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{{Short description|Subfamily of birds}}
{{Taxobox
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Neotropical parrots
| name = Neotropical parrots
| image = Blue-and-Yellow-Macaw.jpg
| image_caption = [[Blue-and-yellow macaw]].
| image = Blue-and-Yellow-Macaw.jpg
| image_caption = [[Blue-and-yellow macaw]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| taxon = Arinae
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[parrot|Psittaciformes]]
| superfamilia = [[true parrots|Psittacoidea]]
| familia = [[Psittacidae]]
| subfamilia = '''Arinae'''
| subdivision_ranks = Tribes
| subdivision_ranks = Tribes
| subdivision = [[Arini (tribe)|Arini]]<br/>[[Androglossini]]
| subdivision = [[Arini (tribe)|Arini]]<br/>[[Androglossini]]
}}
}}


The '''Neotropical parrots''' or [[New World]] [[parrot]]s comprise approximately 150 [[species]] in 32 genera found throughout [[South America|South]] and [[Central America]], [[Mexico]] and the [[Caribbean islands]], and two species (one extinct) formerly inhabited [[North America]]. They are also present on a few [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] [[island]]s like the [[Galapagos islands|Galapagos]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Forshaw,|first=J.|title=Parrots of the world, third ed.|year=1989|publisher=Landsdowne Editions,|location=Melbourne, Australia}}</ref> Among them are some of the most familiar and iconic parrots including the [[blue and gold macaw]], [[sun conure]] and [[yellow-headed Amazon]].
The '''neotropical parrots''' or [[New World]] [[parrot]]s comprise about 150 [[species]] in 32 genera found throughout [[South America|South]] and [[Central America]], [[Mexico]], the [[Caribbean islands]] and the southern [[United States]].<ref name=IUCN>{{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22685776/0 |title=''Conuropsis carolinensis'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2012 |access-date=26 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="iucn status 13 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2017 |title=''Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha'' |volume=2017 |page=e.T22685766A110475642 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-1.RLTS.T22685766A110475642.en |access-date=13 November 2021}}</ref> Among them are some of the most familiar and iconic parrots, including the [[blue and gold macaw]], [[sun conure]], and [[yellow-headed amazon]].


The parrots of the New World have been known to Europeans since [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] remarked upon them in his journal in 1492. Systematic descriptions of the birds were first available in German naturalist [[Georg Marcgraf]]'s ''[[Historia Naturalis Brasiliae]]'' published in 1648, and English naturalist [[Mark Catesby]]'s two volume ''Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands'' published in [[London]] in 1731 and 1743.
The parrots of the New World have been known to Europeans since [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] remarked upon them in his journal in 1492. Systematic descriptions of the birds were first available in German naturalist [[Georg Marcgraf]]'s ''[[Historia Naturalis Brasiliae]]'' published in 1648, and English naturalist [[Mark Catesby]]'s two-volume ''Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands'' published in [[London]] in 1731 and 1743.


Several species and one [[genus]] have become [[extinction|extinct]] in recent centuries. A second genus is [[extinct in the wild]]. Over a third of the [[Extant taxon|extant]] species are classified as [[Threatened species|Threatened]] by the [[IUCN]]. A few of these are in imminent danger of extinction with fewer than 500 individuals in the wild or in captivity: [[glaucous macaw]], [[Spix's macaw]], [[blue-throated macaw]], [[Puerto Rican parrot]], [[indigo-winged parrot]]. The chief reasons for decline in parrot populations are habitat loss through [[deforestation]] by clear-cutting, burning and flooding by construction of dams, capture for the pet trade, and introduction of non-native predators. In a few cases, hunting contributes. Local and global [[climate change]] is also affecting parrot populations.
Several species and one [[genus]] have become [[extinction|extinct]] in recent centuries. A second genus is [[extinct in the wild]]. Over a third of the [[Extant taxon|extant]] species are classified as [[Threatened species|threatened]] by the [[IUCN]]. A few of these are in imminent danger of extinction with fewer than 500 individuals in the wild or in captivity: [[glaucous macaw]], [[Spix's macaw]], [[blue-throated macaw]], [[Puerto Rican parrot]], and [[indigo-winged parrot]]. The chief reasons for decline in parrot populations are [[habitat destruction|habitat loss]] through [[deforestation]] by clear-cutting, burning, and flooding by construction of dams, capture for the pet trade, and introduction of non-native predators.


