Hundred Years' War

Hundred Years' War
Clockwise, from top left: John of Bohemia at the Battle of Crécy, English and Franco-Castilian fleets at the Battle of La Rochelle, Henry V and the English army at the Battle of Agincourt, Joan of Arc rallies French forces at the Siege of Orléans
Date 1337–1453 Location France, the Low Countries, England, Spain Result French victory House of Valois maintained throne of France Territorial changes England lost all continental territory except for the Pale of Calais
Belligerents
France	England

The Hundred Years' War was a series of wars waged from 1337 to 1453 between England and France. It was primarily fought over territory in what became France and the low countries. The beginnings of the dynastic conflict between the crowns of England and France dated back to William the Conqueror who became King of England in 1066, while remaining Duke of Normandy. As dukes of Normandy and Anjou, the English kings owed homage to the King of France but as with earlier dukes they retained a great deal of autonomy. Feudal homage was a ceremony in which a feudal tenant or vassal (here, Normandy) pledged reverence and submission to his feudal lord (France). Other important factors include various contrasting attempts to control the market for English wool. At the beginning of the Hundred Years War, the Crown of England still controlled significant territory on the European continent and claimed even more, but by the end of the period, it had lost most of those lands to France.

Background

See also: The Anarchy

Homage of Edward I of England (kneeling) to Philip IV (seated). As Duke of Aquitaine, Edward was a vassal to the French king.

In 1153, the Anglo-Norman dynasty that had ruled England, since the Norman Conquest of 1066, was brought to an end by an alliance between Geoffrey of Anjou and Robert of Gloucester, with Geoffrey's son Henry becoming the first of the Angevin kings of England. The King of England directly ruled more territory on the continent than did the King of France himself. A potential difficulty was that as dukes of Normandy and Anjou, the English kings owed homage to the King of France, however as the dukes had large amounts of autonomy from the 11th century onwards it was not really a problem in practice.

John of England inherited this large continental territory from King Richard I. However, Philip II of France acted decisively to exploit the weaknesses of King John, both legally and militarily, and by 1204 had succeeded in wresting control of most of the ancient territorial possessions. The subsequent Battle of Bouvines (1214), along with the Saintonge War (1242) and finally the War of Saint-Sardos (1324), reduced England's holdings on the continent to a few small provinces in Gascony, and the complete loss of Normandy.

Dynastic turmoil: 1314–1328

See also: Absolute cognatic primogeniture

When Philip IV died in 1314, his eldest son Louis X inherited the throne. Louis X died, in 1316, leaving a daughter (Joan II of Navarre) and a pregnant wife. The wife produced a son John I who died in infancy. Philip IV's second-eldest son, Philip, Count of Poitiers, sought the throne for himself to the exclusion of his niece (Louis X's daughter). This was opposed by several of the nobility, such as Odo IV, Duke of Burgundy (Joan II of Navarre's maternal uncle), Charles of Valois (Philip's uncle) and Charles, Count of La Marche (Philip's brother). However, Philip was able to negotiate them into silence; Philip's uncle and brother may have realized that this would bring them closer to the throne, while the Duke of Burgundy married Philip's eldest daughter, Joan III, Countess of Burgundy. Up until that time, all fiefs in France passed by cognatic primogeniture, a system of inheritance whereby the oldest child inherited irrespective of gender. Philip had to provide some good justification why the French throne should pass in a different manner. For this, Philip exalted the throne of France to be equal to that of the Holy Roman Emperor and the Papacy — an office that could be entrusted to men only. The principle that a woman could not reign in France was confirmed when Philip himself died leaving only daughters, and the next brother, Charles the Fair(Charles IV) succeeded unchallenged.

Philip III of France r. 1270-1285

Philip IV of France r. 1285-1314

Charles of Valois d. 1325

Louis X of France r. 1314-1316

Philip V of France r. 1316-1322

Charles IV of France r. 1322-1328

Isabella of France

Edward II of England

Philip VI of France r. 1328-1350

Joan II of Navarre b. 1312

Joan III, Countess of Burgundy b. 1308

Edward III of England b. 1312

Charles of Évreux b. 1332

Philip of Burgundy b. 1323

Charles IV died in 1328, also only leaving daughters, the nearest male in line to the throne was Edward III of England. The French nobility, however, balked at the prospect of being ruled by the king of England. Edward had inherited his right through his mother Isabella, the sister of the dead king; but should she be able to transmit a right that she did not possess? An assembly of the French aristocracy decided that the nearest heir through male ancestry was Charles IV's first cousin, Philip, Count of Valois and that he should be crowned Philip VI.

