Bristol Siddeley Gamma: Difference between revisions

Gamma 2
	Gamma 2 rocket engine, used for the second stage
Application	2nd stage
Predecessor	Gamma 301
Successor	Larch (rocket engine)
Liquid-fuel engine
Propellant	Hydrogen peroxide / kerosene
Cycle	Gas-generator
Configuration
Chamber	2, extended
Performance
Thrust, vacuum	68.2 kN (15,300 lbf)
Thrust, sea-level	64.60 kN (14,520 lbf)
Burn time	113 seconds

Gamma 301
	Black Knight tail showing engines
Application	1st stage booster
Predecessor	Gamma 201
Successor	Gamma 8
Liquid-fuel engine
Propellant	Hydrogen peroxide / kerosene
Mixture ratio	8:1 (approx.)
Cycle	Gas-generator
Configuration
Chamber	4, gimballed in opposed pairs
Performance
Thrust, sea-level	17,000–21,600 lbf (76–96 kN)-21,000 lbf (93 kN)
Specific impulse	250 seconds (2.5 km/s)
Burn time	120 seconds

Gamma 201
Country of origin	Britain
Manufacturer	Bristol Siddeley
Application	1st stage booster
Predecessor	Armstrong Siddeley Stentor
Successor	Gamma 301
Liquid-fuel engine
Propellant	Hydrogen peroxide / kerosene
Mixture ratio	8:1 (approx.)
Cycle	Gas-generator
Configuration
Chamber	4, gimballed in opposed pairs
Performance
Thrust, sea-level	16,400 lbf (73 kN)

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Gamma 8
Liquid-fuel engine
Gamma 8 rocket engine on Black Arrow 1st stage
Application	1st stage booster
Predecessor	Gamma 301
Propellant	Hydrogen peroxide / kerosene
Cycle	Gas-generator
Configuration
Chamber	8, gimballed in pairs
Performance
Thrust, sea-level	52,785 lbf (234.80 kN)^[8]
Burn time	125 seconds

The Armstrong Siddeley, later Bristol Siddeley Gamma was a family of rocket engines used in British rocketry, including the Black Knight and Black Arrow launch vehicles. They burned kerosene fuel and hydrogen peroxide. Their construction was based on a common combustion chamber design, used either singly or in clusters of up to eight.

They were developed by Armstrong Siddeley in Coventry, which later became Bristol Siddeley in 1959, and finally Rolls-Royce in 1966.^[9]

Engine static testing was carried out at High Down Rocket Test Site, near The Needles on the Isle of Wight (50°39′38.90″N 1°34′38.25″W / 50.6608056°N 1.5772917°W / 50.6608056; -1.5772917).^[10]^[11] (Spadeadam in Cumbria wasn't used for testing until Blue Streak, after Gamma).

Advantages of kerosene / peroxide engines

Use of kerosene / hydrogen peroxide engines has been a particularly British trait in rocket development, there being few comparable engines (such as the LR-40 and AR2) from the US.^[12]

The combustion of kerosene with hydrogen peroxide is given by the formula

CH₂ + 3H₂O₂ → CO₂ + 4H₂O

where CH₂ is the approximate formula of kerosene (see RP-1 for a discussion of kerosene rocket fuels). This compares with the combustion of kerosene and liquid oxygen (LOX)

CH₂ + 1.5O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O

showing that the exhaust from kerosene / peroxide is predominantly water. This results in a very clean exhaust (second only to cryogenic LO₂/LH₂) and a distinctive clear flame.^[13] The low molecular mass of water also helps to increase rocket thrust performance.^[14]

The oxidiser used with Gamma was 85% high-test peroxide (HTP), H₂O₂. Gamma used a silver-plated on nickel-gauze catalyst to first decompose the peroxide.^[15] For higher concentrations of H₂O₂ another catalyst would have been required, such as platinum. No ignition source was required since the very hot decomposed H₂O₂ is hypergolic (will spontaneously combust) with kerosene. Due to the high ratio (8:1) of the mass of H₂O₂ used compared to the kerosene, and also its superior heat characteristics, the H₂O₂ may also be used to regeneratively cool the engine nozzle before combustion. In closed cycle engines the pre-combustion chamber used to power any pump turbines needs only to decompose H₂O₂ to provide energy. This gives the efficiency advantages of closed cycle operation, without its usual major engineering problems. The Gamma, being a gas generator cycle engine however did not take advantage of this.

All of these characteristics lead to kerosene / hydrogen peroxide engines being simpler and more reliable to construct than other liquid propellant chemistries. Gamma had a remarkably reliable service record for a rocket engine. Of the 22 Black Knight and 4 Black Arrow launchers, involving 128 Gamma engines, there were no engine failures.^[14]

Stentor

The Gamma was adapted^[16] as the smaller cruise chamber of the two-chamber Stentor rocket engine produced by Armstrong Siddeley for the Blue Steel stand-off missile.^[17]

Gamma 201

Bristol-Siddeley developed this stand-alone four-chamber engine from 1955 to 1957 for the Black Knight test vehicles.^[18] Gamma 201 was used for the first twelve Black Knight launches (14 in total), Gamma 301 for most of the later flights.^[19]