The New World parrots are [[monophyletic]], and have been geographically isolated for at least 30-55mya by molecular dating methods. Though fairly few [[fossil]]s of modern parrots are known, most of these are from tribe ''Arini'' of [[macaw]]s and parakeets; the oldest are from 16mya. They attest that modern genera were mostly distinct by the [[Pleistocene]], a few million years ago.
The New World parrots are [[monophyletic]], and have been geographically isolated for at least 30–55&nbsp;million years by molecular dating methods. Though fairly few [[fossil]]s of modern parrots are known, most of these are from tribe Arini of [[macaw]]s and parakeets; the oldest are from 16&nbsp;million years ago. They attest that modern genera were mostly distinct by the [[Pleistocene]], a few million years ago.


Neotropical parrots comprise at least two monophyletic clades, one of primarily long-tailed species such as the macaws, conures and allies, and the other of primarily short-tailed parrots such as amazons and allies (Miyaki, et al. 1998; Tavares et al. 2006; Wright et al. 2008).
Neotropical parrots comprise at least two monophyletic clades, one of primarily long-tailed species such as the macaws, conures, and allies, and the other of primarily short-tailed parrots such as amazons and allies.<ref>*{{cite journal | last1 = Miyaki | first1 = C. Y. | last2 = Matioli | first2 = S. R. | last3 = Burke | first3 = T. | last4 = Wajntal | first4 = A. | year = 1998 | title = Parrot evolution and paleogeographical events: Mitochondrial DNA evidence | url = http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/15/5/544.pdf | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 15 | issue = 5| pages = 544–551 | doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025954| doi-access = free }}</ref> <!-- complete citations needed Tavares et al. 2006; Wright et al. 2008). -->


A new species, [[bald parrot]] or orange-headed parrot was discovered as recently as 2002.
A new species, the [[bald parrot]] or orange-headed parrot, was discovered as recently as 2002.