Beginning of the war: 1337–1360

Main article: Hundred Years' War (1337–1360)

See also: War of the Breton Succession and Auld Alliance

In the 11th century, Gascony had been incorporated into Aquitaine (also Guyenne or Guienne) and formed with it the province of Guyenne and Gascony (French: Guyenne-et-Gascogne). The English kings became dukes of Aquitaine, after Henry II married Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152, the lands were held in vassalage to the French crown. By the 13th century the terms Aquitaine, Guyenne and Gascony were virtually synonymous. At the beginning of Edward IIIs reign the only part of Aquitaine that remained in English hands was the duchy of Gascony and so Gascony was the term used for the territory held by the English in south west France, however they still used the title Duke of Aquitaine.

For the first 10 years of Edward III's reign, Gascony had been a major point of friction, the English argued that as Charles IV had not acted in a proper way towards his tenant holding fealty towards him, then the English should be able to hold the duchy free of any French suzerainty. However, this line of argument could not be maintained by the English, so in 1329 Edward III paid homage to the new French king, Philip VI. Despite this concession the French continued to put pressure on the English administration in Gascony.

Gascony was not the only factor behind the hundred year war. One of Edwards’s influential advisers was Robert III of Artois. Robert was an exile from the French court having fallen out with Philip VI over an inheritance claim. He urged Edward to start a war to reclaim the Kingdom of France. Robert was able to provide extensive intelligence on the French court to the English.

The kings of England had been trying to subjugate the Scots for some time. In 1295 there was a treaty, between France and Scotland, during the reign of Philip the Fair. Charles IV formally renewed the treaty in 1326, undertaking that if England invaded Scotland then France would take steps to support Scotland, similarly the Scots would support the French in the event that England attacked France. Thus Edward could not succeed in his plans for Scotland while they could count on French support.

Philip VI had assembled a large naval fleet, off Marseilles as part of an ambitious plan for a crusade to the Holy Land, however the plan was abandoned and the fleet including elements of the Scottish navy moved to the English Channel off Normandy in 1336, threatening England. To deal with this crisis Edward proposed that the English raise two armies, one to deal with the Scots at a suitable time, the other to proceed at once to Gascony. At the same time ambassadors were to be sent to France with a proposed treaty for the French king.

At the end of April 1337 Philip was invited to meet the delegation from England, but refused. The arrière-ban, literally a call to arms, was proclaimed throughout France starting on 30 April 1337. Then in May of 1337 Philip met with his Great council in Paris, it was agreed that the duchy of Aquitaine, effectively Gascony, should be taken back into the Kings hands on the grounds that Edward III was in breach of his obligations as vassal also that he had sheltered the Kings 'mortal enemy' Robert d'Artois and other unspecified reasons. Edward responded to the confiscation of Aquitaine by challenging Philip’s right to the French throne. When Charles VI had died there had been a claim for the succession of the French throne by Edward, through the right of his mother Isabella (Charles IV’s sister), daughter of Philip IV. Any claim was seen to be invalidated by Edwards homage to Philip VI in 1329. However Edward now revived his claim, and in 1340 formally assumed the title 'King of France and the French Royal Arms'. On the 26 January 1340, Edward III formally received homage from Guy, the half brother of the Count of Flanders. The civic authorities of Ghent, Ypres and Bruges proclaimed Edward as King of France. Edwards purpose was to strengthen his alliances with the Low Countries. His supporters would be able to claim that they were loyal to the true king of France and not rebels against Philip. In February 1340, Edward returned to England to try and raise more funds and also deal with political difficulties.

Battle of Sluys from a manuscript of Froissart's Chronicles, Bruge, c.1470

Edward III had commanded that his Chancellor should sit on the woolsack in council as a symbol of the pre-eminence of the wool trade . At the time there was about 110,000 sheep in Sussex alone. The great medieval English monasteries produced large surpluses, of wool, which were sold to Europe and successive governments were able to make large amounts of money from taxation of the trade. France's sea power led to economic disruptions, with England having to cut down on the wool trade to Flanders and the wine trade from Gascony. Edward, with his fleet, sailed from England on 22 June 1340 and arrived, the next day, off the Zwyn estuary. The French fleet could be seen in a defensive formation off the port of Sluys. The English fleet apparently tricked the French into believing they were withdrawing, however when the wind turned in the late afternoon, the English fleet attacked with the wind and sun behind them.The French fleet was almost completely destroyed in what became known as the Battle of Sluys. After this, England was able to dominate the English Channel for the rest of the war, preventing French invasions. At this point Edwards funds ran out and the war probably would have come to an end, however the Duke of Brittany died precipitating a succession dispute between the Duke's half brother John of Montfort and Charles of Blois nephew of Philip VI.