The initial Black Knight vehicles were single-stage rockets designed to test prototype re-entry heads for the proposed Blue Streak strategic ballistic missile. Testing of the Black Knight began at Woomera, Australia in 1958, but the Blue Streak project was cancelled in 1960. The rockets continued to be tested until 1965, as part of a planned two-stage space launcher, using the Gamma 201 for the first stage until August 1962, when it was replaced by the more powerful Gamma 301.^[20]^[21]^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25]^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29]^[30]

Gamma 301

This was basically the same as the Gamma 201, but had automatic mixture-ratio control for improved thrust.^[31] There were nine initial test firings of the Gamma 301 engine at High Down from 16 April to 31 May 1957, all of which were largely successful. Black Knight launches BK16 and BK18 used the Gamma 301. These two were the beginning of the Project Dazzle high-speed re-entry vehicle trials, where a solid fuel Cuckoo was mounted pointing downwards in the second stage, so as to increase re-entry speeds. Eight Gamma 301 launches were made in total.^[19]

Gamma 2 / Double Gamma

A two chamber version of Gamma, used for the second stage of the Black Arrow satellite launch vehicle. As the only Gamma not required to operate at sea level, the nozzles were extended to allow better expansion.^[21]^[32]

Gamma 8

This was an 8 chamber development of Gamma, used for the first stage of the Black Arrow satellite launch vehicle. Gamma thrust chambers were mounted in pairs radially, each pair on a one-axis tangential gimbal. Collective movement gave roll control, differential movement pitch.^[32]

Gallery

Bristol Siddeley Gamma rocket engines
Gamma 201 engine behind a Black Knight re-entry vehicle
Gamma 2 rocket engine, used on the Black Arrow 2nd stage
The recovered remains of Stage 1 of the Black Arrow R3 rocket, successfully launched from the Woomera Rocket Range in October 1971.

References

^ "Gamma 201". Astronautix.com. Archived from the original on 13 November 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
^ gamma engines rocket department dec 1964
^ Gamma engines Bristol siddeley rocket dep 1964
^ "Gamma 301". Astronautix.com. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
^ "Gamma 2". Astronautix.com. Archived from the original on 13 November 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
^ "Gamma 2". Astronautix.com. Archived from the original on 13 November 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
^ Black Arrow: Black Arrow, accessdate: 22. Dezember 2023
^ "Gamma 8". Astronautix.com. Archived from the original on 13 November 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
^ "Rolls-Royce Heritage: Coventry". Archived from the original on 18 May 2008.
^ "The High Down Testing Site". www.spaceuk.org. Archived from the original on 16 April 2004.
^ "Black Knight Testing at The Needles". Archived from the original on 27 March 2008.
^ Hydrogen Peroxide – Optimal For Turbomachinery and Power Applications (PDF). 43rd IAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit. Cincinnati, OH: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. July 2007. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
^ "Black Arrow". Nicholas Hill., The "levitation" picture, showing the R3 / Prospero launch lifting off on Gamma's invisibly transparent exhaust plume.
^ ^a ^b Pietrobon, Steven S. (May–June 1999). "High Density Liquid Rocket Boosters for the Space Shuttle" (PDF). Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 52: 163–168. Bibcode:1999JBIS...52..163P.
^ D. Andrews & H. Sunley (July 1990). "The Gamma rocket engines for Black Knight". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 43: 301–310.
^ Sutton, George Paul (2006). History of liquid propellant rocket engines. Reston, Va: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. ISBN 978-1-56347-649-5.
^ "Avro Blue Steel stand-off missile". Archived from the original on 8 February 2004.
^ C.N. Hill (2001). A Vertical Empire: The History of the UK Rocket and Space Programme, 1950–1971. Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-86094-268-6.
^ ^a ^b "Black Knight Flight Data". www.spaceuk.org. Archived from the original on 16 April 2003.
^ "Gamma 201 rocket engine, c. 1957". Science Museum. Archived from the original on 18 March 2010. Retrieved 9 April 2008.
^ ^a ^b "Gamma rocket motor". Archived from the original on 8 May 2008.
^ Harlow, John (1993). Alpha, Beta and RTV-1, The Development of Early British Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines. Congress of the International Astronautical Federation (IAA). Graz, Austria.
^ Harlow, John (November 1999). Hydrogen Peroxide Engines – Early Work on Thermal Ignition at Westcott. International Hydrogen Peroxide Propulsion Conference, Purdue University. pp. 211–219.
^ Andrews, D.; Sunley, H. (July 1990). "The Gamma Rocket Engines for Black Knight". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 43 (7): 301–310.
^ Andres & Sunley (1990), pp. 283–290.
^ Harlow, John (20–24 July 1998). Hydrogen Peroxide – A U.K. Perspective. University of Surrey Symposium on Hydrogen Peroxide.
^ Robinson, H. G. R. (July 1990). "Overview of the Black Knight Project: Black Knight, its Genesis". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 43 (7): 291–296.
^ Scragg, J. (July 1990). "A Contractor's View of the Black Knight Programme". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 43 (7): 297–300.
^ Harlow, J. (July 1990), "Black Knight Upper Stages", Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, 43 (7): 311–316
^ Robinson, H. G. R. (July 1990), "Suggested Developments of Black Knight", Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, 43 (7): 317–318
^ H.W.B. Gordon B.A. & L.W. Parkin MSc (February 1964). A Summary of "Black Knight" Flight Data from 1958 to 1962. UK gov. Original may be found in the Public Record Office, Kew (part of AVIA 6 17362), the on-web link is to a precis by Nicholas Hill. Archived from the original on 25 September 2005. Retrieved 10 April 2008.
^ ^a ^b Douglas Millard (2001). Black Arrow rocket: A History of a Satellite Launch Vehicle and its Engines. London: Science Museum. ISBN 978-1-900747-41-7.

