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{{Libertarianism sidebar|expanded=all}}
{{Libertarianism sidebar|expanded=all}}


'''Libertarianism''' has been variously defined. In the strictest sense, it is the political philosophy that holds individuals initially own themselves and have property rights in external things. In the broadest sense, it is any political philosophy which approximates this view. Libertarianism includes diverse beliefs, all advocating strict limits to government activity and sharing the goal of maximizing individual liberty and [[political freedom]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Vallentyne|first=Peter|title=Libertarianism|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/libertarianism/|work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University|accessdate=November 20, 2011}}</ref>
'''Libertarianism''' has been variously defined by sources. In the strictest sense, it is the [[political philosophy]] that holds individual [[liberty]] as the basic [[morality|moral]] [[principle]] of [[society]]. In the broadest sense, it is any political philosophy which approximates this view. Libertarianism includes diverse beliefs, all advocating strict limits to government activity and sharing the goal of maximizing individual liberty and [[political freedom]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Vallentyne|first=Peter|title=Libertarianism|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/libertarianism/|work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University|accessdate=November 20, 2011}}</ref>


Philosopher [[Roderick T. Long]] defines libertarianism as "any political position that advocates a radical redistribution of power from the coercive state to voluntary associations of free individuals", whether "voluntary association" takes the form of the free market or of communal co-operatives.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Roderick T. Long|url=http://www.praxeology.net/libclass-theory-part-1.pdf|format=PDF|title=Towards a Libertarian Theory of Class|journal=Social Philosophy and Policy|volume=15|issue=2|year=1998|pages=303–349: at p. 304|doi=10.1017/S0265052500002028}}</ref> According to the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|U.S. Libertarian Party]], libertarianism is the advocacy of a government that is funded voluntarily and limited to protecting individuals from coercion and violence.<ref>{{cite book 
Philosopher [[Roderick T. Long]] defines libertarianism as "any political position that advocates a radical redistribution of power from the coercive state to voluntary associations of free individuals", whether "voluntary association" takes the form of the free market or of communal co-operatives.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Roderick T. Long|url=http://www.praxeology.net/libclass-theory-part-1.pdf|format=PDF|title=Towards a Libertarian Theory of Class|journal=Social Philosophy and Policy|volume=15|issue=2|year=1998|pages=303–349: at p. 304|doi=10.1017/S0265052500002028}}</ref> According to the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|U.S. Libertarian Party]], libertarianism is the advocacy of a government that is funded voluntarily and limited to protecting individuals from coercion and violence.<ref>{{cite book 

Revision as of 07:40, 31 January 2012

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Libertarianism has been variously defined by sources. In the strictest sense, it is the political philosophy that holds individual liberty as the basic moral principle of society. In the broadest sense, it is any political philosophy which approximates this view. Libertarianism includes diverse beliefs, all advocating strict limits to government activity and sharing the goal of maximizing individual liberty and political freedom.[1]

Philosopher Roderick T. Long defines libertarianism as "any political position that advocates a radical redistribution of power from the coercive state to voluntary associations of free individuals", whether "voluntary association" takes the form of the free market or of communal co-operatives.[2] According to the U.S. Libertarian Party, libertarianism is the advocacy of a government that is funded voluntarily and limited to protecting individuals from coercion and violence.[3] Woodcock, an intellectual historian of anarchism, defines libertarianism as a critical individualist social philosophy, aimed at transforming society by reform or revolution, that fundamentally doubts authority.[4]


Overview

Libertarian schools of thought differ over the degree to which the state should be reduced. Anarchistic schools advocate complete elimination of the state. Minarchist schools advocate a state which is limited to protecting its citizens from aggression, theft, breach of contract, and fraud. Some minarchist libertarians accept minimal public assistance for the poor.[5] Additionally, some schools are supportive of private property rights in the ownership of unappropriated land and natural resources while others reject such private ownership and often support common ownership instead.[6][7][8] Another distinction can be made among libertarians who support private ownership and those that support common ownership of the means of production; the former generally supporting a capitalist economy, the latter a socialist economic system. In some parts of the world, the term "libertarianism" is synonymous with Left anarchism.[9]