Battle of Crécy, 1346

In 1341, conflict over the succession to the Duchy of Brittany began the Breton War of Succession, in which Edward backed John of Montfort and Philip backed Charles of Blois. Action for the next few years focused around a back and forth struggle in Brittany, with the city of Vannes changing hands several times, as well as further campaigns in Gascony with mixed success for both sides.

In July 1346, Edward mounted a major invasion across the Channel, landing in the Cotentin. The English army captured Caen in just one day, surprising the French who had expected the city to hold out much longer. Philip gathered a large army to oppose Edward, who chose to march northward toward the Low Countries, pillaging as he went, rather than attempting to take and hold territory. Finding himself unable to outmanoeuvre Philip, Edward positioned his forces for battle, and Philip's army attacked. The Battle of Crécy was a complete disaster for the French, largely credited to the English longbowmen and the French king, who allowed his army to attack before they were ready. Philip appealed to his Scottish allies to help with a diversionary attack on England. King David II of Scotland responded by invading northern England but he was captured and his army defeated at the Battle of Neville's Cross, on 17 October 1346, this greatly reduced the threat from Scotland. In France, Edward was able to proceed north unopposed and besieged the city of Calais on the English Channel, capturing it in 1347. This became an important strategic asset for the English. It allowed them to keep troops in France safely. Calais would remain under English control until the successful French siege in 1558.

In 1348, the Black Death began to ravage Europe. In 1356, after it had passed and England was able to recover financially, Edward's son and namesake, the Prince of Wales, known as the Black Prince, invaded France from Gascony, winning a great victory in the Battle of Poitiers. John II of France, (known as John the Good) was captured on the field of battle and eventually taken to England, in his absence John's son the dauphine (later to become Charles V of France) took over as regent.

Edward III counting the dead on the battlefield of Crécy

After the Battle of Poiters, chaos ruled in town and country, many of the French nobles and mercenaries went on the rampage. A contemporary report said:

"... all went ill with the kingdom and the State was undone. Thieves and robbers rose up everywhere in the land. The Nobles despised and hated all others and took no thought for usefulness and profit of lord and men. They subjected and despoiled the peasants and the men of the villages. In no wise did they defend their country from it's enemies; rather did they trample it underfoot, robbing and pillaging the peasants' goods..."
From the Chronicles of Jean de Venette

Then in 1358, according to the French medieval chronicler Jean Froissart, as there was no leadership in the countryside people revolted against the French nobility, who they accused of shaming the realm. The revolt became known as as the Jacquerie.

Edward invaded France, for the third and last time, hoping to capitalise on the discontent and seize the throne. The dauphine's strategy was that of none engagement with the English army in the field. However Edward wanted to be crowned King of France so chose the cathedral city of Reims as the place of his coronation, Reims was traditionally where the Kings of France were crowned. The citizens of Reims had other ideas, they were able to build and reinforce the defences of the city before Edward and his army arrived. Edward beseiged the city for five weeks, the defences held out and there was no coronation. Edward moved on to Paris, where after a few skirmishes in the suburbs he retreated, the French made contact with him and forced him to negotiate. Edward III, of England and John II, of France, negotiated the Treaty of Brétigny which was signed in 1360. The treaty gave Edward enlarged sovereignty over Aquitaine in return for abandoning his claim to the throne of France.

First peace: 1360–1369

Main article: Treaty of Brétigny

John II had been held captive in England, the Treaty of Brétigny set his ransom at 3 million crowns. John's son Louis of Anjou stood in as a replacement hostage at English held Calais, while John returned to France to try and raise funds to pay off the ransom. When Louis escaped in 1362 John gave himself up and returned to captivity in England.

