclaimed country of the "human rights" will then ignore one of man's most fundamental rights, the right to be himself and speak the language of his nation. And with that attitude France, the "grande France" that calls itself the champion of liberty, will pass the 20th century, indifferent to the timid protest movements of the various linguistic communities it submitted and the literary prestige they may have given birth to.
[...]
France, that under Franco's reign was seen here [in Catalonia] as the safe haven of freedom, has the miserable honour of being the [only] State of Europe—and probably the world – that succeeded best in the diabolical task of destroying its own ethnic and linguistic patrimony and moreover, of destroying human family bonds: many parents and children, or grandparents and grandchildren, have different languages, and the latter feel ashamed of the first because they speak a despicable patois, and no element of the grandparents' culture has been transmitted to the younger generation, as if they were born out of a completely new world. This is the French State that has just entered the 21st century, a country where stone monuments and natural landscapes are preserved and respected, but where many centuries of popular creation expressed in different tongues are on the brink of extinction. The "gloire" and the "grandeur" built on a genocide. No liberty, no equality, no fraternity: just cultural extermination, this is the real motto of the French Republic.

Ukraine. As of February 29, 2024, according to the published data of the Prime Minister of Ukraine, Serhiy Shmyhal, about 900 objects of national heritage were damaged or destroyed in the occupied zones of Ukraine, and more than 20 thousand cultural monuments are under occupation.^[45] ^[46] ^[47]

Asia

The persecution of Baháʼís in Iran as a case of religious persecution has been called a cultural genocide.^[48]^[49]^[50]
Azerbaijan's destruction, appropriation, and denial of Armenian heritage sites in Nakhchivan and Nagorno-Karabakh have been characterized as ethnocide^[51]^[52] or potential cultural genocide^[53]^[54]^[55] and condemned by the International Court of Justice and European Parliament.^[56] The destruction of thousands of medieval Armenian Churches, khachkars and gravestones at the Armenian cemetery in Julfa is a prominent example.^[57]^[58]^[59]
Turkey's destruction of Armenian cultural heritage in Turkey both during as well as in the decades after the Armenian genocide.^[3]^[60]
Historian Sarah Cameron believes that while the Kazakh famine of 1931–1933 combined with a campaign against nomads was not genocide in the sense of the Genocide Convention's definition, it complies with Raphael Lemkin's original concept of genocide, which considered destruction of culture to be as genocidal as physical annihilation.^[17]
Japanese occupation of Korea. Japan's extensive policy of cultural genocide included forcibly changing Korean names to Japanese names, the exclusive use of the Japanese language, school instruction in the Japanese "ethical system", and Shinto worship.^[20]
The Sinicization of Tibet from the 1950s onwards. Following the 1959 Tibetan uprising, 97% of Tibet's monasteries were destroyed, while 2 million Tibetans, including 500,000 nomadic farmers, were relocated to newly created urban centers.^[61]
The Japanese ban and discrimination which the Ainu and Ryukyuan cultures have been subjected to as well as other regional cultures.
The "Destruction of the Four Olds" in the People's Republic of China during the Cultural Revolution, in which Red Guards destroyed various religious, cultural, and historical sites throughout the country, especially in Beijing as well as in the Temple of Confucius in Shandong.^[62]
Democratic Kampuchea (1975–1979), particularly its policies towards both the Kingdom of Cambodia (1953–1970) and the Khmer Republic (1970–1975).
The newly-reunified Vietnam after the end of the Vietnam War, particularly its policies towards South Vietnam.
The persecution of Sri Lankan Tamils during the Sri Lankan Civil War was a campaign of ethnic cleansing which was sponsored by the government and it has continued until the present day as a part of the Sinhalaisation of the northern and eastern parts of the island.
The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant's forcible conversions in its territory as well as its destruction of ancient Assyrian, Roman, Yazidi and Christian heritage sites and museums.^[63]
The persecution of Uyghurs in China. Some one million members of China's Muslim Uyghur minority have been detained in massive detention camps, termed "reeducation camps", which exist for the purpose of changing the political thinking, identities and religious beliefs of the detainees, under the guise of "anti-terrorism".^[64] Satellite evidence suggests that China has also razed more than two dozen Uyghur Muslim religious sites to the ground.^[65]

Oceania

The Stolen Generations in Australia where half-caste children were removed from their families.^[66]

North America

Indigenous peoples in the United States.
- In the mid-1800s to early 1900s, the United States established American Indian boarding schools to assimilate Native American children and youth into Euro-American culture.
Indigenous peoples in Canada.
- In 2007, a Canadian Member of Parliament criticized the Ministry of Indian Affairs' destruction of documents that were evidence to the "cultural genocide" imposed on Indigenous peoples within Canada.^[67]
- The Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada concluded that the Canadian Indian residential school system "can best be described as 'cultural genocide.'"^[68]
- In 2015, Chief Justice Beverly McLachlin, of the Supreme Court of Canada, stated in a speech to the Global Centre for Pluralism that Canada's historical treatment of Indigenous peoples was an attempt at cultural genocide, and "the worst stain on Canada's human-rights record."^[69]

References

^ ^a ^b Bilsky, Leora; Klagsbrun, Rachel (23 July 2018). "The Return of Cultural Genocide?". European Journal of International Law. 29 (2): 373–396. doi:10.1093/ejil/chy025. ISSN 0938-5428. Retrieved 2 May 2020.
^ United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect. "The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)" (PDF). United Nations.
^ ^a ^b "Genocide Museum | The Armenian genocide Museum-institute". www.genocide-museum.am. Retrieved 10 October 2019.
^ ^a ^b Hirad Abtahi; Philippa Webb (2008). The Genocide Convention. BRILL. p. 731. ISBN 978-90-04-17399-6. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
^ ^a ^b Lawrence Davidson (8 March 2012). Cultural Genocide. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-5344-3. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
^ ^a ^b See Prosecutor v. Krstic, Case No. IT-98-33-T (Int'l Crim. Trib. Yugo. Trial Chamber 2001), at para. 576.
^ ^a ^b "Cultural Genocide, Stolen Lives: The Indigenous Peoples of Canada and the Indian Residential Schools". Facing History and Ourselves. 16 October 2019. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
^ ^a ^b Robert Jaulin (1970). La paix blanche: introduction à l'ethnocide (in French). Éditions du Seuil.
^ Gerard Delanty; Krishan Kumar (29 June 2006). The SAGE Handbook of Nations and Nationalism. SAGE. p. 326. ISBN 978-1-4129-0101-7. Retrieved 28 February 2013. The term 'ethnocide' has in the past been used as a replacement for cultural genocide (Palmer 1992; Smith 1991:30-3), with the obvious risk of confusing ethnicity and culture.
^ Raphael Lemkin, Acts Constituting a General (Transnational) Danger Considered as Offences Against the Law of Nations (J. Fussell trans., 2000) (1933); Raphael Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, p. 91 (1944).
^ Institut National de l'Audiovisuel (21 April 1989). Les droits de l'homme [Human rights]. Apostrophes (Videotape) (in French). Ina.fr. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
^ "10th March Statements Archive". Retrieved 4 January 2015.
^ "'Eighty killed' in Tibetan unrest". BBC News. 16 March 2008.
^ Flores, Marcello (5 December 2023), "Introduction", Monuments and Identities in the Caucasus, Brill, pp. 1–11, doi:10.1163/9789004677388_002, ISBN 978-90-04-67738-8, retrieved 19 March 2024
^ Draft United Nations declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples drafted by The Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities Recalling resolutions 1985/22 of 29 August 1985, 1991/30 of 29 August 1991, 1992/33 of 27 August 1992, 1993/46 of 26 August 1993, presented to the Commission on Human Rights and the Economic and Social Council at 36th meeting 26 August 1994 and adopted without a vote.
^ "United Nations Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples" (PDF). United Nations. 13 September 2007. p. 10. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
^ ^a ^b The Complexity of the Kazakh Famine: Food Problems and Faulty Perceptions Stephen G. Wheatcroft
^ Viola, Lynne (2014). "Collectivization in the Soviet Union: Specificities and Modalities". The Collectivization of Agriculture in Communist Eastern Europe:Comparison and Entanglements. Central European University Press. pp. 49–69. ISBN 978-963-386-048-9.
^ William Schabas, Genocide in international law: the crimes of crimes, Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-78790-4, Google Print, p.179
^ ^a ^b CGS 1st Workshop: "Cultural Genocide" and the Japanese Occupation of Korea (archive) "During Germany's occupation of Poland (1939–1945) and Japan's occupation of Korea (1910–1945), the prohibition of use of the native tongue, the renaming of people and places, the removal of indigenous people from institutions of higher education, the destruction of cultural facilities, the denial of freedom of religious faith, and the changing of cultural education all took place. The instances of German cultural genocide, which Lemkin took as his basis, cannot be ignored when conducting comparative research.""One of the most striking features of Japan's occupation of Korea is the absence of an awareness of Korea as a "colony", and the absence of an awareness of Koreans as a "separate ethnicity". As a result, it is difficult to prove whether or not the leaders of Japan aimed for the eradication of the Korean race."
^ "Burned library symbolizes multiethnic Sarajevo". Deutsche Welle. 25 August 2012.
^ J̌овић, Саво Б. (2007). Етничко чишћење и културни геноцид на Косову и Метохији: Сведочанства о страдању Српске православне цркве и српског народа од 1945. до 2005. год (in Serbian). Информативно-издавачка установа Српске православне цркве. ISBN 978-86-7758-016-2.
^ "Appeal from the extraordinary session of the Expanded Convocation of the Holy Synod of Serbian Orthodox Church". Archived from the original on 19 February 2022. Retrieved 20 May 2020.
^ ERP KiM Info (26 April 2004). "Dopunjeni i ispravljeni spisak uništenih i oštećenih pravoslavnih crkava i manastira na Kosovu u toku martovskog nasilja". B92 Specijal. B92.
^ "Denying Ethnic Identity". Human Rights Watch. 1 May 1994. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
^ "Greece's invisible minority – the Macedonian Slavs". BBC News. 24 February 2019. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
^ Alexis Alexandris, "The Identity Issue of The Minorities in Greece And Turkey", in Hirschon, Renée (ed.), Crossing the Aegean: An Appraisal of the 1923 Compulsory Population Exchange Between Greece and Turkey, Berghahn Books, 2003, p. 120
^ Λιμπιτσιούνη, Ανθή Γ. Το πλέγμα των ελληνοτουρκικών σχέσεων και η ελληνική μειονότητα στην Τουρκία, οι Έλληνες της Κωνσταντινούπολης της Ίμβρου και της Τενέδου. Αριστοτέλειο Πανεπιστήμιο Θεσσαλονίκης. pp. 98–99.
^ Eade, John; Katic, Mario (28 June 2014). Ashgate Studies in Pilgrimage. Ashgate Pub Co. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-4724-1592-9.
^ Benet, Josep (1978). Catalunya sota el règim franquista (1. reedició ed.). Barcelona: Blume. ISBN 84-7031-064-X. OCLC 4777662.
^ Hargreaves, John E. (2000). Freedom for Catalonia?: Catalan nationalism, Spanish identity, and the Barcelona Olympic Games. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-58615-3. OCLC 51028883.
^ Benet, Josep (1979). Cataluña bajo el régimen franquista (1. ed.). Barcelona: Blume. ISBN 84-7031-144-1. OCLC 7188603.
^ Vatmanidis, Theo (8 October 2017). "Catalonia crisis in Eurovision – how Spain blocked Catalan from victory". EuroVisionary. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bowen, Efa (19 July 2020). ""Cofiwch Dryweryn": A Welsh History of Oppression". Cherwell. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
^ Henley Davis, Richard (6 June 2014). "The Ghettoisation of the Welsh". The Economic Voice. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
^ Williams, Colin (15 November 2022). "Second homes are hollowing out Welsh communities – and pushing our language into decline". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
^ "Education, the decline of Welsh and why communities matter more than classrooms". Nation.Cymru. 19 February 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
^ "Cultural genocide: The Broken Harp, Identity and Language in Modern Ireland, by Tomás Mac Síomóin". The Irish Times.
^ "The Guardian view on... cultural genocide". openDemocracy.
^ Jeggit (20 February 2018). "Bad Language: Gaelic and Britain's Cultural Genocide". Archived from the original on 7 June 2019. Retrieved 6 June 2019.
^ Murray, Christopher (6 June 2019). Twentieth-Century Irish Drama: Mirror Up to Nation. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-0643-7 – via Google Books.
^ Carey, Hilary M. (1 July 1996). Believing in Australia: A cultural history of religions. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74269-657-7 – via Google Books.
^ Totten, Samuel; Bartrop, Paul Robert; Jacobs, Steven L. (6 June 2019). Dictionary of Genocide. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-34642-2 – via Google Books.
^ Corbera, Jaume (23 September 2001). "Le patois des vieux". Diari de Balears. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
^ "Шмигаль: Понад 20 тисяч пам'яток культури перебуває під російською окупацією". www.ukrinform.ua (in Ukrainian). 29 February 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
^ "Cultural Genocide Against Ukraine: How is Russia Looting Ukrainian Museums?". ukraineworld.org. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
^ ""United for Justice. United for Heritage": Preserving Ukrainian Cultural Identity — EUAM Ukraine". 5 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
^ Ghanea-Hercock, Nazila (1997). "Review of secondary literature in English on recent persecutions of Bahá'ís in Iran". Baháʼí Studies Review. 7. Association for Baha'i Studies English-Speaking Europe. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
^ Nader Saiedi (1 May 2008). Gate of the Heart: Understanding the Writings of the Báb. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 377. ISBN 978-1-55458-035-4. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
^ Frelick, Bill (Fall 1987). "Iranian Baha'is and Genocide Early Warning". Social Science Record. 24 (2): 35–37. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
^ Petrosyan 2010 – Petrosyan H., Cultural ethnocide in Artsakh (mechanism of extortion of cultural heritage), state terrorism of Azerbaijan and the policy of ethnic cleansing against Nagorno Karabakh, Shushi, pp. 137-148 (in Arm.). Petrosyan 2020 – Ethnocide in Artsakh: The Mechanisms of Azerbaijan’s Usurpation of Indigenous Armenian Cultural Heritage, Cultural Heritage. Experiences & Perspectives in International Context, Proceedings of the ROCHEMP center international conference, 23rd- 24th of January 2020, Yerevan, pp. 79-90.
^ Roberts, Kasey (6 June 2022). "Present-Day Ethnocide: The Destruction of Armenian Cultural Heritage in Azerbaijan". MUNDI. 2 (1).
^ Kellogg, Ethan. "Cultural Erasure in the Modern Day: The Destruction of Armenian Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan." The Cornell Diplomat 9 (2023). This wide-spread destruction has taken place since at least the late 1990s, primarily in Nagorno-Karabakh and the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan, eliminating millennia of artifacts and altering the ethnic and cultural makeup of the region in a manner that may constitute cultural genocide.
^ Der Matossian, Bedross (1 August 2023). "Impunity, Lack of Humanitarian Intervention, and International Apathy: The Blockade of the Lachin Corridor in Historical Perspective". Genocide Studies International. 15 (1): 7–20. doi:10.3138/GSI-2023-0008. ISSN 2291-1847. There is no doubt that a cultural genocide is taking place in Artsakh where the vandalism or destruction of Armenian monuments has become the norm.
^ Falcone, Daniel (6 January 2024). "Armenians Suffering in Nagorno-Karabakh Are Going Largely Ignored in US Media". Truthout. Retrieved 20 February 2024. In this under-reported case of cultural genocide involving political persecution, strains on due process rights, torture, lack of healthcare and food supplies, tens of thousands of ethnic Armenians have fled from Nagorno-Karabakh region after surrendering to Azerbaijan on September 20.
^ "Texts adopted - Destruction of cultural heritage in Nagorno-Karabakh - Thursday, 10 March 2022". www.europarl.europa.eu. Retrieved 29 January 2024. The European Parliament...calls on Azerbaijan to fully implement the provisional decision of the ICJ, in particular by 'refraining from suppressing the Armenian language, destroying Armenian cultural heritage or otherwise eliminating the existence of the historical Armenian cultural presence or inhibiting Armenians' access and enjoyment thereof' and by 'restoring or returning any Armenian cultural and religious buildings and sites, artefacts or objects';
^ Maghakyan, Simon (November 2007). "Sacred Stones Silenced in Azerbaijan". History Today. Vol. 57, no. 11.
^ Switzerland-Armenia Parliamentary Group, "The Destruction of Jugha", Bern, 2006.
^ Womack, Catherine (7 November 2019). "Historic Armenian monuments were obliterated. Some call it 'cultural genocide'". LA Times.
^ "The Cultural Genocide Against Armenians". TIME. 12 October 2023. Retrieved 6 February 2024. This is how cultural genocide plays out. A little more than 100 years ago was the Armenian Genocide waged by the Ottoman Empire, followed by largescale looting, vandalization, and destruction of Armenian sites across what is now modern-day Turkey. The prospect of a second cultural genocide is now on the table. Except now, Armenians will watch the spectacle unfold online, enduring the trauma site by site and monument by monument.
^ Sandhar, Jaspreet (2005). "Cultural Genocide in Tibet: The Failure of Article 8 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Protecting the Cultural Rights of Tibetans". Santander Art and Cultural Law Review. 2 (1): 175–198. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
^ MacFarquhar, Roderick; Schoenhals, Michael (2006). Mao's Last Revolution. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02332-1.
^ "Cultural Genocide Funds ISIS Art-for-Weapons Trade". Charged Affairs. 7 March 2017.^{[permanent dead link]}
^ Cronin-Furman, Kate (19 September 2018). "China Has Chosen Cultural Genocide in Xinjiang—For Now". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
^ Kuo, Lily (7 May 2019). "Revealed: new evidence of China's mission to raze the mosques of Xinjiang". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
^ Wilkie, Meredith (April 1997). "Bringing them Home: report of the national inquiry into the separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families – Chapter 13". Australian Human Rights Commission. Retrieved 29 April 2021. The Australian practice of Indigenous child removal involved both systematic racial discrimination and genocide as defined by international law
^ Jorge Barrera (25 April 2007). "'Genocide' target of fed coverup: MP". Toronto Sun. Archived from the original on 3 May 2015.
^ "Canada's Forced Schooling of Aboriginal Children Was 'Cultural Genocide,' Report Finds". The New York Times. 2 June 2015. Retrieved 2 June 2015.
^ Fine, Sean (28 May 2015). "Chief Justice says Canada attempted 'cultural genocide' on aboriginals". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 30 December 2018.