Libertarians can broadly be characterized as holding four ethical views: consequentialism, deontological theories, contractarianism, and class-struggle normative beliefs. The main divide is between consequentialist libertarianism—which is support for a large degree of "liberty" because it leads to favorable consequences, such as prosperity or efficiency—and deontological libertarianism (also known as "rights-theorist libertarianism," "natural rights libertarianism," or "libertarian moralism"), which is a philosophy based on belief in moral self-ownership and opposition to "initiation of force" and fraud.[10] [11] Others combine a hybrid of consequentialist and deontologist thinking.[12] Another view, contractarian libertarianism, holds that any legitimate authority of government derives not from the consent of the governed, but from contract or mutual agreement,[13][14][15] though this can be seen as reducible to consequentialism or deontologism depending on what grounds contracts are justified. Some Libertarian Socialists with backgrounds influenced by Marxism reject deontological and consequential approaches and use normative class-struggle methodologies rooted in Hegelian thought to justify direct action in pursuit of liberty.[16]

In the United States, the term libertarian is commonly associated with those who have conservative positions on economic issues and liberal positions on social issues.[17] This is based on the common meanings of "conservative" and "liberal" in the United States.

Philosopher Roderick T. Long defines libertarianism as "any political position that advocates a radical redistribution of power from the coercive state to voluntary associations of free individuals", whether "voluntary association" takes the form of the free market or of communal co-operatives.[18]

Etymology

The use of the word "libertarian" to describe a set of political positions can be tracked to the French cognate, libertaire, which was coined in 1857 by French anarchist Joseph Déjacque who used the term to distinguish his libertarian communist approach from the mutualism advocated by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon.[19] Hence libertarian has been used by some as a synonym for left-wing anarchism since the 1890s.[20] Libertarian socialists, such as Noam Chomsky and Colin Ward, assert that many still consider the term libertarianism a synonym of anarchism in countries other than the US.[9]

History

Origins

During the 18th century Age of Enlightenment, "liberal" ideas flourished in Europe and North America. Libertarians of various schools were influenced by classical liberal ideas.[21][full citation needed] The term libertarian in a metaphysical or philosophical sense was first used by late-Enlightenment free-thinkers to refer to those who believed in free will, as opposed to determinism.[22] The first recorded use was in 1789 by William Belsham in a discussion of free will and in opposition to "necessitarian" (or determinist) views.[23][24]

The first anarchist journal to use the term “libertarian” was La Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social, published in New York City between 1858 and 1861 by French anarcho-communist Joseph Déjacque. "The next recorded use of the term was in Europe, when “libertarian communism” was used at a French regional anarchist Congress at Le Havre (16-22 November, 1880). January the following year saw a French manifesto issued on “Libertarian or Anarchist Communism.” Finally, 1895 saw leading anarchists Sébastien Faure and Louise Michel publish La Libertaire in France." The word stems from the French word libertaire, and was used to evade the French ban on anarchist publications. In this tradition, the term "libertarianism" in "libertarian socialism" is generally used as a synonym for anarchism, which some say is the original meaning of the term; hence "libertarian socialism" is equivalent to "socialist anarchism" to these scholars.[25] In the context of the European socialist movement, libertarian has conventionally been used to describe those who opposed state socialism, such as Mikhail Bakunin. The association of socialism with libertarianism predates that of capitalism, and many anti-authoritarians still decry what they see as a mistaken association of capitalism with libertarianism in the United States.[26]

Twentieth century

Template:Globalize/USA During the early 20th century modern liberalism in the United States began to take a more state-oriented approach to economic regulation. While conservatism in Europe continued to mean conserving hierarchical class structures through state control of society and the economy, some conservatives in the United States began to refer to conserving traditions of liberty. This was especially true of the Old Right, which opposed the New Deal and U.S. military interventions in World War I and World War II. Those who held to the earlier liberal views began to call themselves market liberals, classic liberals or libertarians to distinguish themselves. The Austrian School of economics, influenced by Frédéric Bastiat and later by Ludwig von Mises, also had an impact on what is now right-libertarianism.

In the 1950s many with "Old Right" or classical liberal beliefs in the United States began to describe themselves as "libertarian." Arizona United States Senator Barry Goldwater's right-libertarian leaning challenge to authority also influenced the US libertarian movement.[27]

During the 1960s, the Vietnam War divided right-libertarians, anarchist libertarians, and conservatives.[citation needed] Right-libertarians and left-libertarians opposed to the war joined the draft resistance and peace movements and began founding their own publications, like Murray Rothbard's The Libertarian Forum[28] and organizations like the Radical Libertarian Alliance[29] and the Society for Individual Liberty.[30]

In 1971, a small group of Americans led by David Nolan formed the U.S. Libertarian Party. Attracting former Democrats, Republicans and independents, the party has run a presidential candidate every election year since 1972. Over the years, dozens of capitalism-supporting libertarian political parties have been formed worldwide. Educational organizations like the Center for Libertarian Studies and the Cato Institute were formed in the 1970s, and others have been created since then.