The French crown had been at odds with Navarre since 1354 and in 1363 the Navaresse used John II's captivity in London and the political weakness of the dauphine to try and seize power. Although there was no formal treaty in place, Edward III supported the Navaresse moves particularly as there was a prospect that he might get control over the northern and western provinces as a consequence. With this in mind Edward deliberately slowed the peace negotiations. In 1364 John II died in London, while still in honorable captivity. Charles V succeeded him as king of France. On 6 May 1364, one month after the dauphine's accession and three days before his coronation as Charles V, the Navaresse suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Cocherel.

The Treaty of Brétigny had made Edward renounce his claim to the French crown. At the same time, it greatly expanded his territory in Aquitaine and confirmed his conquest of Calais. The ratified version, the Treaty of Calais, had one small difference: the exchange of renunciations would happen after the territorial exchanges, not immediately, as had been stated in the Treaty of Brétigny.

French ascendancy under Charles V: 1369–1389

Main article: Hundred Years' War (1369–1389)

See also: Castilian Civil War

Statue of Du Guesclin in Dinan

In 1366 there was a civil war of succession in Castile the ruler, Peter of Castile's forces, was pitched against those of his half brother Henry of Trastámara. The English crown supported Peter and the French Henry. The French forces were led by Bertrand du Guesclin, a Breton, who rose from relatively humble beginnings to prominence as one of France's war leaders. Charles V provided a force of 12,000, with du Guesclin at their head, to support Trastámara in his invasion of Castile. Peter appealed to the Black Prince, for help, but none was forthcoming so Peter had to escape to exile in Aquitaine. The Black Prince had previously agreed that he would support Peter's claims but being concerned about the terms of the treaty of Brétigny he assisted Peter as a representative of Aquitaine, not England and led an Anglo-Gascon army into Castille. Peter was restored to power after Henry du Trastámara's army was defeated at the Battle of Najera.

Although the Castilians had agreed to fund the Black Prince for his help, none was forthcoming, the prince was also was suffering from ill health so returned with his army to Aquitaine. Then to pay off the debts incurred during the campaign in Castille, the prince instituted a hearth tax in Aquitaine. Arnaud-Amaniieu VIII, lord of Albret had fought on the Black Prince's side during the war. Albret, who already had become discontented by the influx of English administrators into the enlarged Aquitaine, refused to allow the tax to be collected in his lordship. He then joined a group of Gascon lords who appealed to Charles V for support in their refusal to pay the tax. Charles V summoned one Gascon lord and also the Black Prince to hear the case in his Parlement in Paris. The Black Prince's answer was that he would go to Paris with sixty thousand men behind him. War broke out again, and Edward III resumed the title of King of France. Charles V declared that all the English possessions in France were forfeited, and before the end of 1369 all Aquitaine was in full revolt.

With the Black Prince gone from Castille, Henry du Trastámara led a second invasion that ended with Peter's death at the Battle of Montiel in March 1369. The new Castilian regime then went on to provide naval support to French campaigns against Aquitaine and England.

With his health continuing to deteriate the Black Prince returned home to England in January 1371, where by now his father Edward III was elderly and also in poor health. The prince's illness was debilitating and limited what he could do. He died on the 8 June 1376. Edward III only just outlived his son and died the following year 21 June 1377; he was succeeded by the Black Prince's second son Richard II who was still a child. The treaty at Brétigny had seen Edward III and England with enlarged holdings in France, however a small professional French army under the leadership of du Guesclin pushed the English back and by the time of Charles V's death in 1380, the English only held Calais.

It was usual to appoint a regent in the case of a child monarch, but no regent was appointed for Richard II who nominally exercised all the power of kingship from the date of his accession in 1377. However, between 1377 and 1380 Richard's government was in the hands of a series of councils. The political community preferred this to a regency led by the king's uncle, John of Gaunt, yet Gaunt remained highly influential.

Richard had to face many challenges during his reign including the Peasants' Revolt led by Wat Tyler in 1381, an Anglo-Scottish war in 1384-1385, then a group of noblemen known as the Lords Appellant took over government between 1387 and 1389. His attempts to raise taxes to pay for his Scottish adventure and also the cost for the protection of Calais against the French made him increasingly unpopular.

Second peace: 1389–1415

See also: Civil war between the Armagnacs and the Burgundians

In 1399, after John of Gaunt died, Richard II disinherited Gaunt's son, Henry of Bolingbroke, who had previously been exiled. Bolingbroke returned to England in June 1399 and with his supporters managed to depose Richard; he then had himself crowned Henry IV. One of the causes of Richard's unpopularity had been his reluctance to continue the war in France. Henry was aware of this, and planned to resume hostilities. However this did not happen, as he was plagued with financial problems, declining health and was kept busy putting down rebellions.