External links

From Paris to Cairo: Resistance of the Unacculturated on identity and the nation state.
Chronology of the repression of the Catalan language in catalan language

[Bilsky2018-1] Bilsky, Leora; Klagsbrun, Rachel (23 July 2018). "The Return of Cultural Genocide?". European Journal of International Law. 29 (2): 373–396. doi:10.1093/ejil/chy025. ISSN 0938-5428. Retrieved 2 May 2020.

[2] United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect. "The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)" (PDF). United Nations.

[genocide-museum.am-3] "Genocide Museum | The Armenian genocide Museum-institute". www.genocide-museum.am. Retrieved 10 October 2019.

[AbtahiWebb2008-4] Hirad Abtahi; Philippa Webb (2008). The Genocide Convention. BRILL. p. 731. ISBN 978-90-04-17399-6. Retrieved 22 February 2013.

[Davidson2012-5] Lawrence Davidson (8 March 2012). Cultural Genocide. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-5344-3. Retrieved 22 February 2013.

[AutoCK-2-6] See Prosecutor v. Krstic, Case No. IT-98-33-T (Int'l Crim. Trib. Yugo. Trial Chamber 2001), at para. 576.

[FH2019-7] "Cultural Genocide, Stolen Lives: The Indigenous Peoples of Canada and the Indian Residential Schools". Facing History and Ourselves. 16 October 2019. Retrieved 3 December 2019.

[:0-8] Robert Jaulin (1970). La paix blanche: introduction à l'ethnocide (in French). Éditions du Seuil.

[DelantyKumar2006-9] Gerard Delanty; Krishan Kumar (29 June 2006). The SAGE Handbook of Nations and Nationalism. SAGE. p. 326. ISBN 978-1-4129-0101-7. Retrieved 28 February 2013. The term 'ethnocide' has in the past been used as a replacement for cultural genocide (Palmer 1992; Smith 1991:30-3), with the obvious risk of confusing ethnicity and culture.

[AutoCK-1-10] Raphael Lemkin, Acts Constituting a General (Transnational) Danger Considered as Offences Against the Law of Nations (J. Fussell trans., 2000) (1933); Raphael Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, p. 91 (1944).

[AutoCK-10-11] Institut National de l'Audiovisuel (21 April 1989). Les droits de l'homme [Human rights]. Apostrophes (Videotape) (in French). Ina.fr. Retrieved 2 May 2015.

[AutoCK-11-12] "10th March Statements Archive". Retrieved 4 January 2015.

[AutoCK-12-13] "'Eighty killed' in Tibetan unrest". BBC News. 16 March 2008.

[14] Flores, Marcello (5 December 2023), "Introduction", Monuments and Identities in the Caucasus, Brill, pp. 1–11, doi:10.1163/9789004677388_002, ISBN 978-90-04-67738-8, retrieved 19 March 2024

[AutoCK-4-15] Draft United Nations declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples drafted by The Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities Recalling resolutions 1985/22 of 29 August 1985, 1991/30 of 29 August 1991, 1992/33 of 27 August 1992, 1993/46 of 26 August 1993, presented to the Commission on Human Rights and the Economic and Social Council at 36th meeting 26 August 1994 and adopted without a vote.

[16] "United Nations Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples" (PDF). United Nations. 13 September 2007. p. 10. Retrieved 9 June 2015.

[wheatcroft-17] The Complexity of the Kazakh Famine: Food Problems and Faulty Perceptions Stephen G. Wheatcroft

[collectivizationstruggle-18] Viola, Lynne (2014). "Collectivization in the Soviet Union: Specificities and Modalities". The Collectivization of Agriculture in Communist Eastern Europe:Comparison and Entanglements. Central European University Press. pp. 49–69. ISBN 978-963-386-048-9.

[AutoCK-5-19] William Schabas, Genocide in international law: the crimes of crimes, Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-78790-4, Google Print, p.179

[AutoCK-9-20] CGS 1st Workshop: "Cultural Genocide" and the Japanese Occupation of Korea (archive) "During Germany's occupation of Poland (1939–1945) and Japan's occupation of Korea (1910–1945), the prohibition of use of the native tongue, the renaming of people and places, the removal of indigenous people from institutions of higher education, the destruction of cultural facilities, the denial of freedom of religious faith, and the changing of cultural education all took place. The instances of German cultural genocide, which Lemkin took as his basis, cannot be ignored when conducting comparative research.""One of the most striking features of Japan's occupation of Korea is the absence of an awareness of Korea as a "colony", and the absence of an awareness of Koreans as a "separate ethnicity". As a result, it is difficult to prove whether or not the leaders of Japan aimed for the eradication of the Korean race."

[21] "Burned library symbolizes multiethnic Sarajevo". Deutsche Welle. 25 August 2012.

[22] J̌овић, Саво Б. (2007). Етничко чишћење и културни геноцид на Косову и Метохији: Сведочанства о страдању Српске православне цркве и српског народа од 1945. до 2005. год (in Serbian). Информативно-издавачка установа Српске православне цркве. ISBN 978-86-7758-016-2.

[23] "Appeal from the extraordinary session of the Expanded Convocation of the Holy Synod of Serbian Orthodox Church". Archived from the original on 19 February 2022. Retrieved 20 May 2020.

[24] ERP KiM Info (26 April 2004). "Dopunjeni i ispravljeni spisak uništenih i oštećenih pravoslavnih crkava i manastira na Kosovu u toku martovskog nasilja". B92 Specijal. B92.

[25] "Denying Ethnic Identity". Human Rights Watch. 1 May 1994. Retrieved 10 May 2021.

[26] "Greece's invisible minority – the Macedonian Slavs". BBC News. 24 February 2019. Retrieved 10 May 2021.

[Alexandris-27] Alexis Alexandris, "The Identity Issue of The Minorities in Greece And Turkey", in Hirschon, Renée (ed.), Crossing the Aegean: An Appraisal of the 1923 Compulsory Population Exchange Between Greece and Turkey, Berghahn Books, 2003, p. 120

[28] Λιμπιτσιούνη, Ανθή Γ. Το πλέγμα των ελληνοτουρκικών σχέσεων και η ελληνική μειονότητα στην Τουρκία, οι Έλληνες της Κωνσταντινούπολης της Ίμβρου και της Τενέδου. Αριστοτέλειο Πανεπιστήμιο Θεσσαλονίκης. pp. 98–99.

[Ashgate_Studies_in_Pilgrimage-29] Eade, John; Katic, Mario (28 June 2014). Ashgate Studies in Pilgrimage. Ashgate Pub Co. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-4724-1592-9.

[30] Benet, Josep (1978). Catalunya sota el règim franquista (1. reedició ed.). Barcelona: Blume. ISBN 84-7031-064-X. OCLC 4777662.

[31] Hargreaves, John E. (2000). Freedom for Catalonia?: Catalan nationalism, Spanish identity, and the Barcelona Olympic Games. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-58615-3. OCLC 51028883.

[32] Benet, Josep (1979). Cataluña bajo el régimen franquista (1. ed.). Barcelona: Blume. ISBN 84-7031-144-1. OCLC 7188603.

[33] Vatmanidis, Theo (8 October 2017). "Catalonia crisis in Eurovision – how Spain blocked Catalan from victory". EuroVisionary. Retrieved 8 December 2023.

[auto-34] Bowen, Efa (19 July 2020). ""Cofiwch Dryweryn": A Welsh History of Oppression". Cherwell. Retrieved 4 April 2023.