[1] "Gamma 201". Astronautix.com. Archived from the original on 13 November 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2016.

[2] s rocket department dec 1964

[3] Gamma engines Bristol siddeley rocket dep 1964

[4] "Gamma 301". Astronautix.com. Retrieved 13 November 2016.

[5] "Gamma 2". Astronautix.com. Archived from the original on 13 November 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2016.

[6] "Gamma 2". Astronautix.com. Archived from the original on 13 November 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2016.

[b14643.de-7] Black Arrow: Black Arrow, accessdate: 22. Dezember 2023

[8] "Gamma 8". Astronautix.com. Archived from the original on 13 November 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2016.

[Rolls-Royce_Coventry-9] "Rolls-Royce Heritage: Coventry". Archived from the original on 18 May 2008.

[10] "The High Down Testing Site". www.spaceuk.org. Archived from the original on 16 April 2004.

[11] "Black Knight Testing at The Needles". Archived from the original on 27 March 2008.

[12] Hydrogen Peroxide – Optimal For Turbomachinery and Power Applications (PDF). 43rd IAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit. Cincinnati, OH: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. July 2007. Retrieved 4 December 2022.

[13] "Black Arrow". Nicholas Hill., The "levitation" picture, showing the R3 / Prospero launch lifting off on Gamma's invisibly transparent exhaust plume.

[LRB-14] Pietrobon, Steven S. (May–June 1999). "High Density Liquid Rocket Boosters for the Space Shuttle" (PDF). Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 52: 163–168. Bibcode:1999JBIS...52..163P.

[Andrews_1990-15] D. Andrews & H. Sunley (July 1990). "The Gamma rocket engines for Black Knight". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 43: 301–310.

[16] Sutton, George Paul (2006). History of liquid propellant rocket engines. Reston, Va: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. ISBN 978-1-56347-649-5.

[Skomer,_Bluesteel-17] "Avro Blue Steel stand-off missile". Archived from the original on 8 February 2004.

[18] C.N. Hill (2001). A Vertical Empire: The History of the UK Rocket and Space Programme, 1950–1971. Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-86094-268-6.

[Space_UK,_Black_Knight_Flight_Data-19] "Black Knight Flight Data". www.spaceuk.org. Archived from the original on 16 April 2003.

[Science_Museum_Gamma_201-20] "Gamma 201 rocket engine, c. 1957". Science Museum. Archived from the original on 18 March 2010. Retrieved 9 April 2008.

[Skomer,_Gamma-21] "Gamma rocket motor". Archived from the original on 8 May 2008.

[22] Harlow, John (1993). Alpha, Beta and RTV-1, The Development of Early British Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines. Congress of the International Astronautical Federation (IAA). Graz, Austria.

[23] Harlow, John (November 1999). Hydrogen Peroxide Engines – Early Work on Thermal Ignition at Westcott. International Hydrogen Peroxide Propulsion Conference, Purdue University. pp. 211–219.

[24] Andrews, D.; Sunley, H. (July 1990). "The Gamma Rocket Engines for Black Knight". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 43 (7): 301–310.

[FOOTNOTEAndresSunley1990283–290-25] Andres & Sunley (1990), pp. 283–290.

[26] Harlow, John (20–24 July 1998). Hydrogen Peroxide – A U.K. Perspective. University of Surrey Symposium on Hydrogen Peroxide.

[27] Robinson, H. G. R. (July 1990). "Overview of the Black Knight Project: Black Knight, its Genesis". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 43 (7): 291–296.

[28] Scragg, J. (July 1990). "A Contractor's View of the Black Knight Programme". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 43 (7): 297–300.

[29] Harlow, J. (July 1990), "Black Knight Upper Stages", Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, 43 (7): 311–316

[30] Robinson, H. G. R. (July 1990), "Suggested Developments of Black Knight", Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, 43 (7): 317–318

[31] H.W.B. Gordon B.A. & L.W. Parkin MSc (February 1964). A Summary of "Black Knight" Flight Data from 1958 to 1962. UK gov. Original may be found in the Public Record Office, Kew (part of AVIA 6 17362), the on-web link is to a precis by Nicholas Hill. Archived from the original on 25 September 2005. Retrieved 10 April 2008.