==Taxonomy==
==Taxonomy==
Neotropical parrots belong to the [[subfamily]] '''Arinae'''<ref>http://jboyd.net/Taxo/List12.html#psittaciformes</ref> which along with the African or Old World parrots comprise the family [[Psittacidae]], one of three families of true parrots.
Neotropical parrots belong to the [[subfamily]] '''Arinae'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jboyd.net/Taxo/List12.html#psittaciformes |title = TiF Checklist: BASAL AUSTRALAVES: Cariamiformes, Falconiformes & Psittaciformes}}</ref> which along with the African or Old World parrots comprise the family [[Psittacidae]], one of three families of true parrots.
The [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] of the Neotropical parrots is not yet fully resolved, but the following subdivision is supported by solid studies.<ref>Leo Joseph, Alicia Toon, Erin E. Schirtzinger, Timothy F. Wright & Richard Schodde. (2012) A revised nomenclature and classification for family-group taxa of parrots (Psittaciformes). Zootaxa 3205: 26–40</ref><ref name="Schweizer2011">{{cite journal|title=Macroevolutionary patterns in the diversification of parrots: effects of climate change, geological events and key innovations|year=2011|author=Manuel Schweizer, Ole Seehausen and Stefan T. Hertwig|journal=Journal of Biogeography |volume=38|pages=2176–2194|id= |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02555.x}}</ref><ref name="Joseph">{{cite journal|title=Molecular systematics of two enigmatic genera ''Psittacella'' and ''Pezoporus'' illuminate the ecological radiation of Australo-Papuan parrots (Aves: Psittaciformes)|author=Leo Joseph, Alicia Toon, Erin E. Schirtzinger, Timothy F. Wright|year=2011|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=59|pages=675–684|id= |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2011.03.017|pmid=21453777}}</ref><ref name="Wright">{{cite journal|title=A Multilocus Molecular Phylogeny of the Parrots (Psittaciformes): Support for a Gondwanan Origin during the Cretaceous|journal=Mol Biol Evol|year=2008|first=T.F. |last=Wright|coauthors=Schirtzinger E. E., Matsumoto T., Eberhard J. R., Graves G. R., Sanchez J. J., Capelli S., Muller H., Scharpegge J., Chambers G. K. & Fleischer R. C.|volume=25|issue=10|pages=2141–2156|id= |url=|format=|accessdate=|pmid=18653733|doi=10.1093/molbev/msn160|pmc=2727385}}</ref><ref name="Schweizer2010">{{cite journal|title=The evolutionary diversification of parrots supports a taxon pulse model with multiple trans-oceanic dispersal events and local radiations|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|year=2009|first=M. |last=Schweizer |coauthors=Seehausen O, Güntert M and Hertwig ST|volume=online|id= |url=|format=|accessdate= |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.021 |pmid=19699808}}</ref><ref name=deKloet>{{cite journal|last=de Kloet|first=RS|author2=de Kloet SR|year=2005|title=The evolution of the spindlin gene in birds: Sequence analysis of an intron of the spindlin W and Z gene reveals four major divisions of the Psittaciformes|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=36|pages=706–721|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2005.03.013|pmid=16099384}}</ref>
The [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] of the neotropical parrots is not yet fully resolved, but the following subdivision is supported by solid studies.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Joseph | first1 = Leo | last2 = Toon | first2 = Alicia | last3 = Schirtzinger | first3 = Erin E. | last4 = Wright | first4 = Timothy F. | last5 = Schodde | first5 = Richard | year = 2012 | title = A revised nomenclature and classification for family-group taxa of parrots (Psittaciformes) | journal = Zootaxa | volume = 3205 | pages = 26–40 | doi = 10.11646/zootaxa.3205.1.2 }}</ref><ref name="Schweizer2011">{{cite journal|title=Macroevolutionary patterns in the diversification of parrots: effects of climate change, geological events and key innovations|year=2011|author1=Manuel Schweizer |author2=Ole Seehausen |author3=Stefan T. Hertwig |name-list-style=amp |journal=Journal of Biogeography |volume=38|issue=11|pages=2176–2194|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02555.x|url=https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/eawag/islandora/object/eawag%3A8824}}</ref><ref name="Joseph">{{cite journal|title=Molecular systematics of two enigmatic genera ''Psittacella'' and ''Pezoporus'' illuminate the ecological radiation of Australo-Papuan parrots (Aves: Psittaciformes)|author1=Leo Joseph |author2=Alicia Toon |author3=Erin E. Schirtzinger |author4=Timothy F. Wright |year=2011|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=59|pages=675–684|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2011.03.017|pmid=21453777|issue=3}}</ref><ref name="Wright">{{cite journal|title=A Multilocus Molecular Phylogeny of the Parrots (Psittaciformes): Support for a Gondwanan Origin during the Cretaceous|journal=Mol Biol Evol|year=2008|first=T.F. |last=Wright|last2=Schirtzinger |first2=E. E. |last3=Matsumoto |first3=T. |last4=Eberhard |first4=J. R. |last5=Graves |first5=G. R. |last6=Sanchez |first6=J. J. |last7=Capelli |first7=S. |last8=Muller |first8=H. |last9=Scharpegge |first9=J. |last10=Chambers |first10=G. K. |last11=Fleischer |first11=R. C.|volume=25|issue=10|pages=2141–2156|pmid=18653733|doi=10.1093/molbev/msn160|pmc=2727385}}</ref><ref name="Schweizer2010">{{cite journal|title=The evolutionary diversification of parrots supports a taxon pulse model with multiple trans-oceanic dispersal events and local radiations|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|year=2009|first=M. |last=Schweizer |last2=Seehausen |first2=O. |last3=Güntert |first3=M. |last4=Hertwig |first4=S. T.|volume=54|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.021 |pmid=19699808 |issue=3 |pages=984–94}}</ref><ref name=deKloet>{{cite journal|last=de Kloet|first=RS|author2=de Kloet SR|year=2005|title=The evolution of the spindlin gene in birds: Sequence analysis of an intron of the spindlin W and Z gene reveals four major divisions of the Psittaciformes|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=36|pages=706–721|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2005.03.013|pmid=16099384|issue=3}}</ref>