[35] Henley Davis, Richard (6 June 2014). "The Ghettoisation of the Welsh". The Economic Voice. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 4 April 2023.

[36] Williams, Colin (15 November 2022). "Second homes are hollowing out Welsh communities – and pushing our language into decline". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 4 April 2023.

[37] "Education, the decline of Welsh and why communities matter more than classrooms". Nation.Cymru. 19 February 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2023.

[38] "Cultural genocide: The Broken Harp, Identity and Language in Modern Ireland, by Tomás Mac Síomóin". The Irish Times.

[39] "The Guardian view on... cultural genocide". openDemocracy.

[40] Jeggit (20 February 2018). "Bad Language: Gaelic and Britain's Cultural Genocide". Archived from the original on 7 June 2019. Retrieved 6 June 2019.

[41] Murray, Christopher (6 June 2019). Twentieth-Century Irish Drama: Mirror Up to Nation. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-0643-7 – via Google Books.

[42] Carey, Hilary M. (1 July 1996). Believing in Australia: A cultural history of religions. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74269-657-7 – via Google Books.

[43] Totten, Samuel; Bartrop, Paul Robert; Jacobs, Steven L. (6 June 2019). Dictionary of Genocide. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-34642-2 – via Google Books.

[44] Corbera, Jaume (23 September 2001). "Le patois des vieux". Diari de Balears. Retrieved 14 December 2021.

[45] "Шмигаль: Понад 20 тисяч пам'яток культури перебуває під російською окупацією". www.ukrinform.ua (in Ukrainian). 29 February 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.

[46] "Cultural Genocide Against Ukraine: How is Russia Looting Ukrainian Museums?". ukraineworld.org. Retrieved 28 March 2024.

[47] ""United for Justice. United for Heritage": Preserving Ukrainian Cultural Identity — EUAM Ukraine". 5 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.

[AutoCK-13-48] Ghanea-Hercock, Nazila (1997). "Review of secondary literature in English on recent persecutions of Bahá'ís in Iran". Baháʼí Studies Review. 7. Association for Baha'i Studies English-Speaking Europe. Retrieved 3 March 2013.

[AutoCK-14-49] Nader Saiedi (1 May 2008). Gate of the Heart: Understanding the Writings of the Báb. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 377. ISBN 978-1-55458-035-4. Retrieved 3 March 2013.

[50] Frelick, Bill (Fall 1987). "Iranian Baha'is and Genocide Early Warning". Social Science Record. 24 (2): 35–37. Retrieved 3 March 2013.

[51] Petrosyan 2010 – Petrosyan H., Cultural ethnocide in Artsakh (mechanism of extortion of cultural heritage), state terrorism of Azerbaijan and the policy of ethnic cleansing against Nagorno Karabakh, Shushi, pp. 137-148 (in Arm.). Petrosyan 2020 – Ethnocide in Artsakh: The Mechanisms of Azerbaijan’s Usurpation of Indigenous Armenian Cultural Heritage, Cultural Heritage. Experiences & Perspectives in International Context, Proceedings of the ROCHEMP center international conference, 23rd- 24th of January 2020, Yerevan, pp. 79-90.

[52] Roberts, Kasey (6 June 2022). "Present-Day Ethnocide: The Destruction of Armenian Cultural Heritage in Azerbaijan". MUNDI. 2 (1).

[53] Kellogg, Ethan. "Cultural Erasure in the Modern Day: The Destruction of Armenian Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan." The Cornell Diplomat 9 (2023). This wide-spread destruction has taken place since at least the late 1990s, primarily in Nagorno-Karabakh and the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan, eliminating millennia of artifacts and altering the ethnic and cultural makeup of the region in a manner that may constitute cultural genocide.

[54] Der Matossian, Bedross (1 August 2023). "Impunity, Lack of Humanitarian Intervention, and International Apathy: The Blockade of the Lachin Corridor in Historical Perspective". Genocide Studies International. 15 (1): 7–20. doi:10.3138/GSI-2023-0008. ISSN 2291-1847. There is no doubt that a cultural genocide is taking place in Artsakh where the vandalism or destruction of Armenian monuments has become the norm.

[55] Falcone, Daniel (6 January 2024). "Armenians Suffering in Nagorno-Karabakh Are Going Largely Ignored in US Media". Truthout. Retrieved 20 February 2024. In this under-reported case of cultural genocide involving political persecution, strains on due process rights, torture, lack of healthcare and food supplies, tens of thousands of ethnic Armenians have fled from Nagorno-Karabakh region after surrendering to Azerbaijan on September 20.

[56] "Texts adopted - Destruction of cultural heritage in Nagorno-Karabakh - Thursday, 10 March 2022". www.europarl.europa.eu. Retrieved 29 January 2024. The European Parliament...calls on Azerbaijan to fully implement the provisional decision of the ICJ, in particular by 'refraining from suppressing the Armenian language, destroying Armenian cultural heritage or otherwise eliminating the existence of the historical Armenian cultural presence or inhibiting Armenians' access and enjoyment thereof' and by 'restoring or returning any Armenian cultural and religious buildings and sites, artefacts or objects';

[AutoCK-7-57] Maghakyan, Simon (November 2007). "Sacred Stones Silenced in Azerbaijan". History Today. Vol. 57, no. 11.

[AutoCK-8-58] Switzerland-Armenia Parliamentary Group, "The Destruction of Jugha", Bern, 2006.

[LA_Times-59] Womack, Catherine (7 November 2019). "Historic Armenian monuments were obliterated. Some call it 'cultural genocide'". LA Times.

[60] "The Cultural Genocide Against Armenians". TIME. 12 October 2023. Retrieved 6 February 2024. This is how cultural genocide plays out. A little more than 100 years ago was the Armenian Genocide waged by the Ottoman Empire, followed by largescale looting, vandalization, and destruction of Armenian sites across what is now modern-day Turkey. The prospect of a second cultural genocide is now on the table. Except now, Armenians will watch the spectacle unfold online, enduring the trauma site by site and monument by monument.

[61] Sandhar, Jaspreet (2005). "Cultural Genocide in Tibet: The Failure of Article 8 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Protecting the Cultural Rights of Tibetans". Santander Art and Cultural Law Review. 2 (1): 175–198. Retrieved 3 March 2013.

[62] MacFarquhar, Roderick; Schoenhals, Michael (2006). Mao's Last Revolution. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02332-1.

[63] "Cultural Genocide Funds ISIS Art-for-Weapons Trade". Charged Affairs. 7 March 2017.^{[permanent dead link]}

[64] Cronin-Furman, Kate (19 September 2018). "China Has Chosen Cultural Genocide in Xinjiang—For Now". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 20 September 2018.

[65] Kuo, Lily (7 May 2019). "Revealed: new evidence of China's mission to raze the mosques of Xinjiang". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 May 2019.

[Wilkie1997-66] Wilkie, Meredith (April 1997). "Bringing them Home: report of the national inquiry into the separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families – Chapter 13". Australian Human Rights Commission. Retrieved 29 April 2021. The Australian practice of Indigenous child removal involved both systematic racial discrimination and genocide as defined by international law

[AutoCK-6-67] Jorge Barrera (25 April 2007). "'Genocide' target of fed coverup: MP". Toronto Sun. Archived from the original on 3 May 2015.

[68] "Canada's Forced Schooling of Aboriginal Children Was 'Cultural Genocide,' Report Finds". The New York Times. 2 June 2015. Retrieved 2 June 2015.

[69] Fine, Sean (28 May 2015). "Chief Justice says Canada attempted 'cultural genocide' on aboriginals". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 30 December 2018.