Right-libertarianism gained a significant measure of recognition in academia with the publication of Harvard University professor Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia in 1974. The book won a National Book Award in 1975.[31][32] Nozick disavowed some of his theory late in life.[33] Academics as well as proponents of the free market perspectives note that free-market capitalist libertarianism has been successfully propagated beyond the United States since the 1970s via think tanks and political parties.[34]

Libertarian philosophies

See also Category:Libertarianism by form.

Libertarian philosophies can be divided on three principal questions: whether the morality of actions are determined consequentially or deontologically, whether or not private property is legitimate, and whether or not the state is legitimate.

Consequentialist / deontological distinction

See also: Non-aggression principle

Consequentialist libertarians defend liberty on the grounds that its consequences are preferable to the products of less-free societies.[35] Deontological libertarians hold that libertarians must defend liberty on principle because aggression and violent coercion are fundamentally immoral, regardless of consequences.[36]

Propertarian / non-propertarian distinction

See also: Propertarianism

Non-propertarian libertarian philosophies hold that liberty is the absence of any form authority and assert that a society based on freedom and equality can be achieved through abolishing authoritarian institutions that control certain means of production and subordinate the majority to an owning class or political and economic elite.[37][page needed] Implicitly, it rejects any authority of private property and thus holds that it is not legitimate for someone to claim private ownership of any resources to the detriment of others.[38][39][page needed][40][page needed][41] Libertarian socialism is a group of political philosophies that promote a non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic, stateless society without private property in the means of production. The term libertarian socialism is also used to differentiate this philosophy from state socialism[42][43] or as a synonym for anarchism.[44][full citation needed][45] Libertarian socialists generally place their hopes in decentralized means of direct democracy such as libertarian municipalism, citizens' assemblies, trade unions and workers' councils.[46]

Propertarian libertarian philosophies define liberty as non-aggression, or the state in which no person or group aggresses against any other person or group, where aggression is defined as the violation of private property.[47] This philosophy, implicitly, recognizes as the sole source of legitimate authority private property. Propertarian libertarians hold that an order of private property is the only one that is both ethical and leads to the best possible outcomes.[48] They generally support the free-market, and are not opposed to any concentration of power (monopolies) provided it is brought about through non-coercive means.[49]

Statist / anarchistic distinction

See also: Anarchism and State (polity)

Libertarians differ on the degree up to which the state can be reduced. Some favor the existence of states and see them as necessary while others favor stateless societies and view the state as being undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful.[50][51]

Supporters of government argue that having defense and courts controlled by the market is an inherent miscarriage of justice because it turns justice into a commodity, thereby conflating justice with economic power.[52] Detractors argue that having defense and courts controlled by the state is both immoral and an inefficient means of achieving both justice and security.[53][54] Libertarians socialists hold that liberty is incompatible with state action based on a class struggle analysis of the state.[55]

Influential Libertarian Philosophers

See also Category:Libertarian theorists

Libertarian groups and movements

See also the categories Libertarian think tanks, Libertarian publications, and Libertarian socialist organisations

Since the 1950s, many American libertarian organizations have adopted a free market, capitalist stance; these include the Center for Libertarian Studies, the Cato Institute, the Foundation for Economic Education (FEE), the International Society for Individual Liberty (ISIL) and the Ludwig von Mises Institute. Libertarians are prominent in the Tea Party. The activist Free State Project, formed in 2001, works to bring 20,000 libertarians to New Hampshire to influence state policy. Less successful similar projects include the Free West Alliance and Free State Wyoming.

Numerous socialist and anarchist libertarian groups existed during the twentieth century, like Libertarian League in America, Libertarian Youth in Spain or the Libertarian Socialist Organisation in Australia.[56][full citation needed][57][failed verification][58] Contemporary examples include the CIB Unicobas union in Italy, Alternative libertaire in France, The Emancipatory Left caucus in The Left party in Germany, Libertarian Communist Organization in France and Argentine Libertarian Federation in Argentine. Scholars have also typified the European "new social movements" as that "'family' of left-libertarian movements in...France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland."[59]

Libertarian political parties

See: Category:Libertarian parties

A number of countries have libertarian parties that run candidates for political office. In the United States, the Libertarian Party of the United States was formed in 1972. The Libertarian Party is the third largest[60][61] American political party, with over 225,000 registered voters in the 35 states that allow registration as a libertarian[62] and has hundreds of party candidates elected or appointed to public office, and has run thousands for office.[63] In the Netherlands there is the Libertarische Partij.[64] In Turkey, two political parties self-identify as libertarian socialist: Freedom and Solidarity Party and Equality and Democracy Party).[65]

Criticisms

See main article: Criticism of libertarianism

Criticisms of libertarianism include deontological criticisms and consequentialist criticisms.

See also

References

  1. ^ Vallentyne, Peter. "Libertarianism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University. Retrieved November 20, 2011.
  2. ^ Roderick T. Long (1998). "Towards a Libertarian Theory of Class" (PDF). Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 303–349: at p. 304. doi:10.1017/S0265052500002028.
  3. ^ Watts, Duncan (2002). Understanding American government and politics: a guide for A2 politics students. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. p. 246.
  4. ^ Woodcock, George. Anarchism: a history of libertarian ideas and movements. Petersborough, Ontario: Broadview press. pp. 11–31 especially 18. ISBN 1-55111-629-4.
  5. ^ Hamowy, Ronald (editor) (2008). "Sociology and Libertarianism". The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. pp. 480–482. ISBN 978-1412965804. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  6. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. Retrieved March 5, 2010. Both endorse full self-ownership, but they differ with respect to the powers agents have to appropriate unappropriated natural resources (land, air, water, etc.). Right-libertarianism holds that typically such resources may be appropriated by the first person who discovers them, mixes her labor with them, or merely claims them—without the consent of others, and with little or no payment to them. Left-libertarianism, by contrast, holds that unappropriated natural resources belong to everyone in some egalitarian manner. It can, for example, require those who claim rights over natural resources to make a payment to others for the value of those rights. This can provide the basis for a kind of egalitarian redistribution {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  7. ^ Otero, Carlos Peregrin (2003). "Introduction to Chomsky's Social Theory". In Carlos Peregrin Otero (ed.). Radical priorities. Noam Chomsky (book author) (3rd ed.). Oakland, California: AK Press. p. 26. ISBN 1-902593-69-3.; Chomsky, Noam (2003). Carlos Peregrin Otero (ed.). Radical priorities (3rd ed.). Oakland, California: AK Press. pp. 227–228. ISBN 1-902593-69-3.
  8. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. Retrieved March 5, 2010. Libertarianism is committed to full self-ownership. A distinction can be made, however, between right-libertarianism and left-libertarianism, depending on the stance taken on how natural resources can be owned {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  9. ^ a b
    • Chomsky, Noam (February 23, 2002). "The Week Online Interviews Chomsky". Z Magazine. Z Communications. Retrieved 21 November 2011. The term libertarian as used in the US means something quite different from what it meant historically and still means in the rest of the world. Historically, the libertarian movement has been the anti-statist wing of the socialist movement. Socialist anarchism was libertarian socialism. In the US, which is a society much more dominated by business, the term has a different meaning. It means eliminating or reducing state controls, mainly controls over private tyrannies. Libertarians in the US don't say let's get rid of corporations. It is a sort of ultra-rightism.
    • Colin Ward (2004), Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 62. "For a century, anarchists have used the word 'libertarian' as a synonym for 'anarchist', both as a noun and an adjective. The celebrated anarchist journal Le Libertaire was founded in 1896. However, much more recently the word has been appropriated by various American free-market philosophers..."
    • Fernandez, Frank (2001), Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement, Charles Bufe translator, Tucson, Arizona: See Sharp Press, p. 9. "Thus, in the United States, the once exceedingly useful term "libertarian" has been hijacked by egotists who are in fact enemies of liberty in the full sense of the word."
  10. ^ Smith, G. W. (2002). Liberalism: Rights, Property and Markets. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9780415223591.
  11. ^ Bevir, Mark (2010-03-18). Encyclopedia of Political Theory. SAGE. ISBN 9781412958653.
  12. ^ Wolff, Jonathan (2006). "Libertarianism, Utility, and Economic Competition" (PDF). Virginia Law Review. 92: 1605.
  13. ^ [unknown] (2007-04-04). "Contractarianism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford, California.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  14. ^ Anthony de Jasay (1996). "Hayek: Some Missing Pieces" (PDF). The Review of Austrian Economics. 9 (1): 107–18. ISSN 0889-3047.
  15. ^ "Foreword". Ordered Anarchy: Jasay and his surroundings. Ashgate Publishing. 2007. p. xiii. ISBN 0-7546-6113-X. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help); Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ B.Franks (2003). "Direct action ethic" (PDF). Anarchist Studies. 11 (1): 13–41: 24–25.
  17. ^ Moseley, Daniel (June 25, 2011). "What is Libertarianism?". Basic Income Studies. 6 (2): 2. Retrieved 15 November 2011. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  18. ^ Roderick T. Long (1998). "Towards a Libertarian Theory of Class" (PDF). Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 303–349: at p. 304. doi:10.1017/S0265052500002028.
  19. ^
  20. ^ Nettlau, Max (1996). A Short History of Anarchism (in English and translated). London: Freedom Press. p. 162. ISBN 9780900384899. OCLC 37529250.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  21. ^ Carlos Peregrin Otero, editor, Noam Chomsky: critical assessments, Volumes 2-3, Taylor & Francis US, 1994,p 617, ISBN 041510694X, 9780415106948. Author? Chapter?
  22. ^ David Boaz (1998). Libertarianism A Primer. London, United Kingdom: The Free Press. pp. 22–25. ISBN 0-684-84768-X.
  23. ^ "Libertarianism". Oxford English Dictionary (database) (3 ed.). 2010. libertarian A.1.(subscription required)
  24. ^ William Belsham (1789). Essays. C. Dilly. p. 11. Original from the University of Michigan, digitized May 21, 2007{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  25. ^ Noam Chomsky, Carlos Peregrín Otero. Language and Politics. AK Press, Oakland, California, 2004, p. 739.
  26. ^ Bookchin, Murray (1986). The Modern Crises. Philadelphia: New Society Publishers. pp. 154–155. ISBN 086571083X.
  27. ^ Henry J. Silverman, ed. (1970). American radical thought: the libertarian tradition. Lexington, Mass.: Heath and Company. p. 279. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help) LCC JA84.U5 S55
  28. ^ Ronald Lora, William Henry Longton, (1999) Conservative press in 20th-century America, p. 367-374, Westport CT: Greenwood Publishing Group
  29. ^ Marc Jason Gilbert, The Vietnam War on campus: other voices, more distant drums, p. 35, 2001, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN0275969096,
  30. ^ Rebecca E. Klatch, A Generation Divided: The New Left, the New Right, and the 1960s, University of California Press, 1999 ISBN , 215–237.
  31. ^ National Book Award: 1975 - Philosophy and Religion
  32. ^ David Lewis Schaefer, Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia, The New York Sun, April 30, 2008.
  33. ^ Misunderstanding Nozick, Again
  34. ^ Steven Teles and Daniel A. Kenney, chapter "Spreading the Word: The diffusion of American Conservativsm in Europe and beyond," (p. 136-169) in Growing apart?: America and Europe in the twenty-first century by ed. Sven Steinmo, Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN , The chapter discusses how libertarian ideas have been more successful at spreading worldwide than social conservative ideas.
  35. ^ Huebert, Jacob H. (2010). Libertarianism Today. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Santa Barbara, Calif. p. 254. ISBN 9780313377549. OCLC 521745105. LCC JC585 .H855 2010[page needed]
  36. ^ Rothbard, Murray N. (1989). For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto. New York: Collier Books. p. 338. ISBN 0020746903. LCC JC599.U5 R66 1978[non-primary source needed][page needed]
  37. ^ Mendes, Manuel da Silva (2011). Socialismo libertario ou Anarchismo. Historia e doutrina (in Portuguese). Adegi Graphics LLC. ASIN B004IKWRH2.
  38. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. Retrieved March 5, 2010. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  39. ^ Will Kymlicka (1995). "libertarianism, left-". In Ted Honderich (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866132-0.
  40. ^ Peter Vallentyne, Hillel Steiner, ed. (2000). Left-libertarianism and its critics: the contemporary debate. New York: Palgrave (St. Martin's Press). p. 393. ISBN 0-312-23699-9.
  41. ^ Eric Mack and Gerald F Gauss (2004). "Classical Liberalism and Libertarianism: The Liberty Tradition". In Gerald F. Gaus, Chandran Kukathas (ed.). Handbook of Political Theory. Sage Publications Inc. pp. 115–131, found at 128. ISBN 9780761967873.
  42. ^ Paul Zarembka. Transitions in Latin America and in Poland and Syria. Emerald Group Publishing, 2007. p. 25
  43. ^ Guerin, Daniel, (2011) [1970] Anarchism: from theory to practice [originally published as French: Anarchisme, de la doctrine à l'action] reprinted online: libcom.org [first published in English: New York: Monthly Review Press], §1 sub-§"A Matter of Words." "At the end of the century in France, Sebastien Faure took up a word originated in 1858 by one Joseph Dejacque to make it the title of a journal, Le Libertaire. Today the terms "anarchist" and "libertarian" have become interchangeable.… Some contemporary anarchists have tried to clear up the misunderstanding by adopting a more explicit term: they align themselves with libertarian socialism or communism."
  44. ^ Ostergaard, Geoffrey. "Anarchism". ??Editor?? A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Blackwell Publishing, 1991. p. 21.
  45. ^ Chomsky, Noam and Carlos Peregrín Otero. Language and Politics. AK Press, 2004, p. 739
  46. ^ Rocker, Rudolf (2004). Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice. Oakland, California: AK Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-902593-92-0.
  47. ^ For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto, Murray N. Rothbard[failed verification][page needed][non-primary source needed]
  48. ^ The Ethics of Liberty, Murray N. Rothbard[failed verification][page needed]
  49. ^ Human Action, Ludwig von Mises[failed verification][page needed]
  50. ^ Malatesta, Errico. "Towards Anarchism". MAN!. Los Angeles: International Group of San Francisco. OCLC 3930443."Anarchism". The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2005. p. 14. Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable. The following sources cite anarchism as a political philosophy: Mclaughlin, Paul (2007). Anarchism and Authority. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 59. ISBN 0-7546-6196-2. Johnston, R. (2000). The Dictionary of Human Geography. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers. p. 24. ISBN 0-631-20561-6.
  51. ^ Slevin, Carl. "Anarchism." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003.
  52. ^ Holcombe, Randall G. "Government: Unnecessary but Inevitable" (PDF). The Independent Review. 8 (3): 325–342 at pages 326–328 (armed forces), 330–331 (market failure in protective services), 332–333 (police).
  53. ^ The Ethics of Liberty, Murray N. Rothbard
  54. ^ The Machienry of Freedom, David D. Friedman[full citation needed]
  55. ^ Lewis Call (2002) Postmodern anarchism Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 66–68.
  56. ^ Alexandre Skirda (2002). Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. Oakland, California: AK Press. p. 183. ISBN 9781902593197. OCLC 50014468. LCC HX828 .S55 2002
  57. ^ Charles Bufe (1992). The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. ??!See Sharp Press. p. iv.
  58. ^ Kathyln Gay, ed. (2006). Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University of Michigan. pp. 126–127.
  59. ^ David S. Meyer and Lindsey Lupo (2009). "Assessing the Politics of Protest: political science and the study of social movements". Handbook of Social Movements Across Disciplines. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. New York: Springer. p. 130. ISBN 9780387765808. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  60. ^ Elizabeth Hovde (2009-05-11). "Americans mixed on Obama's big government gamble". The Oregonian.
  61. ^ Gairdner, William D. (2007) [1990]. The Trouble with Canada: A Citizen Speaks Out. Toronto, Canada: BPS Books. pp. 101–102. ISBN 9780978440220. The first, we would call "libertarianism" today. Libertarians wanted to get all government out of people's lives. This movement is still very much alive today. In fact, in the United States, it is the third largest political party, and ran 125 candidates during the U.S. election of 1988.
  62. ^ Richard Winger (March 1, 2008). "Early 2008 Registration Totals". Ballot Access News. 23 (11). San Francisco, CA: Richard Winger. Retrieved 2010-07-19.[self-published source?]
  63. ^ "Our History". Our Party. Washington D.C., USA: Libertarian National Committee [USA]. Retrieved 2011-01-18.
  64. ^ Lucardie, Paul (2002). Nederland Stromenland: Een Geschiedenis van de Politieke Stromingen. van Gorcum: Assen. p. 117. ISBN 9789023238522.
  65. ^ Talbot, Michael (June 11, 2011). "Tommorow's elections in Turkey". Third Estate. Cambridge. Retrieved January 07, 2012. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Bibliography

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