*Tribe [[Arini (tribe)|Arini]]
*Tribe [[Arini (tribe)|Arini]]
** ''[[Burrowing parakeet|Cyanoliseus]]'' &ndash; Burrowing parrot
** ''[[Burrowing parakeet|Cyanoliseus]]'' – burrowing parrot
** ''[[Enicognathus]]'' (2 species)
** ''[[Enicognathus]]'' (two species)
** ''[[Thick-billed parrot|Rhynchopsitta]]'' &ndash; thick-billed parrots (2 species)
** ''[[Rhynchopsitta]]'' – thick-billed parrots (two species)
** ''[[Pyrrhura]]'' (around two dozen species, one possibly recently extinct)
** ''[[Pyrrhura]]'' (around two dozen species, one possibly recently extinct)
** ''[[Anodorhynchus]]'' &ndash; blue macaws (2 living species, 1 probably recently [[extinct]])
** ''[[Anodorhynchus]]'' – blue macaws (two living species, one probably recently [[extinct]])
** ''[[Golden-plumed parakeet|Leptosittaca]]'' &ndash; golden-plumed parakeet
** ''[[Golden-plumed parakeet|Leptosittaca]]'' – golden-plumed parakeet
** ''[[Yellow-eared parrot|Ognorhynchus]]'' &ndash; yellow-eared parrot
** ''[[Yellow-eared parrot|Ognorhynchus]]'' – yellow-eared parrot
** ''[[Red-shouldered macaw|Diopsittaca]]'' &ndash; red-shouldered macaw
** ''[[Red-shouldered macaw|Diopsittaca]]'' – red-shouldered macaw
** ''[[Golden parakeet|Guaruba]]'' &ndash; golden parakeet
** ''[[Golden parakeet|Guaruba]]'' – golden parakeet
** ''[[Carolina parakeet|Conuropsis]]'' &ndash; Carolina parakeet ([[extinct]])
** ''[[Carolina parakeet|Conuropsis]]'' – Carolina parakeet ([[extinct]])
** ''[[Spix's macaw|Cyanopsitta]]'' &ndash; Spix's macaw (critically endangered)
** ''[[Spix's macaw|Cyanopsitta]]'' – Spix's macaw ([[extinct in the wild]])
** ''[[Red-bellied macaw|Orthopsittaca]]'' &ndash; red-bellied macaw
** ''[[Red-bellied macaw|Orthopsittaca]]'' – red-bellied macaw
** ''[[Ara (genus)|Ara]]'' &ndash; true macaws (8 living species, and at least one recently extinct)
** ''[[Ara (genus)|Ara]]'' – true macaws (eight living species, and at least one recently extinct)
** ''[[Primolius]]'' &ndash; some of the smaller macaws (3 species, previously called ''Propyrrhura'')
** ''[[Primolius]]'' – some of the mini-macaws (three species, previously called ''Propyrrhura'')
** ''[[Aratinga]]'' &ndash; small long-tailed parakeets (nearly 25 living species, at least one recently extinct)
** ''[[Aratinga]]'' - sun conure and allies (six living species, at least one recently extinct)
** ''[[Eupsittula]]'' – South and Middle American parakeets
** ''[[Black-hooded parakeet|Nandayus]]'' &ndash; also called Black-hooded parakeet or Nanday parakeet
** ''[[Psittacara]]'' – genus of parakeets in Central and South America, and the Caribbean
** ''[[Thectocercus]]'' – Blue-crowned parakeet
*Tribe [[Androglossini]]
*Tribe [[Androglossini]]
** ''[[Pileated parrot|Pionopsitta]]'' &ndash; pileated parrot
** ''[[Pileated parrot|Pionopsitta]]'' – pileated parrot
** ''[[Blue-bellied parrot|Triclaria]]'' &ndash; blue-bellied parrot
** ''[[Blue-bellied parrot|Triclaria]]'' – blue-bellied parrot
** ''[[Pyrilia]]'' (7 species; all previously included in ''Pionopsitta'').
** ''[[Pyrilia]]'' (7 species; all previously included in ''Pionopsitta'').
** ''[[Pionus]]'' (7 or 8 species)
** ''[[Pionus]]'' (8 species)
** ''[[Short-tailed parrot|Graydidascalus]]'' &ndash; short-tailed parrot
** ''[[Short-tailed parrot|Graydidascalus]]'' – short-tailed parrot
** ''[[Yellow-faced parrot|Alipiopsitta]]'' &ndash; yellow-faced parrot (previously in ''Amazona, Salvatoria'')
** ''[[Yellow-faced parrot|Alipiopsitta]]'' – yellow-faced parrot (previously in ''Amazona, Salvatoria'')
** ''[[Amazon parrot|Amazona]]'' &ndash; amazon parrots (about 30 living species - one subspecies recently extinct)
** ''[[Amazon parrot|Amazona]]'' – amazon parrots (about 30 living species – one subspecies recently extinct)