[Black_Arrow-32] Douglas Millard (2001). Black Arrow rocket: A History of a Satellite Launch Vehicle and its Engines. London: Science Museum. ISBN 978-1-900747-41-7.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{short description|1950s British rocket engine}}
-{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2014}}
+{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
 {{infobox rocket engine
   |name=Gamma 201
@@ Line 12: / Line 13: @@
   |mixture_ratio= 8:1 (approx.)
   |combustion_chamber= 4, gimballed in opposed pairs
+  |thrust(SL)   = {{convert|16400|lbf|kN|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/g/gamma201.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113175042/http://www.astronautix.com/g/gamma201.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 November 2016 |title=Gamma 201 |publisher=Astronautix.com |access-date=13 November 2016}}</ref><ref>gamma engines rocket department dec 1964</ref>
-  |thrust_at_launch= 17,000 lbf
+|cycle=[[Gas-generator cycle|Gas-generator]]}}
-  |style=float: left; font-size: 95%; width: 25em; margin: 0 2em 2em 0;
-}}
 {{infobox rocket engine
   |name=Gamma 301
@@ Line 27: / Line 27: @@
   |mixture_ratio= 8:1 (approx.)
   |combustion_chamber= 4, gimballed in opposed pairs
+  |thrust(SL)      = {{convert|17000 - 21,600<ref>Gamma engines Bristol siddeley rocket dep 1964</ref>|lbf|kN|abbr=on}}-{{convert|21000|lbf|kN|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/g/gamma301.html |title=Gamma 301 |publisher=Astronautix.com |access-date=13 November 2016}}</ref>
-  |thrust_at_launch= 19,000 – 21,000 lbf
   |specific_impulse= {{convert|250|isp}}
   |burn_time = 120 seconds
+|cycle=[[Gas-generator cycle|Gas-generator]]}}
-  |style=float: left; font-size: 95%; width: 25em; margin: 0 2em 2em 0;
-}}
 {{infobox rocket engine
   |name=Gamma 2
@@ Line 43: / Line 42: @@
   |fuel=kerosene
   |combustion_chamber= 2, extended
+  |thrust(SL)      = {{convert|64.60|kN|lbf|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/g/gamma2.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113115752/http://www.astronautix.com/g/gamma2.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 November 2016 |title=Gamma 2 |publisher=Astronautix.com |access-date=13 November 2016}}</ref>
-  |thrust_at_altitude=  0.68 tonnes<ref name="Science Museum display" >[[Black Arrow]] exhibit, [[Science Museum (London)|Science Museum]], London</ref>
+  |thrust(Vac)=  {{convert|68.2|kN|lbf|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/g/gamma2.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113115752/http://www.astronautix.com/g/gamma2.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 November 2016 |title=Gamma 2 |publisher=Astronautix.com |access-date=13 November 2016}}</ref>
-  |burn_time = 110–120 seconds
+  |burn_time = 113 seconds <ref name="b14643.de">Black Arrow: [http://www.b14643.de/Spacerockets_1/West_Europe/BlackArrow/Description/Frame.htm Black Arrow], accessdate: 22. Dezember 2023</ref>
-  |style=float: left; font-size: 95%; width: 25em; margin: 0 2em 2em 0;
+|cycle=[[Gas-generator cycle|Gas-generator]]}}
-}}
 {{infobox rocket engine
   |name=Gamma 8
@@ Line 57: / Line 56: @@
   |fuel=kerosene
   |combustion_chamber= 8, gimballed in pairs
+  |thrust(SL)      = {{convert|52785|lbf|kN|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/g/gamma8.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113120336/http://www.astronautix.com/g/gamma8.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 November 2016 |title=Gamma 8 |publisher=Astronautix.com |access-date=13 November 2016}}</ref>
-  |thrust_at_launch=  22.7 tonnes<ref name="Science Museum display" />
   |burn_time = 125 seconds
+|cycle=[[Gas-generator cycle|Gas-generator]]}}
-  |style=float: left; font-size: 95%; width: 25em; margin: 0 2em 2em 0;
-}}
 The '''Armstrong Siddeley''', later '''Bristol Siddeley''' '''Gamma''' was a family of rocket engines used in British rocketry, including the [[Black Knight (rocket)|Black Knight]] and [[Black Arrow]] launch vehicles. They burned kerosene fuel and [[hydrogen peroxide]]. Their construction was based on a common combustion chamber design, used either singly or in clusters of up to eight.
-They were developed by [[Armstrong-Siddeley]] in [[Coventry]], which later became [[Bristol Siddeley]] in 1959, and finally [[Rolls-Royce Limited|Rolls-Royce]] in 1966.<ref name="Rolls-Royce Coventry" >{{cite web|title=Rolls-Royce Heritage: Coventry |url=http://www.rolls-royce.com/history/heritage/offices/coventry.jsp}}</ref>
+They were developed by [[Armstrong Siddeley]] in [[Coventry]], which later became [[Bristol Siddeley]] in 1959, and finally [[Rolls-Royce Limited|Rolls-Royce]] in 1966.<ref name="Rolls-Royce Coventry">{{cite web |title=Rolls-Royce Heritage: Coventry |url=http://www.rolls-royce.com/history/heritage/offices/coventry.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080518043659/http://www.rolls-royce.com/history/heritage/offices/coventry.jsp |archive-date=18 May 2008  }}</ref>
-Engine static testing was carried out at [[High Down Rocket Test Site]], near [[The Needles]] on the [[Isle of Wight]] ({{coord|50|39|38.90|N|1|34|38.25|W|}}).<ref>{{cite web|title=High Down testing site|url=http://www.spaceuk.org/bk/hd/highdown.htm}}</ref><ref>[http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-vh/w-visits/w-findaplace/w-theneedlesoldbattery/w-theneedlesoldbattery-seeanddo.htm Black Knight Testing at The Needles]</ref> ([[RAF Spadeadam|Spadeadam]] in Cumbria wasn't used for testing until [[Blue Streak missile|Blue Streak]], after Gamma).