In Scotland, the change in regime in England prompted a fresh series of border raids which were countered by an invasion in 1402 and the defeat of a Scottish army at the Battle of Homildon Hill. A dispute over the spoils of this action between Henry and Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland resulted in a long and bloody struggle between the two for control of northern England, which was resolved only with the almost complete destruction of the Percy family by 1408.

In Wales, Owain Glyndŵr was declared prince of Wales on 16 September 1400, he was acknowledged as the leader of the most serious and widespread rebellion against English authority in Wales since the conquest of 1282–3. The rebellion was not finally put down until 1415 and actually resulted in Welsh semi-independence for a number of years.

In the meantime Charles VI of France was descending into madness, and an open conflict for power began between his cousin John the Fearless, and his brother, Louis of Orléans. After Louis's assassination, the Armagnac family took political power in opposition to John. By 1410, both sides were bidding for the help of English forces in a civil war.

Throughout this period, England was also faced with repeated raids by pirates, which heavily damaged trade and the navy. There is some evidence that Henry IV used state-legalised piracy as a form of warfare in the English channel. He used these privateering campaigns to put pressure on enemies without the risk of open war. The French responded in kind and French pirates operating under Scottish protection, raided many English coastal towns.

The domestic and dynastic difficulties faced by England and France in this period quieted the war for a decade.

Henry IV of England died in 1413 and was replaced by his eldest son Henry V. Because of Charles VI of France's mental illness, his power was exercised by royal princes whose rivalries continued to cause deep divisions in France. Henry V was well aware of these divisions and hoped to exploit them. In 1414 while he held court at Leicester, he received ambassadors from Burgandy.

Henry accredited envoys to visit the French king and make clear his territorial claims in France; he also demanded the hand of Charles VI's youngest daughter Catherine of Valois. These demands not being met by the French Henry prepared for war.

Resumption of the war under Henry V: 1415–1429

Main article: Hundred Years' War (1415–1453)

In August 1415 Henry V sailed from England and landed with a force of about 10,500 fighting men and laid seige to Harfleur, the city resisted for longer than expected, but finally surrendered on 22 September 1415. Because of the unexpected delay most of the campaign season was gone. So rather than march on Paris directly, he elected to make a raiding expedition across France toward English-occupied Calais. In a campaign reminiscent of Crécy, he found himself outmanoeuvred and low on supplies, and had to make a stand against a much larger French army at the Battle of Agincourt, north of the Somme. Despite the problems and having a smaller force, his victory was near-total; the French defeat was catastrophic, with the loss of many of the Armagnac leaders. About 40% of the French nobility was lost at Agincourt. Henry apparently concerned that so many prisoners were a security risk, as there were more French prisoners than the entire English army, he ordered their killing.

Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the Battle of Agincourt

Henry retook much of Normandy, including Caen in 1417 and Rouen on January 19, 1419, making Normandy English for the first time in two centuries. A formal alliance was made with the Duchy of Burgundy, who had taken Paris, after the assassination of Duke John the Fearless in 1419. In 1420, Henry met with king Charles VI, they signed the Treaty of Troyes, by which Henry finally would get to marry Charles' daughter Catherine of Valois and Henry's heirs would inherit the throne of France. The Dauphin, Charles VII, was declared illegitimate. Henry formally entered Paris later that year and the agreement was ratified by the Estates-General.

On 22 March 1421 Henry V's progress, in his French campaign, experienced an unexpected reverse. Henry had left his brother and heir presumptive Thomas, duke of Clarence in charge while he returned to England. Clarence engaged a Franco-Scottish force led by John Stewart, Earl of Buchan at the battle of Baugé. It seem that Clarence attacked before his army were fully assembled. He was killed and the English defeated in the ensuing battle.

Henry returned to France and landed at Calais on 10 June 1421. From Calais he went onto Paris then visiting Chartres and Gâtinais before returning to Paris. From there he decided to attack the dauphin held town of Meaux. It turned out to be more difficult to overcome than first thought, the siege began about 6 October 1421 and the town held on for seven months before finally falling on 11 May 1422.