⚫
Schodde, et al.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Schodde, et.al|first=Richard|title=Correspondence: Higher classification of New World parrots (Psittaciformes; Arinae), with diagnoses of tribes|journal=Zootaxa|year=2013|volume=3691|issue=5|pages=591–596|url=http://biology-web.nmsu.edu/~twright/publications/Schodde2013Zootaxa_AriniTaxonomy.pdf|doi=10.11646/zootaxa.3691.5.5}}</ref> recognize a division of the remaining genera into several distinct clades, indicating possible previously undefined tribes:
⚫
*clade - proposed tribe ''Forpini''
⚫
** ''[[Forpus]]'' (7 species)

⚫
*clade - proposed tribe ''Amoropsittacini''
⚫
** ''[[Nannopsittaca]]'' (2 species)
⚫
** ''[[Psilopsiagon]]'' (2 species, formerly in ''Bolborhynchus'')
⚫
** ''[[Bolborhynchus]]'' (3 species)
⚫
** ''[[Touit]]'' (8 species)


⚫
Schodde, et al.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schodde R, Remsen JV Jr, Schirtzinder EE, Joseph L, Wright TF |title=Correspondence: Higher classification of New World parrots (Psittaciformes; Arinae), with diagnoses of tribes |journal=Zootaxa |year=2013 |volume=3691 |issue=5 |pages=591–596 |url=http://biology-web.nmsu.edu/~twright/publications/Schodde2013Zootaxa_AriniTaxonomy.pdf |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.3691.5.5|pmid=26167605 }}</ref> recognize a division of the remaining genera into several distinct clades, indicating possible previously undefined tribes:
⚫
*clade – proposed tribe ''Forpini''
⚫
** ''[[Forpus]]'' (nine species)
⚫
*clade – proposed tribe ''Amoropsittacini''
⚫
** ''[[Nannopsittaca]]'' (two species)
⚫
** ''[[Psilopsiagon]]'' (two species, formerly in ''Bolborhynchus'')
⚫
** ''[[Bolborhynchus]]'' (two species)
⚫
** ''[[Touit]]'' (eight species)
*clade including ''Arini''
*clade including ''Arini''
** ''[[Caique|Pionites]]'' &ndash; caiques (2 species)
** ''[[Caique|Pionites]]'' – caiques (four species)
** ''[[Red-fan parrot|Deroptyus]]'' &ndash; red-fan parrot
** ''[[Red-fan parrot|Deroptyus]]'' – red-fan parrot

*clade including ''Androglossini''
*clade including ''Androglossini''
** ''[[Hapalopsittaca]]'' (4 species)
** ''[[Hapalopsittaca]]'' (four species)
** ''[[Brotogeris]]'' (8 species)
** ''[[Brotogeris]]'' (eight species)
** ''[[Monk parakeet|Myiopsitta]]'' (1-2 species)
** ''[[Myiopsitta]]'' (one or two species)