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@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 {{Use British English|date=June 2023}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
+{{Merge|Ethnocide|date=June 2024|talk=Talk:Cultural genocide#Merge with Ethnocide}}
 [[File:Warsaw 1944 by Bałuk - 26320.jpg|thumb|Looting of Polish artwork at the [[Zachęta National Gallery of Art|Zachęta building]] by German forces during the [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|Occupation of Poland]], [[1944]]]]
 {{Discrimination sidebar|state=collapsed}}
 {{Genocide}}
-'''Cultural genocide''' or '''culturicide''' is a concept which was proposed by lawyer [[Raphael Lemkin]] in 1944 as a component of [[genocide]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bilsky |first1=Leora |last2=Klagsbrun |first2=Rachel |title=The Return of Cultural Genocide? |journal=European Journal of International Law |date=23 July 2018 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=373–396 |doi=10.1093/ejil/chy025 |url=https://academic.oup.com/ejil/article/29/2/373/5057075 |access-date=2 May 2020 |language=en |issn=0938-5428|doi-access=free }}</ref> Though the precise definition of ''cultural genocide'' remains contested, the [[Tsitsernakaberd|Armenian Genocide Museum]] defines it as "acts and measures undertaken to destroy [[nation]]s' or [[Ethnicity|ethnic group]]s' [[culture]] through spiritual, national, and cultural destruction".<ref name="genocide-museum.am">{{Cite web|url=http://www.genocide-museum.am/eng/cultural_genocide.php|title=Genocide Museum {{!}} The Armenian genocide Museum-institute|website=www.genocide-museum.am|access-date=10 October 2019}}</ref>
+'''Cultural genocide''' or '''culturicide''' is a concept described by Polish lawyer [[Raphael Lemkin]] in 1944, in the same book that coined the term ''[[genocide]]''.<ref name="Bilsky2018">{{cite journal |last1=Bilsky |first1=Leora |last2=Klagsbrun |first2=Rachel |title=The Return of Cultural Genocide? |journal=European Journal of International Law |date=23 July 2018 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=373–396 |doi=10.1093/ejil/chy025 |url=https://academic.oup.com/ejil/article/29/2/373/5057075 |access-date=2 May 2020 |language=en |issn=0938-5428|doi-access=free }}</ref> The destruction of culture was a central component in Lemkin's formulation of genocide.<ref name="Bilsky2018"/> Though the precise definition of ''cultural genocide'' remains contested, the [[United Nations]] makes it clear that genocide is "the intent to destroy a national, ethnic, racial or religious group... it does not include political groups or so called 'cultural genocide'" and that "Cultural destruction does not suffice, nor does an intention to simply disperse a group" thus this is what "makes the crime of genocide so unique".<ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect |title=The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948) |url=https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/documents/Genocide%20Convention-FactSheet-ENG.pdf |website=United Nations}}</ref> While the [[Tsitsernakaberd|Armenian Genocide Museum]] defines culturicide as "acts and measures undertaken to destroy [[nation]]s' or [[Ethnicity|ethnic group]]s' [[culture]] through spiritual, national, and cultural destruction",<ref name="genocide-museum.am">{{Cite web|url=http://www.genocide-museum.am/eng/cultural_genocide.php|title=Genocide Museum {{!}} The Armenian genocide Museum-institute|website=www.genocide-museum.am|access-date=10 October 2019}}</ref> which appears to be essentially the same as [[ethnocide]]. The drafters of the 1948 [[Genocide Convention]] initially considered using the term, but later dropped it from inclusion.<ref name="AbtahiWebb2008"/><ref name="Davidson2012"/><ref name="AutoCK-2"/>
+Culturicide involves the eradication and destruction of [[cultural artifact]]s, such as books, artworks, and structures.<ref name="FH2019">{{cite web |title=Cultural Genocide, Stolen Lives: The Indigenous Peoples of Canada and the Indian Residential Schools |url=https://www.facinghistory.org/stolen-lives-indigenous-peoples-canada-and-indian-residential-schools/chapter-7/cultural-genocide |website=Facing History and Ourselves |date=16 October 2019 |access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> The issue is addressed in multiple international treaties, including the [[Geneva Conventions]] and the [[Rome Statute]], which define [[war crime]]s associated with the destruction of culture. Cultural genocide may also involve [[forced assimilation]], as well as the suppression of a language or cultural activities that do not conform to the destroyer's notion of what is appropriate.<ref name="FH2019"/> Among many other potential reasons, cultural genocide may be committed for religious motives (e.g., [[iconoclasm]] which is based on [[aniconism]]); as part of a campaign of [[ethnic cleansing]] in an attempt to remove the evidence of a people from a specific locale or history; as part of an effort to implement a [[Year Zero (political notion)|Year Zero]], in which the past and its associated culture is deleted and history is "reset".
-Some [[Ethnology|ethnologists]], such as [[Robert Jaulin]], use the term ''[[ethnocide]]'' as a substitute for ''cultural genocide'',<ref>{{cite book |title=La paix blanche : introduction à l'ethnocide |author=Robert Jaulin |author-link=Robert Jaulin |publisher=Éditions du Seuil |year=1970 |language=fr}}</ref> although this usage has been criticized as risking the confusion between ethnicity and culture.<ref name="DelantyKumar2006" /> Juxtaposed next to ''ethnocide'', ''cultural genocide'' was considered in the 2007 [[United Nations]] [[Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples]]; however, it was removed in the final document and simply replaced with "genocide".
+Some [[Ethnology|ethnologists]], such as [[Robert Jaulin]], use the term ''[[ethnocide]]'' as a substitute for ''cultural genocide'',<ref name=":0">{{cite book |title=La paix blanche: introduction à l'ethnocide |author=Robert Jaulin |author-link=Robert Jaulin |publisher=Éditions du Seuil |year=1970 |language=fr}}</ref> although this usage has been criticized as risking the confusion between ethnicity and culture.<ref name="DelantyKumar2006" />
-== Definition ==
-Among many other potential reasons, cultural genocide may be committed for religious motives (e.g., [[iconoclasm]] which is based on [[aniconism]]); as part of a campaign of [[ethnic cleansing]] in an attempt to remove the evidence of a people from a specific locale or history; as part of an effort to implement a [[Year Zero (political notion)|Year Zero]], in which the past and its associated culture is deleted and history is "reset".
+The term "cultural genocide" has been considered in various draft United Nations declarations, but it is not used by the UN Genocide Convention.<ref name=":0" />
-===Binding international law===
-====Cultural property====
-{{see also|Banner of Peace|Blue Shield International}}
-Cultural genocide involves the eradication and destruction of [[cultural artifact]]s, such as books, artworks, and structures.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cultural Genocide, Stolen Lives: The Indigenous Peoples of Canada and the Indian Residential Schools |url=https://www.facinghistory.org/stolen-lives-indigenous-peoples-canada-and-indian-residential-schools/chapter-7/cultural-genocide |website=Facing History and Ourselves |date=16 October 2019 |access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref>
-*Such practices are forbidden during an armed conflict under the [[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907#Hague Convention of 1907|Hague Convention of 1907 Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land]], which states in Article 25 that "the attack or bombardment, by whatever means, of towns, villages, dwellings, or buildings which are undefended is prohibited"; in Article 27 that "in sieges and bombardments all necessary steps must be taken to spare, as far as possible, buildings dedicated to religion, art, science, or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals, and places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided they are not being used at the time for military purposes"; and in Article 28 that "the pillage of a town or place, even when taken by assault, is prohibited."
-*In the Americas, the [[Roerich Pact]] became the first international treaty substantially expanding and entirely dedicated to protection of [[cultural property]]; its Article 1 states: "The historic monuments, museums, scientific, artistic, educational and cultural institutions shall be considered as neutral and as such respected and protected by belligerents. The same respect and protection shall be due to the personnel of the institutions mentioned above. The same respect and protection shall be accorded to the historic monuments, museums, scientific, artistic, educational and cultural institutions in time of peace as well as in war."
-*Following the experiences of World War II and the success of the regional [[Roerich Pact]], a new global treaty, the [[Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]], was adopted, followed by its two supplentary protocols. Under the Second Protocol to the latter convention, it is obligatory for the contracting parties to penalise the perpetrators of such acts.
-*In addition, the [[World Heritage Site]]s are also at any time protected by the [[World Heritage Convention]], which states in Article 4: "Each State Party to this Convention recognizes that the duty of ensuring the identification, protection, conservation, presentation and transmission to future generations of the cultural and natural heritage referred to in Articles 1 and 2 and situated on its territory, belongs primarily to that State. It will do all it can to this end, to the utmost of its own resources and, where appropriate, with any international assistance and co-operation, in particular, financial, artistic, scientific and technical, which it may be able to obtain", while under Article 6 (3), "Each State Party to this Convention undertakes not to take any deliberate measures which might damage directly or indirectly the cultural and natural heritage referred to in Articles 1 and 2 situated on the territory of other States Parties to this Convention."
-*The basic rules were reinforced by the two 1977 protocols to the 1949 [[Geneva Conventions|Geneva Convention]]
-**Article 53 of the Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977, states: "Without prejudice to the provisions of the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict of 14 May 1954, and of other relevant international instruments, it is prohibited: to commit any acts of hostility directed against the historic monuments, works of art or places of worship which constitute the cultural or spiritual heritage of peoples; to use such objects in support of the military effort; to make such objects the object of reprisals."
-**Article 16 of the Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), 8 June 1977, states: "Without prejudice to the provisions of the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict of 14 May 1954, it is prohibited to commit any acts of hostility directed against historic monuments, works of art or places of worship which constitute the cultural or spiritual heritage of peoples, and to use them in support of the military effort."
-*If the perpetrators are not penalised due to failure or unwillingness of a state to prosecute them, they may be brought to justice under the [[Rome Statute]], adopted in July 1998 and entering into force four years later, the legal basis of the [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC), which defines in Article 8(2) the following cultural property-related [[war crimes]] in both international and non-international armed conflicts: "Intentionally launching an attack in the knowledge that such attack will cause incidental loss of life or injury to civilians or damage to civilian objects or widespread, long-term and severe damage to the natural environment which would be clearly excessive in relation to the concrete and direct overall military advantage anticipated ''(international conflicts only)''; Extensive destruction and appropriation of property, not justified by military necessity and carried out unlawfully and wantonly; Destroying or seizing the enemy’s/adversary’s property unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively demanded by the necessities of war/conflict; Attacking or bombarding, by whatever means, towns, villages, dwellings or buildings which are undefended and which are not military objectives; Deliberate attacks against buildings of a religious, educational, artistic, scientific or non-profit nature and against historical monuments; Pillaging a town or place, even when taken by assault."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/ihl|title=Treaties, States parties, and Commentaries – By topic|website=ihl-databases.icrc.org|language=en-us|access-date=2018-06-13}}</ref>
-====Intangible cultural heritage====
-Cultural genocide may also involve [[forced assimilation]], as well as the suppression of a language or cultural activities that do not conform to the destroyer's notion of what is appropriate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cultural Genocide, Stolen Lives: The Indigenous Peoples of Canada and the Indian Residential Schools |url=https://www.facinghistory.org/stolen-lives-indigenous-peoples-canada-and-indian-residential-schools/chapter-7/cultural-genocide |website=Facing History and Ourselves|date=16 October 2019 |access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref>
-*Article 2 of the [[Genocide Convention]] defines the following intangible culture-related aspects of [[genocide]]: "Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group";
-*Article 27 of the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] mandates the rights of [[ethnic group|ethnic]], [[religious minorities|religious]] and [[minority language|linguistic minority]] to enjoy their own culture, to profess their own religion, and [[linguistic rights|to use their own language]].
-*Article 15 of the [[International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]] assures [[minority groups]] the right to practice and preserve their languages, religions, art forms, and ways of life.
-*[[The International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid]] lists, among others: "any legislative measures and other measures calculated to prevent a racial group or groups from participation in the political, social, economic and cultural life of the country and the deliberate creation of conditions preventing the full development of such a group or groups, in particular bу denying to members of a racial group or groups basic human rights and freedoms, including the right to work, the right to form recognized trade unions, the right to education, the right to leave and to return to their country, the right to a nationality, the right to freedom of movement and residence, the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association; any measures, including legislative measures, designed to divide the population along racial lines by the creation of separate reserves and ghettos for the members of a racial group or groups, the prohibition of mixed marriages among members of various racial groups, the expropriation of landed property belonging to a racial group or groups or to members thereof" – as a manifestation of the crime of [[apartheid]] and requires the States Parties to prosecute perpetors of such practices. If it is not the case due to failure or unwillingness of a state to prosecute them, they may be brought to justice under the Rome Statute (see below)
-*Some of the abovementioned oppressive or repressive practices are illegal also under the [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]], in particular its Article 20(3) concerning the choice of foster placement: "When considering solutions, due regard shall be paid to the desirability of continuity in a child's upbringing and to the child's ethnic, religious, cultural and linguistic background", as well as Article 30, which states that "In those States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities or persons of indigenous origin exist, a child belonging to such a minority or who is indigenous shall not be denied the right, in community with other members of his or her group, to enjoy his or her own culture, to profess and practise his or her own religion, or to use his or her own language."
-*The [[Rome Statute]]
-**Article 6 defines the following intangible culture-related aspects of [[genocide]]: "Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group";
-**Article 7 (1) defines the following intangible culture-related [[crimes against humanity]]: "Enslavement; Deportation or forcible transfer of population; Rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization, or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity; Persecution against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, racial, national, ethnic, cultural, religious, gender as defined in paragraph 3, or other grounds that are universally recognized as impermissible under international law, in connection with any act referred to in this paragraph or any crime within the jurisdiction of the Court; The crime of apartheid.";
-**Article 8 (2) defines the following intangible culture-related [[war crimes]]: "Committing outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment; Committing rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, as defined in article 7, paragraph 2 (f), enforced sterilization, or any other form of sexual violence also constituting a grave breach of the Geneva Convention; Unlawful deportation or transfer or unlawful confinement; The transfer, directly or indirectly, by the Occupying Power of parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies, or the deportation or transfer of all or parts of the population of the occupied territory within or outside fthis territory; Ordering the displacement of the civilian population for reasons related to the conflict, unless the security of the civilians involved or imperative military reasons so demand."
-*Under Article 11 of the [[Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage]], "each State Party shall take the necessary measures to ensure the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage present in its territory", while under Article 19 (2), "Without prejudice to the provisions of their national legislation and customary law and practices, the States Parties recognize that the safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage is of general interest to humanity, and to that end undertake to cooperate at the bilateral, subregional, regional and international levels."
-*In Europe, the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] ([[Council of Europe]] members, including all European sovereign countries, except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and the Vatican City) and the [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities]] (all European sovereign countries, except for Belarus, Belgium, Greece, France, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Turkey and the Vatican City) greatly expand the protection against such activities, as well as provide the necessary legal means (tools) to safeguard and exercise these rights in practice, in particular an application to the [[European Court of Human Rights]]
-**in the European Union, additional protection of the cultural, religious and linguistic diversity is granted by the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]], in particular by its titles II (Freedoms) and III (Equality); it may be enforced in practice through an application to the [[Court of Justice of the European Union]].
 == History ==
 === Etymology ===
-The notion of 'cultural genocide' was acknowledged as early as 1944, when lawyer [[Raphael Lemkin]] distinguished a cultural component of genocide. The term itself did not emerge until later.<ref name="AutoCK-1"/> In 1989, [[Robert Badinter]], a French criminal lawyer known for his stance against the death penalty, used the term "cultural genocide" on a television show to describe what he said was the disappearance of [[Tibetan culture]] in the presence of the [[14th Dalai Lama]].<ref name="AutoCK-10"/> The Dalai Lama would later use the term in 1993<ref name="AutoCK-11"/> and he would use it again [[2008 Tibetan unrest|in 2008]].<ref name="AutoCK-12"/>
+The notion of 'cultural genocide' was acknowledged as early as 1944, when lawyer [[Raphael Lemkin]] distinguished a cultural component of genocide.<ref name="AutoCK-1"/> In 1989, [[Robert Badinter]], a French criminal lawyer known for his stance against the death penalty, used the term "cultural genocide" on a television show to describe what he said was the disappearance of [[Tibetan culture]] in the presence of the [[14th Dalai Lama]].<ref name="AutoCK-10"/> The Dalai Lama would later use the term in 1993<ref name="AutoCK-11"/> and again [[2008 Tibetan unrest|in 2008]].<ref name="AutoCK-12"/>
 ===Proposed inclusion in the UN's DRIP===
 {{see also | United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples }}
+The concept of cultural genocide was originally included in drafts of the 1948 [[Genocide Convention]]<ref name="AbtahiWebb2008" /><ref name="Davidson2012" /><ref name="AutoCK-2" /> but was later dropped due to vetoing by France and Great Britain.<ref>{{Citation |last=Flores |first=Marcello |title=Introduction |date=2023-12-05 |work=Monuments and Identities in the Caucasus |pages=1–11 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004677388/BP000001.xml |access-date=2024-03-19 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004677388_002 |isbn=978-90-04-67738-8}}</ref>
-Those who drafted the 1948 [[Genocide Convention]] initially considered using of the term, but later dropped it from inclusion.<ref name="AbtahiWebb2008"/><ref name="Davidson2012"/><ref name="AutoCK-2"/>
 Article 7 of a 1994 draft of the [[United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples]] (DRIP) uses the phrase "cultural genocide" but does not define what it means.<ref name="AutoCK-4"/> The complete article in the draft read as follows:
@@ Line 64: / Line 38: @@
 ===Europe===
-* Historian Stephen Wheatcroft states that the Soviet peasantry was subject to cultural destruction during the creation of the "[[New Soviet man]]",<ref name=wheatcroft>The Complexity of the Kazakh Famine: Food Problems and Faulty Perceptions Stephen G. Wheatcroft</ref> Lynne Viola makes a similar characterization of [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union]] adding a noted colonial character to the project in their observation of the event.<ref name="collectivizationstruggle">{{cite book |last1=Viola |first1=Lynne |title=The Collectivization of Agriculture in Communist Eastern Europe:Comparison and Entanglements |date=2014 |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=9633860482 |chapter=Collectivization in the Soviet Union: Specificities and Modalities |pages=49-69}}</ref>
+* Historian Stephen Wheatcroft states that the Soviet peasantry was subject to cultural destruction during the creation of the "[[New Soviet man]]",<ref name=wheatcroft>The Complexity of the Kazakh Famine: Food Problems and Faulty Perceptions Stephen G. Wheatcroft</ref> Lynne Viola makes a similar characterization of [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union]] adding a noted colonial character to the project in their observation of the event.<ref name="collectivizationstruggle">{{cite book |last1=Viola |first1=Lynne |title=The Collectivization of Agriculture in Communist Eastern Europe:Comparison and Entanglements |date=2014 |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=978-963-386-048-9 |chapter=Collectivization in the Soviet Union: Specificities and Modalities |pages=49–69}}</ref>
 * In reference to the [[Axis powers]] (primarily, [[Nazi Germany]])'s policies towards some nations during [[World War II]] (ex. the [[History of Poland (1939–1945)|German occupation of Poland]] & [[Polish culture during World War II|the destruction of Polish culture]]).<ref name="AutoCK-5"/><ref name="AutoCK-9"/>
 * In the [[Bosnian War]] during the [[Siege of Sarajevo]], cultural genocide was committed by Bosnian Serb forces. The [[National and University Library of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] was specifically targeted and besieged by cannons positioned all around the city. The National Library was completely destroyed in the fire, along with 80 per cent of its contents. Some 3 million books were destroyed, along with hundreds of original documents from the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian monarchy]].<ref>{{cite web |website=Deutsche Welle|title=Burned library symbolizes multiethnic Sarajevo |date=25 August 2012 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/burned-library-symbolizes-multiethnic-sarajevo/a-16192965}}</ref>
-* [[2004 unrest in Kosovo#Destroyed churches|2004 unrest in Kosovo]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=J̌овић|first=Саво Б.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q6YRAQAAIAAJ|title=Етничко чишћење и културни геноцид на Косову и Метохији: Сведочанства о страдању Српске православне цркве и српског народа од 1945. до 2005. год|date=2007|publisher=Информативно-издавачка установа Српске православне цркве|isbn=978-86-7758-016-2|language=sr}}</ref> In an urgent appeal,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://spc.rs/eng/appeal_extraordinary_session_expanded_convocation_holy_synod_bishops|title=Appeal from the extraordinary session of the Expanded Convocation of the Holy Synod of Serbian Orthodox Church}}</ref> issued on 18 March by the extraordinary session of the Expanded Convocation of the [[Holy Synod of the Serbian Orthodox Church|Holy Synod of Serbian Orthodox Church]] ({{abbr|SPC|Serbian Orthodox Church}}), it was reported that a number of Serbian churches and shrines in Kosovo had been damaged or destroyed by Albanian rioters. At least 30 sites were completely destroyed, more or less destroyed, or further destroyed (sites that had been previously damaged).<ref>{{cite web |author=ERP KiM Info |title=Dopunjeni i ispravljeni spisak uništenih i oštećenih pravoslavnih crkava i manastira na Kosovu u toku martovskog nasilja |work=B92 Specijal |date=26 April 2004 |publisher=B92 |url=http://www.b92.net/specijal/kosovo2004/unistenecrkve.php}}</ref>
+* [[2004 unrest in Kosovo#Destroyed churches|2004 unrest in Kosovo]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=J̌овић|first=Саво Б.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q6YRAQAAIAAJ|title=Етничко чишћење и културни геноцид на Косову и Метохији: Сведочанства о страдању Српске православне цркве и српског народа од 1945. до 2005. год|date=2007|publisher=Информативно-издавачка установа Српске православне цркве|isbn=978-86-7758-016-2|language=sr}}</ref> In an urgent appeal,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://spc.rs/eng/appeal_extraordinary_session_expanded_convocation_holy_synod_bishops|title=Appeal from the extraordinary session of the Expanded Convocation of the Holy Synod of Serbian Orthodox Church|access-date=20 May 2020|archive-date=19 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219163501/http://spc.rs/eng/appeal_extraordinary_session_expanded_convocation_holy_synod_bishops}}</ref> issued on 18 March by the extraordinary session of the Expanded Convocation of the [[Holy Synod of the Serbian Orthodox Church|Holy Synod of Serbian Orthodox Church]] ({{abbr|SPC|Serbian Orthodox Church}}), it was reported that a number of Serbian churches and shrines in Kosovo had been damaged or destroyed by Albanian rioters. At least 30 sites were completely destroyed, more or less destroyed, or further destroyed (sites that had been previously damaged).<ref>{{cite web |author=ERP KiM Info |title=Dopunjeni i ispravljeni spisak uništenih i oštećenih pravoslavnih crkava i manastira na Kosovu u toku martovskog nasilja |work=B92 Specijal |date=26 April 2004 |publisher=B92 |url=http://www.b92.net/specijal/kosovo2004/unistenecrkve.php}}</ref>
 *After the [[Greek Civil War]], Greek authorities had conducted a cultural genocide upon [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Slavic Macedonians]] in Northern Greece through prohibition of communication in [[Slavic languages]], renaming of cities, towns and villages ([[Lerin]]/Лерин to [[Florina]] etc.), deportation of Slavic Macedonians, particularly women and children, as well as many other actions intended to marginalize and oppress the Slavic Macedonians residing in Northern Greece. While some of these actions had been motivated by political ideology, as many of the Slavic Macedonians had sided with the defeated communists, the majority of actions were committed to wipe out any traces of Slavic Macedonians or their culture in Northern Greece.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1 May 1994|title=Denying Ethnic Identity|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/1994/05/01/macedonians-greece|access-date=2021-05-10|website=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=24 February 2019|title=Greece's invisible minority – the Macedonian Slavs|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/stories-47258809|access-date=2021-05-10}}</ref>
-*Turkey: Especially in the island of [[Imbros]]. The island was primarily inhabited by ethnic Greeks from antiquity until approximately the 1960s, when many were forced to flee due to a campaign of cultural genocide and discrimination enacted by the Turkish government.<ref name="Alexandris">Alexis Alexandris, "The Identity Issue of The Minorities in Greece And Turkey", in Hirschon, Renée (ed.), ''Crossing the Aegean: An Appraisal of the 1923 Compulsory Population Exchange Between Greece and Turkey'', Berghahn Books, 2003, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8jJTge-_444C&pg=PA120 p. 120]</ref> Massive scale persecution against the local Greeks started in 1961, as part of the ''Eritme Programmi'' operation that aimed at the elimination of Greek education and the enforcement of economic, psychological pressure and violence. Under these conditions, the Turkish government approved the appropriation of >90% of the cultivated areas of the island and the settlement of additional 6,000 ethnic Turks from mainland Turkey.<ref>{{cite book|last=Λιμπιτσιούνη|first=Ανθή Γ.|title=Το πλέγμα των ελληνοτουρκικών σχέσεων και η ελληνική μειονότητα στην Τουρκία, οι Έλληνες της Κωνσταντινούπολης της Ίμβρου και της Τενέδου|publisher=Αριστοτέλειο Πανεπιστήμιο Θεσσαλονίκης|pages=98–99}}</ref><ref name="Ashgate Studies in Pilgrimage">{{cite book| last1= Eade | first1= John| last2= Katic| first2 =Mario| title= Ashgate Studies in Pilgrimage| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gBqrBAAAQBAJ&q=imvros%2Bdiscrimination&pg=PA37| publisher= Ashgate Pub Co|date=28 June 2014| page=38 |isbn=978-1472415929 }}</ref> Finally, the island was also officially renamed by Turkey in 1970 to ''Gökçeada'' to finalize the removal of any remaining Greek influence.
+*Turkey: Especially in the island of [[Imbros]]. The island was primarily inhabited by ethnic Greeks from antiquity until approximately the 1960s, when many were forced to flee due to a campaign of cultural genocide and discrimination enacted by the Turkish government.<ref name="Alexandris">Alexis Alexandris, "The Identity Issue of The Minorities in Greece And Turkey", in Hirschon, Renée (ed.), ''Crossing the Aegean: An Appraisal of the 1923 Compulsory Population Exchange Between Greece and Turkey'', Berghahn Books, 2003, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8jJTge-_444C&pg=PA120 p. 120]</ref> Massive scale persecution against the local Greeks started in 1961, as part of the ''Eritme Programmi'' operation that aimed at the elimination of Greek education and the enforcement of economic, psychological pressure and violence. Under these conditions, the Turkish government approved the appropriation of >90% of the cultivated areas of the island and the settlement of additional 6,000 ethnic Turks from mainland Turkey.<ref>{{cite book|last=Λιμπιτσιούνη|first=Ανθή Γ.|title=Το πλέγμα των ελληνοτουρκικών σχέσεων και η ελληνική μειονότητα στην Τουρκία, οι Έλληνες της Κωνσταντινούπολης της Ίμβρου και της Τενέδου|publisher=Αριστοτέλειο Πανεπιστήμιο Θεσσαλονίκης|pages=98–99}}</ref><ref name="Ashgate Studies in Pilgrimage">{{cite book| last1= Eade | first1= John| last2= Katic| first2 =Mario| title= Ashgate Studies in Pilgrimage| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gBqrBAAAQBAJ&q=imvros%2Bdiscrimination&pg=PA37| publisher= Ashgate Pub Co|date=28 June 2014| page=38 |isbn=978-1-4724-1592-9 }}</ref> Finally, the island was also officially renamed by Turkey in 1970 to ''Gökçeada'' to finalize the removal of any remaining Greek influence.
-*[[Francoist Spain]]: the alleged prohibition of the use of minority languages such as Catalan or [[Galician language|Galician]] in the public space, from schools to shops, public transport, or even in the streets, the banning of the use of Catalan or Galician birth names for children, the renaming of cities, streets and all toponyms from Catalan, Basque or Galician to [[Castilian Spanish|Castilian]]-Spanish, and the abolition of government and all cultural institutions in [[Catalonia]] as well as in [[Basque Country (greater region)|Basque Country]] and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]  with the goal of total cultural suppression and [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Catalunya sota el règim franquista|last=Benet|first=Josep|date=1978|publisher=Blume|isbn=847031064X|edition=1. reedició|location=Barcelona|oclc=4777662}}</ref>
+*[[Francoist Spain]]: the alleged prohibition of the use of minority languages such as Catalan or [[Galician language|Galician]] in the public space, from schools to shops, public transport, or even in the streets, the banning of the use of Catalan or Galician birth names for children, the renaming of cities, streets and all toponyms from Catalan, Basque or Galician to [[Castilian Spanish|Castilian]]-Spanish, and the abolition of government and all cultural institutions in [[Catalonia]] as well as in [[Basque Country (greater region)|Basque Country]] and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]  with the goal of total cultural suppression and [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Catalunya sota el règim franquista|last=Benet|first=Josep|date=1978|publisher=Blume|isbn=84-7031-064-X|edition=1. reedició|location=Barcelona|oclc=4777662}}</ref>
-** [[John D. Hargreaves]] writes that "A policy of cultural genocide was implemented: the Catalan language and key symbols of Catalan independent identity and nationhood, such as the flag (the [[senyera]]), the national hymn ('[[Els Segadors]]') and the national dance (the [[sardana]]), were proscribed. Any sign of independence or opposition, in fact, was brutally suppressed. Catalan identity and consequently the Catalan nation were threatened with extinction."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Freedom for Catalonia? : Catalan nationalism, Spanish identity, and the Barcelona Olympic Games|last=Hargreaves|first=John E.|date=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521586153|location=Cambridge|oclc=51028883}}</ref>