At the end of May Henry was joined by his queen and together with the French court, they went to rest at Senlis. While there it became apparent that he was ill(possibly dysentery) and when he set out to the Upper Loire it was evident that he would not be able to make it so was diverted to the royal castle at Vincennes, near Paris where he died 31 August 1422. The elderly and insane Charles VI of France died, two months later, on 21 October 1422. Henry left an only child, his nine month old son, Henry, later to become Henry VI.

On his deathbed, Henry V had given the duke of Bedford the responsibility of English France (as Henry VI was only an infant). So the war in France continued under Bedford's generalship, and several battles were won. The English won a decisive victory at the Battle of Verneuil, (17 August 1424). At the battle of Baugé Clarence had rushed into battle without the support of the English archers. At Verneuil the archers were used to devastating effect against the Franco-Scottish army. The effect of the battle was to virtually destroy the dauphin's field army and to eliminate the Scots as a significant military force for the rest of the war.

Joan of Arc's appearance sparked a revival of French spirits and the tide began to turn against the English.

In 1428, the English layed siege to Orléans. Their force was insufficient to fully invest the city. Then in 1429, Joan of Arc convinced the Dauphin to send her to the siege, saying she had received visions from God telling her to drive out the English. She raised the morale of the local troops and they attacked the English Redoubts, forcing the English to lift the siege. Inspired by Joan, the French took several English strong points on the Loire.

Shortly afterwards, a French army broke through the English archers at Patay defeating an army commanded by John Fastolf and John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury. This victory opened the way for the Dauphin to march to Reims for his coronation as Charles VII (16 July 1429).

Joan changed the way that the French forces engaged with the English in battle. Her tactics were not to engage prepared English lines, with a full frontal assault, as had been the traditional way.

French victory: 1429–1453

Hundred Years' War evolution. French territory: yellow; English: grey; Burgundian: dark grey.

Henry VI was eventually crowned king of England, at Westminster Abbey on 5 November 1429 and king of France at Notre-Dame, in Paris, on 16 December 1431.

The first Western image of a battle with cannon: the Siege of Orleans in 1429.

Joan was captured by the Burgundians in 1430, Charles refused to pay her ransom so she was sold to the English, they tried her as a witch, Joan was found guilty and executed by being burned at the stake on 30 May 1431.

After Joan of Arc's death the fortunes of war turned remorselessly against the English. Most of Henry's royal advisers were against making peace with the French.There were different factions, the duke of Bedford wanted to defend Normandy, the duke of Gloucester was committed to just Calais whereas Cardinal Beaufort was inclined to peace. Negotiations were stalled. It seems that at the congress of Arras, in the summer of 1435, where the duke of Beaufort was mediator, the English were unrealistic in their demands. A few days after the congress ended in September, Philip III, duke of Burgundy deserted to Charles VII, signing the Treaty of Arras that returned Paris to the King of France. This was a major blow to English sovereignty in France. Then the duke of Bedford died 14 September 1435 and was replaced by a lesser man.

Burgundy's allegiance remained fickle, but their focus on expanding their domains into the Low Countries left them little energy to intervene in France. The long truces that marked the war also gave Charles time to reorganise his army and government, replacing his feudal levies with a more modern professional army that could put its superior numbers to good use, and centralising the French state. A castle that once could only be captured after a prolonged siege would now fall after a few days from bombardment by cannons with the French artillery having the reputation as the best in the world.

By 1449, the French had retaken Rouen, and in 1450 the Count of Clermont and Arthur de Richemont, Earl of Richmond, of the Montfort family (the future Arthur III, Duke of Brittany) caught an English army attempting to relieve Caen at the Battle of Formigny and defeated it, the English army having been attacked from the flank and rear by Richemont's force just as they were on the verge of beating Clermont's army.

After Charles VII's succesful campaign in retaking Normandy in 1450, he concentrated his efforts on Gascony the last province held by the English. Bordeaux, the capital of Gascony, was beseiged and surrendered to the French on 30 June 1451. Largely due to the English sympathies of the Gascon people this was reversed when John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury and his army retook the city on 23 October 1452. However, the English were defeated at the Battle of Castillon 17 July 1453. Talbot had been persuaded to engage the French army at Castillon near to Bordeaux. During the battle the French appeared to retreat towards their camp. The French camp at Castillon had been laid out by Charles VII's ordinance officer Jean Bureau and this was instrumental in the French success as when the French cannon opened fire, from their positions in the camp, the English took severe casualties including the death of both Talbot and his son.