==See also==
==See also==
Line 79: Line 73:
*[[List of parrots]]
*[[List of parrots]]
*[[List of macaws]]
*[[List of macaws]]
*[[List of Amazon parrots]]
*[[List of amazon parrots]]
*[[List of Aratinga parakeets]]
*[[List of Aratinga parakeets|List of ''Aratinga'' parakeets]]


==References== <!-- SystBiol55: 454–470 {{doi|10.1080/10635150600697390}} compare with other studies to work out clades. Clock is guesswork but fits amazingly well with fossils. -->
==References== <!-- SystBiol55: 454–470 {{doi|10.1080/10635150600697390}} compare with other studies to work out clades. Clock is guesswork but fits amazingly well with fossils. -->
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist}}
*Miyaki, C. Y.; Matioli, S. R.; Burke, T. & Wajntal, A. (1998): Parrot evolution and paleogeographical events: Mitochondrial DNA evidence. ''Molecular Biology and Evolution'' '''15''': 544-551. [http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/15/5/544.pdf PDF fulltext]
⚫
* Ribas, C., R. Gaban-Lima, C. Miyaki, and J. Cracraft (2005). ''Historical biogeography and diversification within the Neotropical parrot genus Pionopsitta (Aves: Psittacidae).'' Journal Biogeography 32:1409-1427.
⚫
* [http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCprop212.html Split Gypopsitta from Pionopsitta] South American Classification Committee.


⚫
* {{cite journal | last1 = Ribas | first1 = C. | last2 = Gaban-Lima | first2 = R. | last3 = Miyaki | first3 = C. | last4 = Cracraft | first4 = J. | year = 2005 | title = Historical biogeography and diversification within the Neotropical parrot genus Pionopsitta (Aves: Psittacidae) | journal = Journal of Biogeography | volume = 32 | issue = 8| pages = 1409–1427 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2005.01289.x}}
⚫
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070224100942/http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~remsen/SACCprop212.html Split Gypopsitta from Pionopsitta] South American Classification Committee.


⚫
{{Amazon parrots}}
{{Macaws}}
{{Macaws}}
{{Portal bar|Birds|Caribbean|Central America|South America}}
⚫
{{Amazon parrots}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q278968}}
{{Portal bar|Birds}}


[[Category:Arini|*]]
[[Category:Arinae| ]]
[[Category:Parrots]]
[[Category:Parrots of South America|.]]
[[Category:Birds of Central America]]
[[Category:Birds of the Caribbean]]
[[Category:Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Neotropics]]

Latest revision as of 16:23, 6 May 2024

Neotropical parrots
Blue-and-yellow macaw
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Psittaciformes
Family: Psittacidae
Subfamily: Arinae
Tribes

Arini
Androglossini

The neotropical parrots or New World parrots comprise about 150 species in 32 genera found throughout South and Central America, Mexico, the Caribbean islands and the southern United States.[1][2] Among them are some of the most familiar and iconic parrots, including the blue and gold macaw, sun conure, and yellow-headed amazon.

The parrots of the New World have been known to Europeans since Columbus remarked upon them in his journal in 1492. Systematic descriptions of the birds were first available in German naturalist Georg Marcgraf's Historia Naturalis Brasiliae published in 1648, and English naturalist Mark Catesby's two-volume Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands published in London in 1731 and 1743.

Several species and one genus have become extinct in recent centuries. A second genus is extinct in the wild. Over a third of the extant species are classified as threatened by the IUCN. A few of these are in imminent danger of extinction with fewer than 500 individuals in the wild or in captivity: glaucous macaw, Spix's macaw, blue-throated macaw, Puerto Rican parrot, and indigo-winged parrot. The chief reasons for decline in parrot populations are habitat loss through deforestation by clear-cutting, burning, and flooding by construction of dams, capture for the pet trade, and introduction of non-native predators.

The New World parrots are monophyletic, and have been geographically isolated for at least 30–55 million years by molecular dating methods. Though fairly few fossils of modern parrots are known, most of these are from tribe Arini of macaws and parakeets; the oldest are from 16 million years ago. They attest that modern genera were mostly distinct by the Pleistocene, a few million years ago.

Neotropical parrots comprise at least two monophyletic clades, one of primarily long-tailed species such as the macaws, conures, and allies, and the other of primarily short-tailed parrots such as amazons and allies.[3]

A new species, the bald parrot or orange-headed parrot, was discovered as recently as 2002.

Taxonomy[edit]

Neotropical parrots belong to the subfamily Arinae[4] which along with the African or Old World parrots comprise the family Psittacidae, one of three families of true parrots. The taxonomy of the neotropical parrots is not yet fully resolved, but the following subdivision is supported by solid studies.[5][6][7][8][9][10]

Schodde, et al.[11] recognize a division of the remaining genera into several distinct clades, indicating possible previously undefined tribes:

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ BirdLife International (2012). "Conuropsis carolinensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2012. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
  2. ^ BirdLife International (2017). "Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T22685766A110475642. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-1.RLTS.T22685766A110475642.en. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  3. ^ *Miyaki, C. Y.; Matioli, S. R.; Burke, T.; Wajntal, A. (1998). "Parrot evolution and paleogeographical events: Mitochondrial DNA evidence" (PDF). Molecular Biology and Evolution. 15 (5): 544–551. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025954.
  4. ^ "TiF Checklist: BASAL AUSTRALAVES: Cariamiformes, Falconiformes & Psittaciformes".
  5. ^ Joseph, Leo; Toon, Alicia; Schirtzinger, Erin E.; Wright, Timothy F.; Schodde, Richard (2012). "A revised nomenclature and classification for family-group taxa of parrots (Psittaciformes)". Zootaxa. 3205: 26–40. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3205.1.2.
  6. ^ Manuel Schweizer; Ole Seehausen & Stefan T. Hertwig (2011). "Macroevolutionary patterns in the diversification of parrots: effects of climate change, geological events and key innovations". Journal of Biogeography. 38 (11): 2176–2194. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02555.x.
  7. ^ Leo Joseph; Alicia Toon; Erin E. Schirtzinger; Timothy F. Wright (2011). "Molecular systematics of two enigmatic genera Psittacella and Pezoporus illuminate the ecological radiation of Australo-Papuan parrots (Aves: Psittaciformes)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 59 (3): 675–684. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2011.03.017. PMID 21453777.
  8. ^ Wright, T.F.; Schirtzinger, E. E.; Matsumoto, T.; Eberhard, J. R.; Graves, G. R.; Sanchez, J. J.; Capelli, S.; Muller, H.; Scharpegge, J.; Chambers, G. K.; Fleischer, R. C. (2008). "A Multilocus Molecular Phylogeny of the Parrots (Psittaciformes): Support for a Gondwanan Origin during the Cretaceous". Mol Biol Evol. 25 (10): 2141–2156. doi:10.1093/molbev/msn160. PMC 2727385. PMID 18653733.
  9. ^ Schweizer, M.; Seehausen, O.; Güntert, M.; Hertwig, S. T. (2009). "The evolutionary diversification of parrots supports a taxon pulse model with multiple trans-oceanic dispersal events and local radiations". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 54 (3): 984–94. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.021. PMID 19699808.
  10. ^ de Kloet, RS; de Kloet SR (2005). "The evolution of the spindlin gene in birds: Sequence analysis of an intron of the spindlin W and Z gene reveals four major divisions of the Psittaciformes". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 36 (3): 706–721. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.03.013. PMID 16099384.
  11. ^ Schodde R, Remsen JV Jr, Schirtzinder EE, Joseph L, Wright TF (2013). "Correspondence: Higher classification of New World parrots (Psittaciformes; Arinae), with diagnoses of tribes" (PDF). Zootaxa. 3691 (5): 591–596. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3691.5.5. PMID 26167605.
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