+** [[John D. Hargreaves]] writes that "A policy of cultural genocide was implemented: the Catalan language and key symbols of Catalan independent identity and nationhood, such as the flag (the [[senyera]]), the national hymn ('[[Els Segadors]]') and the national dance (the [[sardana]]), were proscribed. Any sign of independence or opposition, in fact, was brutally suppressed. Catalan identity and consequently the Catalan nation were threatened with extinction."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Freedom for Catalonia?: Catalan nationalism, Spanish identity, and the Barcelona Olympic Games|last=Hargreaves|first=John E.|date=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-58615-3|location=Cambridge|oclc=51028883}}</ref>
-** Although [[Josep Pla]] and other Catalan authors published books in Catalan in the 1950s, and even there were prizes of Catalan Literature during Francoism like the [[Premi Sant Jordi de novel·la]], editorial production in Catalan never recovered the peak levels it had reached before Spanish Civil War<ref>{{Cite book|last=Benet|first=Josep|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7188603|title=Cataluña bajo el régimen franquista|date=1979|publisher=Blume|isbn=84-7031-144-1|edition=1.|location=Barcelona|oclc=7188603}}</ref> [https://www.gremieditors.cat/historia-de-ledicio-a-catalunya/ Història de l'edició a Catalunya]. A prominent case of popularization of Catalan was [[Serrat|Joan Manuel Serrat]]: although he could compose Catalan songs and gained certain notoriety, he was not allowed to sing in Catalan in the Eurovision contest its [[La La La (Massiel song)|La, la, la]]. theme, and was replaced by Spanish singer [[Massiel]], who won the [[Eurovision Song Contest|Eurovision]] contest [https://eurovisionary.com/catalonia-crisis-eurovision-spain-blocked-catalan-victory/ Catalonia crisis in Eurovision – how Spain blocked Catalan from victory]. Overall, despite some tolerance as Franco's regime relaxed in the late 60s and early 70s, Catalan and the rest of minority languages of Spain were strictly banned from higher education, administration and all official endeavors, thus being in practice confined to the private sphere and domestic uses (see [[Language policies of Francoist Spain]]).
+** Although [[Josep Pla]] and other Catalan authors published books in Catalan in the 1950s, and even there were prizes of Catalan Literature during Francoism like the [[Premi Sant Jordi de novel·la]], editorial production in Catalan never recovered the peak levels it had reached before Spanish Civil War<ref>{{Cite book|last=Benet|first=Josep|title=Cataluña bajo el régimen franquista|date=1979|publisher=Blume|isbn=84-7031-144-1|edition=1.|location=Barcelona|oclc=7188603}}</ref> [https://www.gremieditors.cat/historia-de-ledicio-a-catalunya/ Història de l'edició a Catalunya]. A prominent case of popularization of Catalan was [[Serrat|Joan Manuel Serrat]]: although he could compose Catalan songs and gained certain notoriety, he was not allowed to sing in Catalan in the Eurovision contest its [[La La La (Massiel song)|La, la, la]]. theme, and was replaced by Spanish singer [[Massiel]], who won the [[Eurovision Song Contest|Eurovision]] contest.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vatmanidis |first1=Theo |title=Catalonia crisis in Eurovision – how Spain blocked Catalan from victory |url=https://eurovisionary.com/catalonia-crisis-eurovision-spain-blocked-catalan-victory/ |website=EuroVisionary |access-date=8 December 2023 |date=8 October 2017}}</ref> Overall, despite some tolerance as Franco's regime relaxed in the late 60s and early 70s, Catalan and the rest of minority languages of Spain were strictly banned from higher education, administration and all official endeavors, thus being in practice confined to the private sphere and domestic uses (see [[Language policies of Francoist Spain]]).
-*The cultural relationship between the Welsh and English has been shaped by the military, political, economic and cultural power exercised by the more populous English over the Welsh for many centuries. The Anglo-Norman kings of England had conquered Wales militarily by the 13th century, and under Henry VIII the country was incorporated into the Kingdom of England by the Laws in Wales Acts in the 16th century.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |last=Bowen |first=Efa |date=2020-07-19 |title="Cofiwch Dryweryn": A Welsh History of Oppression |url=https://www.cherwell.org/2020/07/19/cofiwch-dryweryn-a-welsh-history-of-oppression/ |access-date=2023-04-04 |website=Cherwell |language=en-GB}}</ref> [[19th-century Anglo-Saxonism]] led to theories of English racial superiority that described the Welsh as racially inferior. Around the same time, English and Scottish industrialists began establishing iron works and other heavy industry in the [[South Wales coalfield|coalfield of south Wales]]. Many elements of the Welsh economy and society since then have been shaped by demands from England.<ref name="auto"/> For example, in the mid-19th century, Welsh was demoted to the language of the crass and uneducated by the British government in Wales’ schools.<ref name="auto"/> This has led to a decline in the use of the Welsh language and is seen by some as representative of an overall loss of Welsh culture at the hands of the English. The rise of second homes, from England, in Wales is also contributing to the decline of the Welsh language. In some places, the concentration of second homes is so high that up to 46% of the local housing stock can be empty for parts of the year, with the Welsh natives set to become a minority in their own country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 6, 2014 |first=Richard |last=Henley Davis |title=The Ghettoisation of the Welsh |website=The Economic Voice |url=https://www.economicvoice.com/the-ghettoisation-of-the-welsh/ |access-date=2023-04-04 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Williams |first=Colin |date=2022-11-15 |title=Second homes are hollowing out Welsh communities – and pushing our language into decline |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/nov/15/second-homes-hollowing-out-welsh-communities-language-decline |access-date=2023-04-04 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> This is pushing out many younger Welsh speakers, As more communities become places for holiday lets, rural and village schools close. This in turn weakens the predominance of Welsh as the default language in particular communities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-19 |title=Education, the decline of Welsh and why communities matter more than classrooms |url=https://nation.cymru/opinion/education-the-decline-of-welsh-and-why-communities-matter-more-than-classrooms/ |access-date=2023-04-04 |website=Nation.Cymru |language=en-GB}}</ref>
+*The cultural relationship between the Welsh and English has been shaped by the military, political, economic and cultural power exercised by the more populous English over the Welsh for many centuries. The Anglo-Norman kings of England had conquered Wales militarily by the 13th century, and under Henry VIII the country was incorporated into the Kingdom of England by the Laws in Wales Acts in the 16th century.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |last=Bowen |first=Efa |date=2020-07-19 |title="Cofiwch Dryweryn": A Welsh History of Oppression |url=https://www.cherwell.org/2020/07/19/cofiwch-dryweryn-a-welsh-history-of-oppression/ |access-date=2023-04-04 |website=Cherwell |language=en-GB}}</ref> [[19th-century Anglo-Saxonism]] led to theories of English racial superiority that described the Welsh as racially inferior. Around the same time, English and Scottish industrialists began establishing iron works and other heavy industry in the [[South Wales coalfield|coalfield of south Wales]]. Many elements of the Welsh economy and society since then have been shaped by demands from England.<ref name="auto"/> For example, in the mid-19th century, Welsh was demoted to the language of the crass and uneducated by the British government in Wales' schools.<ref name="auto"/> This has led to a decline in the use of the Welsh language and is seen by some as representative of an overall loss of Welsh culture at the hands of the English. The rise of second homes, from England, in Wales is also contributing to the decline of the Welsh language. In some places, the concentration of second homes is so high that up to 46% of the local housing stock can be empty for parts of the year, with the Welsh natives set to become a minority in their own country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 6, 2014 |first=Richard |last=Henley Davis |title=The Ghettoisation of the Welsh |website=The Economic Voice |url=https://www.economicvoice.com/the-ghettoisation-of-the-welsh/ |access-date=2023-04-04 |language=en-GB |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404045630/https://www.economicvoice.com/the-ghettoisation-of-the-welsh/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Williams |first=Colin |date=2022-11-15 |title=Second homes are hollowing out Welsh communities – and pushing our language into decline |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/nov/15/second-homes-hollowing-out-welsh-communities-language-decline |access-date=2023-04-04 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> This is pushing out many younger Welsh speakers, As more communities become places for holiday lets, rural and village schools close. This in turn weakens the predominance of Welsh as the default language in particular communities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-19 |title=Education, the decline of Welsh and why communities matter more than classrooms |url=https://nation.cymru/opinion/education-the-decline-of-welsh-and-why-communities-matter-more-than-classrooms/ |access-date=2023-04-04 |website=Nation.Cymru |language=en-GB}}</ref>
-*[[File:Irishin1871.jpg|thumb|Map showing the distribution of the Irish language in [[1871]]]]Ireland has been described as enduring cultural genocide under British rule, which aimed to eradicate the [[Irish language]], [[Irish culture]], and the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] faith.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/cultural-genocide-the-broken-harp-identity-and-language-in-modern-ireland-by-tom%C3%A1s-mac-s%C3%ADom%C3%B3in-1.2299891|title=Cultural genocide: The Broken Harp, Identity and Language in Modern Ireland, by Tomás Mac Síomóin|newspaper=The Irish Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/opendemocracyuk/guardian-view-on-cultural-genocide/|title=The Guardian view on... cultural genocide|website=openDemocracy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://randompublicjournal.com/2018/02/20/bad-language-gaelic-and-britains-cultural-genocide/|title=Bad Language: Gaelic and Britain's Cultural Genocide|last=Jeggit|date=20 February 2018}}</ref> Ireland's cultural genocide is discussed in the ''Dictionary of Genocide'' (2007), as well as by Christopher Murray (1997) in reference to the suppression of the [[Irish language]];<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JGUUpRAP4CoC&pg=PA42|title=Twentieth-Century Irish Drama: Mirror Up to Nation|first=Christopher|last=Murray|date=6 June 2019|publisher=Syracuse University Press|via=Google Books|isbn=9780815606437}}</ref> [[Hilary Carey|Hilary M. Carey]] (1997) in reference to the [[Penal transportation|transportation of Irish convicts to Australia]];<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WUJaBAAAQBAJ&q=%22Cultural+genocide%22+ireland&pg=PT29|title=Believing in Australia: A cultural history of religions|first=Hilary M.|last=Carey|date=1 July 1996|publisher=Allen & Unwin|via=Google Books|isbn=9781742696577}}</ref> and by [[Tomás Mac Síomóin]] (2018).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Totten|first1=Samuel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rgGA91skoP4C&pg=PA91|title=Dictionary of Genocide|last2=Bartrop|first2=Paul Robert|last3=Jacobs|first3=Steven L.|date=6 June 2019|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9780313346422|via=Google Books}}</ref>
+*[[File:Irishin1871.jpg|thumb|Map showing the distribution of the Irish language in [[1871]]]]Ireland has been described as enduring cultural genocide under British rule, which aimed to eradicate the [[Irish language]], [[Irish culture]], and the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] faith.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/cultural-genocide-the-broken-harp-identity-and-language-in-modern-ireland-by-tom%C3%A1s-mac-s%C3%ADom%C3%B3in-1.2299891|title=Cultural genocide: The Broken Harp, Identity and Language in Modern Ireland, by Tomás Mac Síomóin|newspaper=The Irish Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/opendemocracyuk/guardian-view-on-cultural-genocide/|title=The Guardian view on... cultural genocide|website=openDemocracy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://randompublicjournal.com/2018/02/20/bad-language-gaelic-and-britains-cultural-genocide/|title=Bad Language: Gaelic and Britain's Cultural Genocide|last=Jeggit|date=20 February 2018|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=7 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607003152/https://randompublicjournal.com/2018/02/20/bad-language-gaelic-and-britains-cultural-genocide/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ireland's cultural genocide is discussed in the ''Dictionary of Genocide'' (2007), as well as by Christopher Murray (1997) in reference to the suppression of the [[Irish language]];<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JGUUpRAP4CoC&pg=PA42|title=Twentieth-Century Irish Drama: Mirror Up to Nation|first=Christopher|last=Murray|date=6 June 2019|publisher=Syracuse University Press|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0-8156-0643-7}}</ref> [[Hilary Carey|Hilary M. Carey]] (1997) in reference to the [[Penal transportation|transportation of Irish convicts to Australia]];<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WUJaBAAAQBAJ&q=%22Cultural+genocide%22+ireland&pg=PT29|title=Believing in Australia: A cultural history of religions|first=Hilary M.|last=Carey|date=1 July 1996|publisher=Allen & Unwin|via=Google Books|isbn=978-1-74269-657-7}}</ref> and by [[Tomás Mac Síomóin]] (2018).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Totten|first1=Samuel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rgGA91skoP4C&pg=PA91|title=Dictionary of Genocide|last2=Bartrop|first2=Paul Robert|last3=Jacobs|first3=Steven L.|date=6 June 2019|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-34642-2|via=Google Books}}</ref>
 *France's [[Language policy in France|policies]] (also known as ''[[Vergonha]]'', "shame," in [[Occitan language|Occitan]]) towards its various [[Languages of France|regional and minority languages]], referring to non-standard French as [[patois]], have been described as genocide by professor of Catalan [[philology]] at the [[University of the Balearic Islands]] [[:ca:Jaume Corbera i Pou|Jaume Corbera i Pou]] who argues,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Corbera |first1=Jaume |title=Le patois des vieux |url=https://www.dbalears.cat/opinio/opinio/2001/09/23/63269/le-patois-des-vieux.html |access-date=14 December 2021 |agency=Diari de Balears |date=23 September 2001}}</ref>
 <blockquote>
@@ Line 81: / Line 55: @@
 [...]
-France, that under [[Francisco Franco|Franco]]'s reign was seen here [in [[Catalonia]]] as the safe haven of freedom, has the miserable honour of being the [only] State of Europe—and probably the world – that succeeded best in the diabolical task of destroying its own ethnic and linguistic patrimony and moreover, of destroying human family bonds: many parents and children, or grandparents and grandchildren, have different languages, and the latter feel ashamed of the first because they speak a despicable ''patois'', and no element of the grandparents' culture has been transmitted to the younger generation, as if they were born out of a completely new world. This is the French State that has just entered the 21st century, a country where stone monuments and natural landscapes are preserved and respected, but where many centuries of popular creation expressed in different tongues are on the brink of extinction. The "gloire" and the "grandeur" built on a genocide. [[liberté, égalité, fraternité|No liberty, no equality, no fraternity]]: just cultural extermination, this is the real motto of the French Republic.
+France, that under [[Francisco Franco|Franco]]'s reign was seen here [in [[Catalonia]]] as the safe haven of freedom, has the miserable honour of being the [only] State of Europe—and probably the world – that succeeded best in the diabolical task of destroying its own ethnic and linguistic patrimony and moreover, of destroying human family bonds: many parents and children, or grandparents and grandchildren, have different languages, and the latter feel ashamed of the first because they speak a despicable ''patois'', and no element of the grandparents' culture has been transmitted to the younger generation, as if they were born out of a completely new world. This is the French State that has just entered the 21st century, a country where stone monuments and natural landscapes are preserved and respected, but where many centuries of popular creation expressed in different tongues are on the brink of extinction. The "gloire" and the "grandeur" built on a genocide. [[liberté, égalité, fraternité|No liberty, no equality, no fraternity]]: just cultural extermination, this is the real motto of the French Republic.</blockquote>
-</blockquote>
+* [[Ukraine]]. As of February 29, 2024, according to the published data of the [[Prime Minister of Ukraine]], Serhiy Shmyhal, about 900 objects of national heritage were damaged or destroyed in the occupied zones of Ukraine, and more than 20 thousand [[cultural monuments]] are under occupation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-29 |title=Шмигаль: Понад 20 тисяч пам'яток культури перебуває під російською окупацією |url=https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-culture/3833912-smigal-ponad-20-tisac-pamatok-kulturi-perebuvae-pid-rosijskou-okupacieu.html |access-date=2024-03-28 |website=www.ukrinform.ua |language=uk}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Cultural Genocide Against Ukraine: How is Russia Looting Ukrainian Museums? |url=https://ukraineworld.org/en/videos/cultural-genocide |access-date=2024-03-28 |website=ukraineworld.org |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-05 |title="United for Justice. United for Heritage": Preserving Ukrainian Cultural Identity — EUAM Ukraine |url=https://www.euam-ukraine.eu/news/united-for-justice-united-for-heritage-preserving-ukrainian-cultural-identity/ |access-date=2024-03-28 |language=en-GB}}</ref>
 ===Asia===
 * The [[persecution of Baháʼís]] in Iran as a case of [[religious persecution]] has been called a cultural genocide.<ref name="AutoCK-13" /><ref name="AutoCK-14" /><ref>{{cite journal| last =Frelick | first = Bill | title =Iranian Baha'is and Genocide Early Warning| journal =Social Science Record | volume =24| issue =2| pages =35–37| date =Fall 1987 | url =http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ362917 | access-date = 3 March 2013 }}</ref>
+* Azerbaijan's destruction, appropriation, and [[Falsification of history in Azerbaijan|denial of Armenian heritage]] sites in [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic|Nakhchivan]] and [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] have been characterized as ethnocide<ref>Petrosyan 2010 – Petrosyan H., Cultural ethnocide in Artsakh (mechanism of extortion of cultural heritage), state terrorism of Azerbaijan and the policy of ethnic cleansing against Nagorno Karabakh, Shushi, pp. 137-148 (in Arm.). Petrosyan 2020 – Ethnocide in Artsakh: The Mechanisms of Azerbaijan’s Usurpation of Indigenous Armenian Cultural Heritage, Cultural Heritage. Experiences & Perspectives in International Context, Proceedings of the ROCHEMP center international conference, 23rd- 24th of January 2020, Yerevan, pp. 79-90.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roberts |first=Kasey |date=2022-06-06 |title=Present-Day Ethnocide: The Destruction of Armenian Cultural Heritage in Azerbaijan |url=https://tuljournals.temple.edu/index.php/mundi/article/view/586 |journal=MUNDI |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1}}</ref> or potential cultural genocide<ref>Kellogg, Ethan. [https://scholar.google.com/scholar_url?url=https://journals.library.cornell.edu/index.php/tcd/article/download/724/681&hl=en&sa=T&oi=gsb-gga&ct=res&cd=0&d=2144530705259449779&ei=88qyZYHqDOSo6rQPktWn0Ao&scisig=AFWwaeYLWt8sD_H-nTQ1Yhwu_3uu "Cultural Erasure in the Modern Day: The Destruction of Armenian Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan."] ''The Cornell Diplomat'' 9 (2023). This wide-spread destruction has taken place since at least the late 1990s, primarily in Nagorno-Karabakh and the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan, eliminating millennia of artifacts and altering the ethnic and cultural makeup of the region in a manner that may constitute cultural genocide.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Der Matossian |first=Bedross |date=2023-08-01 |title=Impunity, Lack of Humanitarian Intervention, and International Apathy: The Blockade of the Lachin Corridor in Historical Perspective |url=https://utpjournals.press/doi/10.3138/GSI-2023-0008 |journal=Genocide Studies International |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=7–20 |doi=10.3138/GSI-2023-0008 |issn=2291-1847 |quote=There is no doubt that a cultural genocide is taking place in Artsakh where the vandalism or destruction of Armenian monuments has become the norm.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Falcone |first=Daniel |date=2024-01-06 |title=Armenians Suffering in Nagorno-Karabakh Are Going Largely Ignored in US Media |url=https://truthout.org/articles/armenians-suffering-in-nagorno-karabakh-are-going-largely-ignored-in-us-media/ |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=Truthout |language=en-US |quote=In this under-reported case of cultural genocide involving political persecution, strains on due process rights, torture, lack of healthcare and food supplies, tens of thousands of ethnic Armenians have fled from Nagorno-Karabakh region after surrendering to Azerbaijan on September 20.}}</ref> and condemned by the [[International Court of Justice]] and [[European Parliament]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Texts adopted - Destruction of cultural heritage in Nagorno-Karabakh - Thursday, 10 March 2022 |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-9-2022-0080_EN.html |access-date=2024-01-29 |website=www.europarl.europa.eu |language=en |quote=The European Parliament...calls on Azerbaijan to fully implement the provisional decision of the ICJ, in particular by ‘refraining from suppressing the Armenian language, destroying Armenian cultural heritage or otherwise eliminating the existence of the historical Armenian cultural presence or inhibiting Armenians’ access and enjoyment thereof’ and by ‘restoring or returning any Armenian cultural and religious buildings and sites, artefacts or objects’;}}</ref> The destruction of thousands of medieval Armenian Churches, [[khachkars]] and gravestones at [[Armenian cemetery in Julfa|the Armenian cemetery]] in [[Julfa, Azerbaijan (city)|Julfa]] is a prominent example.<ref name="AutoCK-7"/><ref name="AutoCK-8" /><ref name="LA Times">{{cite news |last= Womack|first= Catherine|date=7 November 2019|title=Historic Armenian monuments were obliterated. Some call it 'cultural genocide'|url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/story/2019-11-07/armenian-monuments-azerbaijan|newspaper=LA Times}}</ref>
-* The [[Khachkar destruction in Nakhchivan|destruction by Azerbaijan]] of thousands of medieval [[Armenian Church]]es, [[khachkars]] and gravestones at [[Armenian cemetery in Julfa|the Armenian cemetery]] in [[Julfa, Azerbaijan (city)|Julfa]], and Azerbaijan's subsequent denial that the site had ever existed, has been cited as an example of cultural genocide.<ref name="AutoCK-7" /><ref name="AutoCK-8" /><ref name="LA Times">{{cite news |last= Womack|first= Catherine|date=7 November 2019|title=Historic Armenian monuments were obliterated. Some call it 'cultural genocide'|url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/story/2019-11-07/armenian-monuments-azerbaijan|newspaper=LA Times}}</ref>
+* Turkey's destruction of [[Armenian cultural heritage in Turkey]] both during as well as in the decades after the [[Armenian genocide]].<ref name="genocide-museum.am" /><ref>{{Cite magazine |date=2023-10-12 |title=The Cultural Genocide Against Armenians |url=https://time.com/6322574/cultural-genocide-armenia-nagorno-karabakh-essay/ |access-date=2024-02-06 |magazine=TIME |language=en |quote=This is how cultural genocide plays out. A little more than 100 years ago was the Armenian Genocide waged by the Ottoman Empire, followed by largescale looting, vandalization, and destruction of Armenian sites across what is now modern-day Turkey. The prospect of a second cultural genocide is now on the table. Except now, Armenians will watch the spectacle unfold online, enduring the trauma site by site and monument by monument.}}</ref>
-* Historian Sarah Cameron believes that while the [[Kazakh famine of 1931–1933]] combined with a campaign against nomads was not genocide in the sense of the Genocide Convention's definition, it complies with Raphael Lemkin's original concept of genocide, which considered destruction of culture to be as genocidal as physical annihilation.<ref name="wheatcroft"/>
+* Historian Sarah Cameron believes that while the [[Kazakh famine of 1931–1933]] combined with a campaign against nomads was not genocide in the sense of the Genocide Convention's definition, it complies with Raphael Lemkin's original concept of genocide, which considered destruction of culture to be as genocidal as physical annihilation.<ref name="wheatcroft" />
 * [[Korea under Japanese rule|Japanese occupation of Korea]]. Japan's extensive policy of cultural genocide included [[Sōshi-kaimei|forcibly changing Korean names to Japanese names]], the exclusive use of the Japanese language, school instruction in the Japanese "ethical system", and [[Shinto]] worship.<ref name="AutoCK-9" />
+* The [[Sinicization of Tibet]] from the 1950s onwards. Following the [[1959 Tibetan uprising]], 97% of Tibet's monasteries were destroyed, while 2 million Tibetans, including 500,000 nomadic farmers, were relocated to newly created urban centers.<ref>{{cite journal| last =Sandhar| first = Jaspreet| title =Cultural Genocide in Tibet: The Failure of Article 8 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Protecting the Cultural Rights of Tibetans| journal =Santander Art and Cultural Law Review | volume =2| issue =1| pages =175–198| date =2005 | url =https://www.ejournals.eu/SAACLR/2015/2(2015)/art/6788/ | access-date = 3 March 2013 }}</ref>
-* The [[Sinicization of Tibet]] from the 1950s onwards.
 * The Japanese [[Dialect card|ban and discrimination]] which the [[Ainu people|Ainu]] and [[Ryukyuan people|Ryukyuan]] cultures have been subjected to as well as other regional cultures.
 * The [[Four Olds|"Destruction of the Four Olds"]] in the People's Republic of China during the [[Cultural Revolution]], in which [[Red Guards]] destroyed various religious, cultural, and historical sites throughout the country, especially in Beijing as well as in the [[Temple of Confucius, Qufu|Temple of Confucius]] in Shandong.<ref>{{cite book|last1=MacFarquhar|first1=Roderick|last2=Schoenhals|first2=Michael|title=Mao's Last Revolution|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-674-02332-1}}</ref>
@@ Line 95: / Line 71: @@
 *The newly-reunified [[Vietnam]] after the [[Fall of Saigon|end]] of the [[Vietnam War]], particularly its policies towards [[South Vietnam]].
 *The persecution of [[Sri Lankan Tamils]] during the [[Sri Lankan Civil War]] was a campaign of [[ethnic cleansing]] which was sponsored by the government and it has continued until the present day as a part of the Sinhalaisation of the northern and eastern parts of the island.
+*The [[Islamic State|Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]]'s [[Forced conversion|forcible conversions]] in its territory as well as its destruction of ancient [[Assyria]]n, [[Rome|Roman]], [[Yazidi]] and Christian heritage sites and museums.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cultural Genocide Funds ISIS Art-for-Weapons Trade |url=https://chargedaffairs.org/cultural-genocide-funds-isis-art-for-weapons-trade/ |website=Charged Affairs |date=7 March 2017 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
-*The destruction of [[Armenian cultural heritage in Turkey]] both during as well as in the decades after the [[Armenian genocide]].<ref name="genocide-museum.am"/>
+*The [[persecution of Uyghurs in China]]. Some one million members of [[Islam in China|China's Muslim]] [[Uyghurs|Uyghur]] minority have been detained in massive [[Xinjiang re-education camps|detention camps]], termed "[[Re-education through labor|reeducation camps]]", which exist for the purpose of changing the political thinking, identities and religious beliefs of the detainees, under the guise of "[[anti-terrorism]]".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cronin-Furman|first=Kate|title=China Has Chosen Cultural Genocide in Xinjiang—For Now|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/09/19/china-has-chosen-cultural-genocide-in-xinjiang-for-now/|access-date=20 September 2018|website=Foreign Policy|date=19 September 2018 |language=en}}</ref> Satellite evidence suggests that China has also razed more than two dozen Uyghur Muslim religious sites to the ground.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kuo|first=Lily|date=7 May 2019|title=Revealed: new evidence of China's mission to raze the mosques of Xinjiang|url=https://theguardian.com/world/2019/may/07/revealed-new-evidence-of-chinas-mission-to-raze-the-mosques-of-xinjiang|access-date=7 May 2019|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref>
-*The [[Islamic State|Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]]'s [[Forced conversion|forcible conversions]] in its territory as well as its destruction of ancient [[Assyria]]n, [[Rome|Roman]], [[Yazidi]] and Christian heritage sites and museums.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cultural Genocide Funds ISIS Art-for-Weapons Trade |url=https://chargedaffairs.org/cultural-genocide-funds-isis-art-for-weapons-trade/ |website=Charged Affairs |date=7 March 2017}}</ref>
-*The [[Uyghur genocide]] in the [[China|PRC]]. Some one million members of [[Islam in China|China's Muslim]] [[Uyghurs|Uyghur]] minority have been detained in massive [[Xinjiang re-education camps|detention camps]], termed "[[Re-education through labor|reeducation camps]]", which exist for the purpose of changing the political thinking, identities and religious beliefs of the detainees, under the guise of "[[anti-terrorism]]".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cronin-Furman|first=Kate|title=China Has Chosen Cultural Genocide in Xinjiang—For Now|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/09/19/china-has-chosen-cultural-genocide-in-xinjiang-for-now/|access-date=20 September 2018|website=Foreign Policy|date=19 September 2018 |language=en}}</ref> Satellite evidence suggests that China has also razed more than two dozen Uyghur Muslim religious sites to the ground.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kuo|first=Lily|date=7 May 2019|title=Revealed: new evidence of China's mission to raze the mosques of Xinjiang|url=https://theguardian.com/world/2019/may/07/revealed-new-evidence-of-chinas-mission-to-raze-the-mosques-of-xinjiang|access-date=7 May 2019|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> China has oppressed Tibetans for decades, and now China is committing "cultural genocide" in Tibet, perpetrating acts of brutality on Tibetans.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Passang |first=Tsering |date=2021-10-02 |title=China committing "cultural genocide" in Tibet, a 15-year old British Tibetan student told the Resist CCP Day Rally in London |url=https://tsamtruk.com/2021/10/02/china-committing-cultural-genocide-in-tibet-a-15-year-old-british-tibetan-student-told-the-resist-ccp-day-rally-in-london/ |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=Global Alliance for Tibet & Persecuted Minorities}}</ref>
 ===Oceania===
@@ Line 115: / Line 90: @@
 {{Portal|Genocide}}
 {{div col|colwidth=23em}}
+* [[Aboriginal reserve]]
 * [[American Indian boarding schools]]
+* [[Bantustan]]
 * [[Canadian Indian residential school system]]
+* [[Criticism of multiculturalism]]
+* [[Cultural appropriation]]
 * [[Cultural assimilation]]
 * [[Cultural conflict]]
 * [[Cultural imperialism]]
+* [[Cultural racism]]
 * [[Culture war]]
 * [[Ethnic cleansing]]
+* [[Ethnic conflict]]
+* [[Ethnic violence]]
 * [[Ethnocentrism]]
 * [[Ethnocide]]
 * [[Forced assimilation]]
+* [[Fundamentalism]]
 * [[Institutional racism]]
 * [[Language death]]
-* [[Linguistic discrimination]] (includes Linguicide)
+* [[Linguistic discrimination]] (includes [[Language death|Linguicide]])
 * [[List of destroyed heritage]]
 * [[Native schools|Native schools in New Zealand]]
+* [[Nativism (politics)]]
 * [[Policide]]
 * [[Political cleansing of population]]
+* [[Population transfer]]
+* [[Racism]]
 * [[Religious cleansing]]
-* [[Sinicization of Tibet]]
+* [[Religious discrimination]]
+* [[Religious fanaticism]]
+* [[Religious intolerance]]
+* [[Religious persecution]]
+* [[Religious segregation]]
+* [[Religious violence]]
+* [[Sectarian violence]]
 * [[Stolen Generations]] (Australia)
+* [[Supremacism]]
 * [[Talibanization]]
-* [[Uyghur genocide]]
+* [[Xenophobia]]
+* [[Genocide of indigenous peoples]]
+* [[Genocides in history]]
+* [[List of ethnic cleansing campaigns]]
+* [[List of genocides]]
+* [[Allegations of genocide of Ukrainians in the Russian invasion of Ukraine]]
+* [[Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party]]
+* [[Darfur genocide]]
+* [[East Timor genocide]]
+* [[Late Ottoman genocides]]
+* [[Palestinian genocide accusation]]
+* [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union]]
+* [[Rohingya genocide]]
+* [[Sinicization of Tibet]]
+* [[Persecution of Uyghurs in China]]
 {{div col end}}
@@ Line 165: / Line 172: @@
 <ref name="AutoCK-6">{{cite news|url=http://www.torontosun.com/News/Canada/2007/04/25/4128038-sun.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503003253/http://rabble.ca/babble/aboriginal-issues-and-culture/genocide-target-federal-coverup-mp|archive-date=3 May 2015|author=Jorge Barrera|title='Genocide' target of fed coverup: MP|newspaper=Toronto Sun|date=25 April 2007}}</ref>
-<ref name="AutoCK-7">History Today, November 2007, "Sacred Stones Silenced in Azerbaijan"</ref>
+<ref name="AutoCK-7">{{cite magazine |last1=Maghakyan |first1=Simon |title=Sacred Stones Silenced in Azerbaijan |magazine=[[History Today]] |date=November 2007 |volume=57 |issue=11 |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/sacred-stones-silenced-azerbaijan}}</ref>
 <ref name="AutoCK-8">Switzerland-Armenia Parliamentary Group, "The Destruction of Jugha", Bern, 2006.</ref>