After three hundred years, English rule in Gascony was over as was the hundred year war. The Battle of Castillon is considered the last battle of the Hundred Years' War. The English were in no position to carry on the war as they faced several years of unrest at home, culminating in a civil war known as the Wars of the Roses that started in 1455.

Significance

The Battle of Formigny (1450)

The Hundred Years' War was a time of military evolution. Weapons, tactics, army structure, and the societal meaning of war all changed, partly in response to the demands of the war, partly through advancement in technology, and partly through lessons that warfare taught.

Before the Hundred Years' War, heavy cavalry was considered the most powerful unit in an army, but by the war's end, this belief had shifted. The heavy horse was increasingly negated by the use of the longbow (and, later, another long-distance weapon: firearms) and fixed defensive positions of men-at-arms — tactics which helped lead to English victories at Crécy and Agincourt. Learning from the Scots, the English began using lightly armoured mounted troops — later called dragoons — who would dismount in order to fight battles. By the end of the Hundred Years' War, this meant a fading of the expensively outfitted, highly trained heavy cavalry, and the eventual end of the armoured knight as a military force and the nobility as a political one.

The war also stimulated nationalistic sentiment. It devastated France as a land, but it also awakened French nationalism. The Hundred Years' War accelerated the process of transforming France from a feudal monarchy to a centralized state. The conflict became one of not just English and French kings but one between the English and French peoples. There were constant rumours in England that the French meant to invade and destroy the English language. National feeling that emerged out of such rumours unified both France and England further. The Hundred Years War basically confirmed the fall of the French language in England, which had served as the language of the ruling classes and commerce there from the time of the Norman conquest until 1362.

Timeline

Battles

Further information: List of Hundred Years' War battles

Important figures

England

King Edward III	1327–1377	Edward II's son
King Richard II	1377–1399	Edward III's grandson
King Henry IV	1399–1413	Edward III's grandson
King Henry V	1413–1422	Henry IV's son
King Henry VI	1422–1461	Henry V's son
Edward, the Black Prince	1330–1376	Edward III's son
John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster	1340–1399	Edward III's son
John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford	1389–1435	Henry IV's son
Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster	1306–1361	Knight
John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury	1384–1453	Knight
Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York	1411–1460	Knight
Sir John Fastolf	1378?–1459	Knight

France

King Philip VI	1328–1350
King John II	1350–1364	Philip VI's son
King Charles V	1364–1380	John II's son
Louis I of Anjou	1380–1382	John II's son
King Charles VI	1380–1422	Charles V's son
King Charles VII	1422–1461	Charles VI's son
Joan of Arc	1412–1431	Commander
Jean de Dunois	1403–1468	Knight
Gilles de Rais	1404–1440	Knight
Bertrand du Guesclin	1320–1380	Knight
Jean Bureau	13??–1463	Knight
La Hire	1390–1443	Knight

Burgundy

Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy	1363–1404	Son of John II of France
John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy	1404–1419	Son of Philip the Bold
Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy	1419–1467	Son of John the Fearless

Memory and impact

The spread of the Black Death (with modern borders).

Lowe (1997) argues that opposition to the war helped to shape England's early modern political culture. Although anti-war and pro-peace spokesmen generally failed to influence outcomes at the time, they had a long-term impact. England showed decreasing enthusiasm for a conflict deemed not in the national interest, yielding only losses in return for the economic burdens it imposed. In comparing this English cost-benefit analysis with French attitudes, given that both countries suffered from weak leaders and undisciplined soldiers, Lowe notes that the French understood that warfare was necessary to expel the foreigners occupying their homeland. Furthermore French kings found alternative ways to finance the war - sales taxes, debasing the coinage - and were less dependent than the English on tax levies passed by national legislatures. English anti-war critics thus had more to work with than the French.

Bubonic Plague and warfare depleted the overall population of Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. France, for example, had a population of about 17 million, which by the end of the Hundred Years War had declined by about one-half. Some regions were affected much more than others. Normandy lost three-quarters of its population during the war. In the Paris region, the population between 1328 and 1470 was reduced by at least two-thirds.

See also

• Timeline of the Hundred Years' War
• French military history
• British military history
• Anglo-French relations
• Medieval demography
• Second Hundred Years' War- this is the name given by some historians to the near-continuous series of conflicts between Britain and France from 1688–1815, beginning with the Glorious Revolution and ending with the Battle of Waterloo.