+Engine static testing was carried out at [[High Down Rocket Test Site]], near [[The Needles]] on the [[Isle of Wight]] ({{coord|50|39|38.90|N|1|34|38.25|W|}}).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.spaceuk.org/bk/hd/highdown.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040416130224/http://www.spaceuk.org/bk/hd/highdown.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 April 2004|title=The High Down Testing Site|website=www.spaceuk.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-vh/w-visits/w-findaplace/w-theneedlesoldbattery/w-theneedlesoldbattery-seeanddo.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080327065721/http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-vh/w-visits/w-findaplace/w-theneedlesoldbattery/w-theneedlesoldbattery-seeanddo.htm|url-status=dead|title=Black Knight Testing at The Needles|archive-date=27 March 2008}}</ref> ([[RAF Spadeadam|Spadeadam]] in Cumbria wasn't used for testing until [[Blue Streak missile|Blue Streak]], after Gamma).
 == Advantages of kerosene / peroxide engines ==
-Use of kerosene / hydrogen peroxide engines has been a particularly British trait in rocket development, there being few comparable engines (such as the [[LR-40 (Rocket engine)|LR-40]]) from the USA.<ref>{{cite conference|title=Hydrogen Peroxide – Optimal For Turbomachinery and Power Applications  |url=http://www.gkllc.com/AIAA-2007-5537%20Hydrogen%20Peroxide-Optimal%20for%20Turbomachinery%20and%20Power%20Applications.pdf|format=pdf|conference=43rd IAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit|date=July 2007|location=Cincinnati, OH|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.}}</ref>
+Use of kerosene / hydrogen peroxide engines has been a particularly British trait in rocket development, there being few comparable engines (such as the [[LR-40 (Rocket engine)|LR-40]] and [[Rocketdyne AR2|AR2]]) from the US.<ref>{{cite conference|title=Hydrogen Peroxide – Optimal For Turbomachinery and Power Applications|url=https://www.hydrogen-peroxide.us/history-US-General-Kinetics/AIAA-2007-5537_Hydrogen_Peroxide-Optimal_for_Turbomachinery_and_Power_Applications.pdf|conference=43rd IAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit|date=July 2007|location=Cincinnati, OH|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.|access-date=December 4, 2022}}</ref>
 The combustion of kerosene with hydrogen peroxide is given by the formula
@@ Line 75: / Line 74: @@
 where CH<sub>2</sub> is the approximate formula of kerosene (see [[RP-1]] for a discussion of kerosene rocket fuels). This compares with the combustion of kerosene and liquid oxygen (LOX)
 : CH<sub>2</sub> + 1.5O<sub>2</sub> → CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O
-showing that the exhaust from kerosene / peroxide is predominantly water. This results in a very clean exhaust (second only to cryogenic LO<sub>2</sub>/LH<sub>2</sub>) and a distinctive clear flame.<ref>{{cite web|title=Black Arrow|url=http://members.aol.com/nicholashl/ukspace/blackarrow/blackarrow.htm |publisher=Nicholas Hill}}, The "levitation" picture, showing the R3 / Prospero launch lifting off on Gamma's invisibly transparent exhaust plume.</ref> The low molecular mass of water also helps to increase rocket thrust performance.<ref name="LRB" >{{cite journal|title=High Density Liquid Rocket Boosters for the Space Shuttle|author=Pietrobon, Steven S.|url=http://www.sworld.com.au/steven/pub/lrb.pdf|format=pdf|journal=J. British Interplanetary Society|volume= 52|pages=163–168,|date=May–June 1999}}</ref>
+showing that the exhaust from kerosene / peroxide is predominantly water. This results in a very clean exhaust (second only to cryogenic LO<sub>2</sub>/LH<sub>2</sub>) and a distinctive clear flame.<ref>{{cite web|title=Black Arrow|url=http://members.aol.com/nicholashl/ukspace/blackarrow/blackarrow.htm |publisher=Nicholas Hill}}, The "levitation" picture, showing the R3 / Prospero launch lifting off on Gamma's invisibly transparent exhaust plume.</ref> The low molecular mass of water also helps to increase rocket thrust performance.<ref name="LRB" >{{cite journal|title=High Density Liquid Rocket Boosters for the Space Shuttle|author=Pietrobon, Steven S.|url=http://www.sworld.com.au/steven/pub/lrb.pdf|journal=Journal of the British Interplanetary Society|volume= 52|pages=163–168|date=May–June 1999|bibcode=1999JBIS...52..163P}}</ref>
-The oxidiser used with Gamma was 85% [[high-test peroxide]] (HTP), H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>. Gamma used a silver-plated on nickel-gauze catalyst to first decompose the peroxide.<ref name="Andrews 1990" >{{cite journal|journal=J. British Interplanetary Society|author1=D. Andrews  |author2=H. Sunley |lastauthoramp=yes |title=The Gamma rocket engines for Black Knight|volume=43|pages=301–310|date=July 1990}}</ref> For higher concentrations of H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> another catalyst would have been required, such as platinum. No ignition source was required since the very hot decomposed H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> is [[hypergolic]] (will spontaneously combust) with kerosene. Due to the high ratio (8:1) of the mass of H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> used compared to the kerosene, and also its superior heat characteristics, the H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> may also be used to [[Regenerative cooling (rocket)|regeneratively cool]] the engine nozzle before combustion. Any pre-combustion chamber used to power the pump turbines needs only to decompose H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> to provide the energy. This gives the efficiency advantages of [[Staged combustion cycle (rocket)|closed cycle]] operation, without its usual major engineering problems.
+The oxidiser used with Gamma was 85% [[high-test peroxide]] (HTP), H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>. Gamma used a silver-plated on nickel-gauze catalyst to first decompose the peroxide.<ref name="Andrews 1990" >{{cite journal|journal=Journal of the British Interplanetary Society|author1=D. Andrews  |author2=H. Sunley |name-list-style=amp |title=The Gamma rocket engines for Black Knight|volume=43|pages=301–310|date=July 1990}}</ref> For higher concentrations of H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> another catalyst would have been required, such as platinum. No ignition source was required since the very hot decomposed H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> is [[hypergolic]] (will spontaneously combust) with kerosene. Due to the high ratio (8:1) of the mass of H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> used compared to the kerosene, and also its superior heat characteristics, the H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> may also be used to [[Regenerative cooling (rocket)|regeneratively cool]] the engine nozzle before combustion. In [[Staged combustion cycle|closed cycle]] engines the pre-combustion chamber used to power any pump turbines needs only to decompose H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> to provide energy. This gives the efficiency advantages of closed cycle operation, without its usual major engineering problems. The Gamma, being a [[Gas-generator cycle|gas generator cycle]] engine however did not take advantage of this.
 All of these characteristics lead to kerosene / hydrogen peroxide engines being simpler and more reliable to construct than other liquid propellant chemistries. Gamma had a remarkably reliable service record for a rocket engine. Of the 22 Black Knight and 4 Black Arrow launchers, involving 128 Gamma engines, there were no engine failures.<ref name="LRB" />
 == Stentor ==
-The Gamma began as the smaller cruise chamber of the two-chamber [[Stentor (Rocket engine)|Stentor]] rocket engine produced by [[Armstrong-Siddeley]] for the [[Blue Steel (missile)|Blue Steel]] stand-off missile.<ref name="Skomer, Bluesteel" >{{cite web|title=Avro Blue Steel stand-off missile|url=http://www.skomer.u-net.com/projects/bluesteel.htm}}</ref>
+The Gamma was adapted<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sutton |first=George Paul |title=History of liquid propellant rocket engines |date=2006 |publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics |isbn=978-1-56347-649-5 |location=Reston, Va}}</ref> as the smaller cruise chamber of the two-chamber [[Stentor (Rocket engine)|Stentor]] rocket engine produced by [[Armstrong Siddeley]] for the [[Blue Steel (missile)|Blue Steel]] stand-off missile.<ref name="Skomer, Bluesteel">{{cite web |title=Avro Blue Steel stand-off missile |url=http://www.skomer.u-net.com/projects/bluesteel.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040208232113/http://www.skomer.u-net.com/projects/bluesteel.htm |archive-date=8 February 2004  }}</ref>
 == Gamma 201 ==
-[[Bristol-Siddeley]] developed this stand-alone four-chamber engine from 1955 to 1957 for the [[Black Knight (rocket)|Black Knight]] test vehicles.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Vertical Empire: The History of the UK Rocket and Space Programme, 1950–1971|author=C.N. Hill|year=2001|publisher=Imperial College Press  |isbn=1-86094-268-7}}</ref> Gamma 201 was used for the first twelve Black Knight launches (14 in total), Gamma 301 for most of the later flights.<ref name="Space UK, Black Knight Flight Data" >{{cite web|title=Black Knight Flight Data|url=http://www.spaceuk.org/bk/bk2/bk_engines.htm}}</ref>
+[[Bristol-Siddeley]] developed this stand-alone four-chamber engine from 1955 to 1957 for the [[Black Knight (rocket)|Black Knight]] test vehicles.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Vertical Empire: The History of the UK Rocket and Space Programme, 1950–1971|author=C.N. Hill|year=2001|publisher=Imperial College Press  |isbn=978-1-86094-268-6}}</ref> Gamma 201 was used for the first twelve Black Knight launches (14 in total), Gamma 301 for most of the later flights.<ref name="Space UK, Black Knight Flight Data" >{{Cite web|url=http://www.spaceuk.org/bk/bk2/bk_engines.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030416102414/http://www.spaceuk.org/bk/bk2/bk_engines.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 April 2003|title=Black Knight Flight Data|website=www.spaceuk.org}}</ref>
-The initial Black Knight vehicles were single-stage rockets designed to test prototype re-entry heads for the proposed [[Blue Streak missile|Blue Streak]] strategic [[ballistic missile]]. Testing of the Black Knight began at [[Woomera Test Range|Woomera]], Australia in 1958, but the Blue Streak project was cancelled in 1960. The rockets continued to be tested until 1965, as part of a planned two-stage space launcher, using the [[Gamma 201]] for the first stage until August 1962, when it was replaced by the more powerful [[Gamma 301]].<ref name="Science Museum Gamma 201" >{{cite web|title=Gamma 201 rocket engine, c. 1957|url=http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/images/I062/10326693.aspx|publisher=[[Science Museum (London)|Science Museum]]}}</ref><ref name="Skomer, Gamma" >{{cite web|title=Gamma rocket motor|url=http://www.skomer.u-net.com/projects/gamma.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference|author=Harlow, John|title=Alpha, Beta and RTV-1, The Development of Early British Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines|conference=Congress of the International Astronautical Federation (IAA)|location=Graz, Austria|year=1993}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference|author=Harlow, John|title=Hydrogen Peroxide Engines – Early Work on Thermal Ignition at Westcott|conference=International Hydrogen Peroxide Propulsion Conference, Purdue University,|pages=211–219|date=November 1999}}</ref><ref name="J BIPS 43_7" >{{cite journal|journal=J. British Interplanetary Society|volume=43|issue=7|location=London|date=July 1990|author1=Andrews, D. |author2=Sunley, H. |title=The Gamma Rocket Engines for Black Knight|pages=301–310}}</ref><ref name="J BIPS 43_7" >{{cite journal|journal=J. British Interplanetary Society|volume=43|issue=7|location=London|date=July 1990|title=The British Black Knight Rocket|author=Becklake, J.|pages=283–290}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference|author=Harlow, John|title=Hydrogen Peroxide – A U.K. Perspective|conference=University of Surrey Symposium on Hydrogen Peroxide|date= 20–24 July 1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=J. British Interplanetary Society|volume=43|issue=7|location=London|date=July 1990|author=Robinson, H. G. R.|title=Overview of the Black Knight Project: Black Knight, its Genesis|pages=291–296}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=J. British Interplanetary Society|volume=43|issue=7|location=London|date=July 1990|author=Scragg, J.|title=A Contractor's View of the Black Knight Programme|pages=297–300}}</ref><ref>{{citation|journal=J. British Interplanetary Society|volume=Vol. 43, No. 7|location=London|date=July 1990|author=Harlow, J.|title=Black Knight Upper Stages|pages=311–316}}</ref><ref>{{citation|journal=J. British Interplanetary Society|volume=Vol. 43, No. 7|location=London|date=July 1990|author=Robinson, H. G. R.|title=Suggested Developments of Black Knight|pages=317–318}}</ref>
+The initial Black Knight vehicles were single-stage rockets designed to test prototype re-entry heads for the proposed [[Blue Streak missile|Blue Streak]] strategic [[ballistic missile]]. Testing of the Black Knight began at [[Woomera Test Range|Woomera]], Australia in 1958, but the Blue Streak project was cancelled in 1960. The rockets continued to be tested until 1965, as part of a planned two-stage space launcher, using the [[Gamma 201]] for the first stage until August 1962, when it was replaced by the more powerful [[Gamma 301]].<ref name="Science Museum Gamma 201">{{cite web|title=Gamma 201 rocket engine, c. 1957|url=http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/images/I062/10326693.aspx|publisher=[[Science Museum (London)|Science Museum]]|access-date=9 April 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100318121803/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/images/I062/10326693.aspx|archive-date=18 March 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Skomer, Gamma">{{cite web|title=Gamma rocket motor|url=http://www.skomer.u-net.com/projects/gamma.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080508163013/http://www.skomer.u-net.com/projects/gamma.htm|archive-date=8 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference|author=Harlow, John|title=Alpha, Beta and RTV-1, The Development of Early British Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines|conference=Congress of the International Astronautical Federation (IAA)|location=Graz, Austria|year=1993}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference|author=Harlow, John|title=Hydrogen Peroxide Engines – Early Work on Thermal Ignition at Westcott|conference=International Hydrogen Peroxide Propulsion Conference, Purdue University|pages=211–219|date=November 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
+  |journal=[[Journal of the British Interplanetary Society]]
+  |volume=43  |issue=7
+  |date=July 1990
+  |last1=Andrews  |first=D.
+  |last2=Sunley  |first2=H.
+  |title=The Gamma Rocket Engines for Black Knight
+  |ref={{harvid|Andres|Sunley|1990}}
+  |pages=301–310
+}}</ref>{{sfnp|Andres|Sunley|1990|pages=283–290}}<ref>{{cite conference|author=Harlow, John|title=Hydrogen Peroxide – A U.K. Perspective|conference=University of Surrey Symposium on Hydrogen Peroxide|date= 20–24 July 1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of the British Interplanetary Society|volume=43|issue=7|date=July 1990|author=Robinson, H. G. R.|title=Overview of the Black Knight Project: Black Knight, its Genesis|pages=291–296}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of the British Interplanetary Society|volume=43|issue=7|date=July 1990|author=Scragg, J.|title=A Contractor's View of the Black Knight Programme|pages=297–300}}</ref><ref>{{citation|journal=Journal of the British Interplanetary Society|volume= 43 |issue=7|date=July 1990|author=Harlow, J.|title=Black Knight Upper Stages|pages=311–316}}</ref><ref>{{citation|journal=Journal of the British Interplanetary Society|volume= 43 |issue=7|date=July 1990|author=Robinson, H. G. R.|title=Suggested Developments of Black Knight|pages=317–318}}</ref>
 == Gamma 301 ==
-This was basically the same as the Gamma 201, but had automatic mixture-ratio control for improved thrust.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Summary of "Black Knight" Flight Data from 1958 to 1962|author1=H.W.B. Gordon B.A.  |author2=L.W. Parkin MSc |lastauthoramp=yes |date=February 1964|publisher=UK gov. Original may be found in the Public Record Office, Kew (part of AVIA 6 17362), the on-web link is to a precis by Nicholas Hill.|url=http://members.aol.com/nicholashl/ukspace/bk/tn57.htm}}</ref> There were nine initial test firings of the Gamma 301 engine at [[High Down (Rocketry test site)|High Down]] from 16 April to 31 May 1957, all of which were largely successful. [[Black Knight (rocket)|Black Knight]] launches BK16 and BK18 used the Gamma 301. These two were the beginning of the [[Project Dazzle]] high-speed re-entry vehicle trials, where a solid fuel [[Cuckoo (Rocket motor)|Cuckoo]] was mounted pointing ''downwards'' in the second stage, so as to increase re-entry speeds. Eight Gamma 301 launches were made in total.<ref name="Space UK, Black Knight Flight Data" />
+This was basically the same as the Gamma 201, but had automatic mixture-ratio control for improved thrust.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Summary of "Black Knight" Flight Data from 1958 to 1962|author1=H.W.B. Gordon B.A.|author2=L.W. Parkin MSc|name-list-style=amp|date=February 1964|publisher=UK gov. Original may be found in the Public Record Office, Kew (part of AVIA 6 17362), the on-web link is to a precis by Nicholas Hill.|url=http://members.aol.com/nicholashl/ukspace/bk/tn57.htm|access-date=10 April 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050925034505/http://members.aol.com/nicholashl/ukspace/bk/tn57.htm|archive-date=25 September 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref> There were nine initial test firings of the Gamma 301 engine at [[High Down Rocket Test Site|High Down]] from 16 April to 31 May 1957, all of which were largely successful. [[Black Knight (rocket)|Black Knight]] launches BK16 and BK18 used the Gamma 301. These two were the beginning of the [[Project Dazzle]] high-speed re-entry vehicle trials, where a solid fuel [[Cuckoo (Rocket motor)|Cuckoo]] was mounted pointing ''downwards'' in the second stage, so as to increase re-entry speeds. Eight Gamma 301 launches were made in total.<ref name="Space UK, Black Knight Flight Data" />
 == Gamma 2 / Double Gamma ==
-A two chamber version of Gamma, used for the second stage of the [[Black Arrow]] satellite launch vehicle. As the only Gamma not required to operate at sea level, the nozzles were extended to allow better expansion.<ref name="Skomer, Gamma" /><ref name="Black Arrow" >{{cite book|title=Black Arrow rocket: A History of a Satellite Launch Vehicle and its Engines|author=Douglas Millard|year=2001|publisher=[[Science Museum (London)|Science Museum]]|location=London|isbn=1-900747-41-3}}</ref>
+A two chamber version of Gamma, used for the second stage of the [[Black Arrow]] satellite launch vehicle. As the only Gamma not required to operate at sea level, the nozzles were extended to allow better expansion.<ref name="Skomer, Gamma" /><ref name="Black Arrow" >{{cite book|title=Black Arrow rocket: A History of a Satellite Launch Vehicle and its Engines|author=Douglas Millard|year=2001|publisher=[[Science Museum (London)|Science Museum]]|location=London|isbn=978-1-900747-41-7}}</ref>
 <!--
 From [[Black Arrow]]
@@ Line 115: / Line 123: @@
 ==Gallery==
+<gallery class=center caption="Bristol Siddeley Gamma rocket engines" widths=160 heights=170 style="line-height:130%">
-{{Gallery
+File:Black Knight Gamma 201 engine and re-entry head.jpg |alt=A rocket engine section with a re-entry vehicle beside it.|Gamma 201 engine behind a Black Knight re-entry vehicle
-|title=Bristol Siddeley Gamma rocket engines
+File:Gamma 2 engine.jpg|alt=A rocket engine on display|Gamma 2 rocket engine, used on the Black Arrow 2nd stage
-|width=160 | height=170 | lines=4
+File:Black Arrow R3 Stage 1.JPG|alt=Battered remains of a rocket|The recovered remains of Stage 1 of the Black Arrow R3 rocket, successfully launched from the Woomera Rocket Range in October 1971.
-|align=center
+</gallery>
-|footer=
-|File:Black Knight Gamma 201 engine and re-entry head.jpg |ne section with a re-entry vehicle beside it.
- alt1=A rocket engi
- |Gamma 201 engine behind a Black Knight re-entry vehicle
-|File:Gamma 2 engine.jpg |
- alt2=A rocket engine on display
- |Gamma 2 rocket engine, used on the Black Arrow 2nd stage
-|File:Black Arrow R3 Stage 1.JPG|
- alt4=Battered remains of a rocket
- |The recovered remains of Stage 1 of the Black Arrow R3 rocket, successfully launched from the Woomera Rocket Range in October 1971.
-}}
 ==References==
 {{commons category|Bristol Siddeley Gamma}}
-{{reflist}}
+{{reflist|colwidth=35em}}
 {{ASaeroengines}}
 {{BristolAeroengines}}
@@ Line 141: / Line 140: @@
 {{EngvarB|date=April 2014}}
-[[Category:High-test peroxide]]
 [[Category:Rocket engines using hot cycle hydrogen peroxide propellant]]
 [[Category:Armstrong Siddeley aircraft engines|Gamma]]
 [[Category:Bristol Siddeley aircraft engines|Gamma]]
-[[Category:Rocket engines using the staged combustion cycle]]
+[[Category:Rocket engines using the gas-generator cycle]]
 [[gl:Gamma 8]]

v t e Armstrong Siddeley aero engines
Piston engines	Boarhound Cheetah Civet Cougar Deerhound Genet Genet Major Hyena Jaguar Jaguar Major Leopard Lynx Lynx Major Mongoose Ounce Panther Puma Serval Tiger (V12) Tiger (Radial) Wolfhound
Turbojets	Adder ASX Sapphire Viper
Turboprops	ASP Double Mamba Mamba Python
Rocket engines	Beta Snarler Screamer Stentor Gamma