v t e International Indigenous and minority rights
Rights	Ancestral domain Free, prior and informed consent Intellectual property Land rights Language Self-determination in Australia in Canada in the United States Traditional knowledge ecological medical Treaty rights in Australia in New Zealand
Governmental organizations	African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights Arctic Council Bureau of Indian Affairs Council of Indigenous Peoples (Taiwan) Fundação Nacional do Índio Government of Bashkortostan Government of the Sakha Republic Government of Tatarstan Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada Ministry for the Development of the Russian Far East and Arctic National Institute of Indigenous Peoples (Mexico) National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (Philippines) Te Puni Kōkiri (New Zealand) United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues
Non-governmental and political organizations	Amazon Watch Assembly of First Nations Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador Congress of Aboriginal Peoples Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin Cultural Survival Indigenous Environmental Network Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs National Indigenous Organization of Colombia Native American Rights Fund Survival International Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization Zapatista Army of National Liberation (more ...)
Issues	Civilizing mission Colonialism Internal colonialism Settler colonialism Cultural appropriation Sports mascots Redface Dakota Access Pipeline protests Discovery doctrine Fortress conservation Green grabbing Homeland Lands inhabited by indigenous peoples Bantustan Autonomous okrugs American Indian reservation Indian colony Indian reserve Ranchería Rancherie Russian republics Urban Indian reserve Manifest destiny Plastic shaman Rainbow Warriors Two-spirit
Legal representation	Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 2007
Historical cases	Chechen–Russian conflict Sri Lankan Civil War 2009 Peruvian political crisis Alta controversy Chiapas conflict Expulsion of the Chagossians High Arctic relocation Human rights in Tibet Indian removal Little Danes experiment Mapuche conflict Oka Crisis Residential schools Canada New Zealand South Africa United States Rubber boom San controversy Stolen Generations Persecution of Uyghurs in China
Indigenous rights • Minority rights

v t e Culture
Outline
Sciences	Cultural anthropology Cultural astronomy Cultural ecology Cultural geography Cultural neuroscience Cultural studies Culturology Culture theory
Subfields	Bioculture Cross-cultural studies Cross-cultural communication Cross-cultural leadership Cross-cultural psychiatry Cross-cultural psychology Cultural analytics Cultural economics Cultural entomology Cultural history Cultural mapping Cultural mediation Cultural psychology Cultural values Culturomics Intercultural learning Intercultural relations Internet culture Philosophy of culture Popular culture studies Postcritique Semiotics of culture Sociology of culture Sound culture Theology of culture Transcultural nursing
Types	Constructed culture Dominant culture Folk culture High culture Individualistic culture Legal culture Low culture Microculture Official culture Political culture Civic Popular culture Urban Primitive culture Subculture Alternative culture list Super culture Vernacular culture Culture by location
Aspects	Acculturation Cultural appreciation Cultural appropriation Cultural area Cultural artifact Cultural baggage Cultural behavior Cultural bias Cultural capital Cross-cultural Cultural communication Cultural conflict Cultural cringe Cultural dissonance Cultural emphasis Cultural framework Cultural heritage Destroyed Cultural icon Cultural identity Cultural industry Cultural invention Cultural landscape Cultural learning Cultural leveling Cultural memory Cultural pluralism Cultural practice Cultural property Cultural reproduction Cultural system Cultural technology Cultural universal Cultureme Enculturation High- and low-context cultures Interculturality Manuscript culture Material culture Non-material culture Organizational culture Print culture Protoculture Relational mobility Safety culture Technoculture Trans-cultural diffusion Transculturation Visual culture
Politics	Colonial mentality Consumer capitalism Cross cultural sensitivity Cultural assimilation Cultural attaché Cultural backwardness Cultural Bolshevism Cultural conservatism Cultural contracts Cultural deprivation Cultural diplomacy Cultural environmentalism Cultural exception Cultural feminism Cultural genocide Cultural globalization Cultural hegemony Cultural imperialism Cultural intelligence Cultural liberalism Cultural nationalism Cultural pessimism Cultural policy Cultural racism Cultural radicalism Cultural retention Cultural Revolution Cultural rights Cultural safety Cultural silence Cultural subsidy Cultural Zionism Culture change Culture minister Culture of fear Culture war Deculturalization Dominator culture Interculturalism Monoculturalism Multiculturalism Biculturalism Multiracial democracy Pluriculturalism Polyculturalism Transculturism
Religions	Buddhism Christianity Catholicism Cultural Christians Protestantism Role of Christianity in civilization Eastern Orthodoxy Mormonism Cultural Hindus Islam Cultural Muslims Judaism Sikhism
Related	Animal culture Archaeological culture Bennett scale Cannabis culture Circuit of culture Civilization Coffee culture Cross-cultural Cultural center Cultural competence Cultural critic Cultural determinism Cultural diversity Cultural evolutionism Cultural homogenization Cultural institution Cultural jet lag Cultural lag Cultural literacy Cultural mosaic Cultural movement Cultural mulatto Cultural probe Cultural relativism Culture speculation Cultural tourism Pop-culture Cultural translation Cultural turn Cultural sensibility Culture and menstruation Culture and positive psychology Culture and social cognition Culture gap Culture hero Culture industry Culture shock Culturgen Children's culture Culturalism Cyberculture Death and culture Disability culture Deaf culture Drinking culture Drug culture Eastern culture Emotions and culture Intercultural communication Intercultural competence Languaculture Living things in culture Media culture Oppositional culture Participatory culture Permission culture Rape culture Remix culture Tea culture Transformation of culture Urban culture Welfare culture Western culture Youth culture
Category Commons WikiProject Changes

v t e Ethnicity
Concepts	Clan Ethnic group Ethnographic group Ethnolinguistic group Ethnonational group Ethnoreligious group Ethnographic realism Hyphenated ethnicity Indigenous peoples Ingroups and outgroups Meta-ethnicity Metroethnicity Minority group Influence Monoethnicity Nation Nationality Panethnicity Polyethnicity Population Race Supraethnicity Symbolic ethnicity Tribe
Ethnology	Anthropology Ethnic studies Ethnoarchaeology Ethnobiology Ethnobotany Ethnomycology Ethnozoology Ethnoecology Ethnocinema Ethnogeology Ethnography Autoethnography Clinical Critical Cyber- Institutional Netnography Online Person-centered Salvage Transidioethnography Video Ethnohistory Ethnolinguistics Ethnology Ethnomathematics Ethnostatistics Ethnomedicine Ethnomethodology Ethnomuseology Ethnomusicology Ethnophilosophy Ethnopsychopharmacology Ethnopoetics Ethnoscience Ethnosemiotics Ethnotaxonomy
Groups by region	World Contemporary ethnic groups Countries by ethnic groups Africa Americas Indigenous Canada Greenland Mexico United States Central America Caribbean South America Asia Central Asia East Asia Northern Asia South Asia Southeast Asia West Asia Australia Aboriginal groups Torres Strait Islanders Europe Oceania Indigenous European
Identity and ethnogenesis	Cross-race effect Cultural assimilation Cultural identity Demonym Development Endonym Ethnarch Ethnic flag Ethnic option Ethnic origin Ethnic religion Ethnicity in census Ethnofiction Ethnonym Folk religion Historical Imagined community Kinship Legendary progenitor Lineage-bonded society Mythomoteur Mores Nation-building Nation state National language National myth Origin myth Pantribal sodality Statistext Tribal name Tribalism Detribalization Neo-Tribalism Urheimat White ethnic
Multiethnic society	Consociationalism Cultural appropriation Diaspora politics Dominant minority Ethnic democracy Ethnic enclave Ethnic interest group Ethnic majority Ethnic media Ethnic nationalism Ethnic pornography Ethnic theme park Ethnoburb Ethnocracy Ethnopluralism Ethnographic film Ethnographic village Indigenous rights Middleman minority Minority rights Model minority Model minority myth Multinational state
Ideology and ethnic conflict	Allophilia Ethnic bioweapon Ethnic cleansing Ethnic hatred Ethnic joke Ethnic party Ethnic penalty Ethnic slur Ethnic stereotype Ethnic violence Ethnocentrism Ethnocide Ethnosymbolism Indigenism Indigenization Nativism Separatist movements Xenocentrism Xenophilia Xenophobia
Related	Minzu (anthropology)