References

• Bartlett, Robert (2000). J.M.Roberts (ed.). England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings 1075 -1225. London: OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-925101-8.
• Curry, Anne (2002). The Hundred Years War 1337-1453. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-269-5.
• Darby, H. C. (1976 New edition). The British islands and their vegetation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29144-5. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
• Davis, Paul K (2003). Besieged: 100 Great Sieges from Jericho to Sarajevo 2nd. Ed. Santa Barbara CA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-521930-9.
• "Encyclopædia Britannica Online". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
• Favier, Jean (1980). La Guerre de Cent Ans. Paris: Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-00898-1.
• Friar, Stephen (2004). The Sutton Companion to Local History. Sparkford, England: Sutton. ISBN 0-7509-2723-2.
• Froissart, Jean (1895). Macaulay; George Campbell (ed.). The Chronicles of Froissart. London: Macmillan and Son. Retrieved 24 September 2012. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• Gormley, Larry (2007). "eHistory:The Hundred Years War: Overview". Ohio State University. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
• Grummitt, David (2008). The Calais Garrison: War and Military Service in England, 1436-1558. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-398-7.
• Guignebert, Charles (1930). A Short History of the French People. Vol 1. New York: Macmilan Company. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Harris, Robin (1994). Studies in History 71: Valois Guyenne. Woodbridge, Surrey: Boydell Press. ISBN 0-86193-226-9.
• Hattendorf, John B; Unger, Richard W, eds. (2003). War at Sea in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-903-6.
• Holmes, Jr, Urban T; Schutz, Alexander H (1948). A History of the French Language, Revised ed. Columbus, OH: Harold L. Hedrick.
• Lee, Cristopher (1998). This Sceptred Isle:55BC-1901. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-140-26133-8.
• Ladurie, Emmanuel Le Roy (1987). The French peasantry, 1450-1660. Berkeley and LA: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05523-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Lowe, Ben (1997). Imagining Peace: History of Early English Pacifist Ideas. University Park PA: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0271016892.
• Mortimer, Ian (2008). The Fears of Henry IV: the Life of England's Self-Made King. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-1-844-13529-5.
• Nicolle, David (2012). The Fall of English France 1449-53. Colchester, Essex: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84908-616-5.
• Ormrod, W Mark (2001). Edward III. London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-30-011910-7.
• Le Patourel, John (1984). Jones, Michael (ed.). Feudal Empires:Norman and Plantagenet. London: Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 0-907628-22-2. Retrieved 26 September 2012.
• Preston, Richard (1991). Men in arms: a history of warfare and its interrelationships with Western society. 5th Edition. Beverley MA: Wadsworth Publishing Co Inc. ISBN 0-03-033428-4. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Prestwich, Michael (1988). English Monarchs: Edward I. Berkeley and LA: University of California. ISBN 0-520-06266-3.
• Prestwich, Michael (2005). J.M.Roberts (ed.). Plantagenet England. Oxford: OUP. ISBN 978-0-1. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: length (help)
• Previte-Orton, C.W (1978). The shorter Cambridge Medieval History 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20963-3.
• Rogers, Clifford J, ed. (2010). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology. Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533403-6.
• Sumption, Jonathan (1991). The Hundred Years War I: Trial by Battle. Philidelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1655-5.
• Turchin, Peter (2003). Historical dynamics: why states rise and fall. Princeton: Princeton University. ISBN 0-691-11669-5.
• Vauchéz, Andre, ed. (2000). Encyclopedia of the Middle ages. Volume 1. Cambridge: James Clark. ISBN 1-57958-282-6.
• de Venette, Jean (1953). Newall, Richard A (ed.). The Chronicle of Jean de Venette. Translated by Jean Birdsall. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Wagner, John A (2006). Encyclopedia of the Hundred Years War. Westport CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-32736-x. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)

External links

• Jeanne d'Arc. Online University research project.
• The Hundred Years War and the History of Navarre
• Timeline of the Hundred Years War
• Extensive website about Joan of Arc
• The Hundred Years' War (1336–1565) by Dr. Lynn H. Nelson, University of Kansas Emeritus
• The Hundred Years' War information and game
• The Company Of Chivalry: Re-enactment Society at the time of the 100 Years War
• Jean Froissart, "On The Hundred Years War (1337–1453)" from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook