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A single parent is a person who has a child or children but does not have a spouse or live-in partner to assist in the upbringing or support of the child. Reasons for becoming a single parent include decease, divorce, break-up, abandonment, becoming widowed, domestic violence, rape, childbirth by a single person or single-person adoption. A single parent family is a family with children that is headed by a single parent.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]

History[edit]

Single parenthood has been common historically due to parental mortality rate due to disease, wars, homicide, work accidents and maternal mortality. Historical estimates indicate that in French, English, or Spanish villages in the 17th and 18th centuries at least one-third of children lost one of their parents during childhood; in 19th-century Milan, about half of all children lost at least one parent by age 20; in 19th-century China, almost one-third of boys had lost one parent or both by the age of 15.^[5] Such single parenthood was often short in duration, since remarriage rates were high.^[6]

Divorce was generally rare historically (although this depends by culture and era), and divorce especially became very difficult to obtain after the fall of the Roman Empire, in Medieval Europe, due to strong involvement of ecclesiastical courts in family life (though annulment and other forms of separation were more common).^[7]

Single parent adoptions have existed since the mid 19th century. Men were rarely considered as adoptive parents, and were considered far less desired. Often, children adopted by a single person were raised in pairs rather than alone, and many adoptions by lesbians and gay men were arranged as single parent adoptions. During the mid 19th century many state welfare officials made it difficult if not impossible for single persons to adopt, as agencies searched for married heterosexual couples. In 1965, the Los Angeles Bureau of Adoptions sought single African-Americans for African-American orphans for whom married families could not be found. In 1968, the Child Welfare League of America stated that married couples were preferred, but there were "exceptional circumstances" where single parent adoptions were permissible.^[8]

Demographics[edit]

Households[edit]

Among all households in OECD countries in 2011, the proportion of single-parent households was in 3-11% the range, with an average of 7.5%. It was highest in Australia (10%), Canada (10%), Mexico (10%), United States (10%), Lithuania (10%), Costa Rica (11%), Latvia (11%) and New Zealand (11%), while it was lowest in Japan (3%), Greece (4%), Switzerland (4%), Bulgaria (5), Croatia (5%), Germany (5%), Italy (5%) and Cyprus (5%). The proportion was 9% in both Ireland and the United Kingdom.^[9]

Among households with children in 2005/09, the proportion of single-parent households was 10% in Japan, 16% in the Netherlands, 19% in Sweden, 20% in France, 22% in Denmark, 22% in Germany, 23% in Ireland, 25% in Canada, 25% in the United Kingdom, and 30% in the United States. The U.S. proportion increased from 20% in 1980 to 30% in 2008.^[10]

In all OECD countries, most single-parent households were headed by a mother. The proportion headed by a father varied between 9% and 25%. It was lowest in Estonia (9%), Costa Rica (10%), Cyprus (10%), Japan (10%), Ireland (10%) and the United Kingdom (12%), while it was highest in Norway (22%), Spain (23%), Sweden (24%), Romania (25%) and the United States (25%). These numbers were not provided for Canada, Australia or New Zealand.^[9]

Children[edit]

In 2016/17, the proportion of children living in a single-parent household varied between 6% and 28% in the different OECD countries, with an OECD country average of 17%. It was lowest in Turkey (2015, 6%), Greece (8%), Croatia (8%) and Poland (10%), while it was highest in France (23%), United Kingdom (23%), Belgium (25%), Lithuania (25%), United States (27%) and Latvia (28%). It was 19% in Ireland and Canada.^[11]

Among children living in a single-parent household, most live primarily with their mother, others primarily with their father, while other children have a shared parenting arrangement where they spend an approximately equal amount of time with their two parents. Among those living primarily with one single parent, most live with their mother. In 2016 (or latest year available), the proportion of 6-12 year olds living primarily with their single father ranged between 5% and 36% among the different OECD countries. It was highest in Belgium (17%), Iceland (19%), Slovenia (20%), France (22%), Norway (23%) and Sweden (36%), while it was lowest in Lithuania (4%), Ireland (5%), Poland (5%), Estonia (7%), Austria (7%) and the United Kingdom (8%). It was 15% in the United States.^[12]

In 2005/06, the proportion of 11- to 15-year-old children living in a shared parenting arrangement versus with only one of their parents varied between 1% and 17%, being the highest in Sweden. It was 5% in Ireland and the United States, and 7% in Canada and the United Kingdom.^[13] By 2016/17, the percentage in Sweden had increased to 28%.^[14]

Impact on parents[edit]

Over 9.5 million American families are run by one woman. Single mothers are likely to have mental health issues, financial hardships, live in a low income area, and receive low levels of social support. All of these factors are taken into consideration when evaluating the mental health of single mothers. The occurrence of moderate to severe mental disability was more pronounced among single mothers at 28.7% compared to partnered mothers at 15.7%.^[15] These mental disabilities include but are not limited to anxiety and depression. Financial hardships also affect the mental health of single mothers. Women, ages 15–24, were more likely to live in a low socio-economic area, have one child, and not to have completed their senior year of high school. These women reported to be in the two lowest income areas, and their mental health was much poorer than those in higher income areas.^[15]

A similar study on the mental health of single mothers attempted to answer the question, "Are there differences in the prevalence of psychiatric disorders, between married, never-married, and separated/divorced mothers?" Statistically, never married, and separated/divorced mothers had the highest regularities of drug abuse, personality disorder and PTSD.^[16] The family structure can become a trigger for mental health issues in single mothers. They are especially at risk for having higher levels of depressive symptoms.^[17]

Studies from the 1970s showed that single mothers who are not financially stable are more likely to experience depression.^[18] In a more current study it was proven that financial strain was directly correlated with high levels of depression.^[18] Among low-income single mothers, depressive symptoms may be as high as 60%.^[19]

Inadequate access to mental health care services is prevalent amongst impoverished women. Low-income women are less likely to receive mental health care for numerous reasons. Mental health services remain inequitable for low-income, more so, low-income single women are more likely to suffer from depression, anxiety, and other poor mental health outcomes. Researchers Copeland and Snyder (2011) addressed the barriers low-income single mothers have on receiving mental health care, "Visible barriers often include the lack of community resources, transportation, child care, convenient hours, and financial resources." Meanwhile, low-income single mothers are more likely to bring their children in for mental health treatment than themselves. Researchers Copeland and Snyder analyzed sixty-four African American mothers who brought their children in for mental health treatment. These mothers were then screened for mild, moderate, and severe depression and/or anxiety. After three months the researchers used an ethnographic interview to address whether or not the participants used mental health services that were referred to them. Results indicated that the majority of the participants did not use the referred mental health care services for reasons that included: fear of losing their children, being hospitalized and/or stigmatized by their community counterparts.^[20]

Impact on children[edit]

According to David Blankenhorn,^[21] Patrick Fagan,^[22] Mitch Pearlstein^[23] David Popenoe^[24] and Barbara Dafoe Whitehead,^[25] living in a single parent family is strongly correlated with school failure and problems of delinquency, drug use, teenage pregnancies, poverty, and welfare dependency in the United States. Using multilevel modelling, Suet-Ling Pong has shown that a high proportion of American children from single parent families perform poorly on mathematics and reading achievement tests.^[26]^[27]

In Sweden, Emma Fransson et al. have shown that children living with one single parent have worse well-being in terms of physical health behavior, mental health, peer friendships, bullying, cultural activities, sports, and family relationships, compared to children from intact families. As a contrast, children in a shared parenting arrangement that live approximately equal amount of time with their divorced mother and father have about the same well-being as children from intact families and better outcomes than children with only one custodial parent.^[28]

The United Kingdom Office for National Statistics has reported that children of single parents, after controlling for other variables like family income, are more likely to have problems, including being twice as likely to suffer from mental illness.^[29] Both British and American researchers show that children with no fathers are three times more likely to be unhappy, and are also more likely to engage in anti-social behavior, abuse substances and engage in juvenile deliquency.^[30]^[31]

Causes of single-parenthood[edit]

Widowed parents[edit]

Statue of a mother at the Yasukuni Shrine, dedicated to war widows who raised their children alone

Historically, death of a partner was a common cause of single parenting. Diseases and maternal death not infrequently resulted in a widower or widow responsible for children. At certain times wars might also deprive significant numbers of families of a parent. Improvements in sanitation and maternal care have decreased mortality for those of reproductive age, making death a less common cause of single parenting.

Divorced parents[edit]

Child custody in reference to divorce refers to which parent is allowed to make important decisions about the children involved. Physical custody refers to which parent the child lives with. Among divorced parents, "parallel parenting" refers to parenting after divorce in which each parent does so independently; this is most common. In comparison, cooperative parenting occurs when the parents involved in the child's life work together around all involved parties' schedules and activities, and this is far less common. After a certain "crisis period," most children resume normal development; however, their future relationships are often affected, as they lack a model upon which to base a healthy long-term relationship. Nonetheless, as adults children of divorcees cope better with change.^[32]^[33]^[34]

Keeping in touch with both parents and having a healthy relationship with both mother and father appears to have the most effect on a child's behavior; which leads to an easier time coping with the divorce as well as development through the child's life.^[35] Children will do better with their parents divorce if they have a smooth adjustment period. One way to make this adjustment easier on children is to let them "remain in the same neighborhoods and schools following divorce."^[36]

Unintended pregnancy[edit]

Many out-of-wedlock births are unintentional. Out-of-wedlock births are frequently not acceptable to society, and they often result in single parenting. A partner may also leave as he or she may want to shirk responsibility of bringing up the child. This also may harm the child.^[37] Where they are not acceptable, they sometimes result in forced marriage, however such marriages fail more often than others.^{[citation needed]}

In the United States, the rate of unintended pregnancy is higher among unmarried couples than among married ones. In 1990, 73% of births to unmarried women were unintended at the time of conception, compared to about 44% of births overall.^[38]

Mothers with unintended pregnancies, and their children, are subject to numerous adverse health effects, including increased risk of violence and death, and the children are less likely to succeed in school and are more likely to live in poverty and be involved in crime.^{[citation needed]}

"Fragile families" are usually caused by an unintended pregnancy out of wedlock. Usually in this situation the father is not completely in the picture and the relationship between the mother, father, and child is consistently unstable. As well as instability, "fragile families" are often limited in resources such as human capital and money. The kids that come from these families are more likely to be hindered within school and don't succeed^{[clarification needed]} as well as kids who have strictly single parents or two parent homes.^[39] Usually within these families the father plans to stick around and help raise the child but once the child is born the fathers do not stay for much longer and only one third stay after five years of the child's birth.^[40] Most of these fragile families come from low economic status to begin with and the cycle appears to continue; once the child grows up they are just as likely to still be poor.^[41] Most fragile families end with the mother becoming a single parent, leaving it even more difficult to come out of the poverty cycle. The gender of the baby seems to have no effect if the father is not living with the mother at the time of the birth, meaning they are still likely to leave after one year of the child's birth. Yet there is some evidence that suggests that if the father is living with the mother at the time of the birth he is more likely to stay after one year if the child is a son rather than a daughter.^[42]

Choice[edit]

Some women use artificial insemination to become single mothers by choice.^[43] Others choose to adopt. Men may also choose to become single fathers through adoption or surrogacy.^[44]

Adoption[edit]

Single parent adoptions are controversial. They are, however, still preferred over divorcees, as divorced parents are considered an unnecessary stress on the child.^[45] In one study, the interviewers asked children questions about their new lifestyle in a single-parent home. The interviewer found that when asked about fears, a high proportion of children feared illness or injury to the parent. When asked about happiness, half of the children talked about outings with their single adoptive parent.^[46] A single person wanting to adopt a child has to be mindful of the challenges they may face, and there are certain agencies that will not work with single adoptive parents at all. Single parents will typically only have their own income to live off of, and thus might not have a backup plan for potential children in case something happens to them.^[47] Traveling is also made more complex, as the child must either be left in someone else's care, or taken along.^[48]

By country[edit]

Australia[edit]

In 2003, 14% of all Australian households were single-parent families.^[49] In Australia 2011, out of all families 15.9% were single parent families. Out of these families 17.6% of the single parents were males, whilst 82.4% were females.^[50]

Single people are eligible to apply for adoption in all states of Australia, except for Queensland and South Australia. They are able to apply for adoption both to Australian born and international born children, although not many other countries allow single parent adoptions.^[51]

Single parents in Australia are eligible for support payments from the government, but only if they are caring for at least one child under the age of eight.^[52]

India[edit]

The Supreme Court of India and various High Courts of India have recognized the rights of single mothers to give birth and raise children.^[53]^[54] The High Court of Kerala, has declared in a case argued by Advocate Aruna A. that, the birth registration authorities cannot insist on the details of the father for registration of birth of a child born to a single mother, conceived through IVF.^[55]^[56] The Delhi High Court has held that "mother’s name is sufficient in certain cases like the present one to apply for passport, especially as a single woman can be a natural guardian and also a parent".^[57] Considering these socio-legal transformations, a study suggested that despite facing numerous challenges, single mothers who are raising their children with little support from the families, society or state are challenging the dominant male breadwinner and provider model while redefining the heteronormative model of parenting.^[58]

New Zealand[edit]

At the 2013 census, 17.8% of New Zealand families were single-parent, of which five-sixths were headed by a female. Single-parent families in New Zealand have fewer children than two-parent families; 56% of single-parent families have only one child and 29% have two children, compared to 38% and 40% respectively for two-parent families.^[59]

Sierra Leone[edit]

In Sierra Leone, a 1994 study observed that it was socially acceptable for unmarried single Mende women to have children due to the social stigma of being a women with no children.^[60]

South Africa[edit]

In South Africa, the number of single-parent households has risen in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries due to a variety of factors, including the HIV/AIDs epidemic, increasing economic migration within the country, and the social changes brought about by colonialism and apartheid. As of 2012, 39% of children living in South Africa lived with their biological mother and not their father, and 4% lived with their biological father but not their mother.^[61] In South African academic literature, single mothers are studied as a part of the "female headed household" demographic.^[62] Colloquially, the term "single-parent household" or "single mother" is more widely used.^[63] The perception of single mothers within South African society varies depending on the cause of their situation. Women whose husbands died are not typically judged in the same way as divorced, separated, or unmarried women.^[64] Within South African media, the idea that unmarried women may seek to become pregnant in order to access child benefits is a common one.^[65] To avoid social stigma, the families of unmarried women with children will often raise the child(ren) as their own.^[61] It is especially common for the child to be raised as a sibling of their mother.^[66] However, this is not the case when the child has a disability. A 2023 study found that South African women who gave birth to children with disabilities were often rejected and left by their partners, their partner's family, and their own family. This is due to stigma disabilities have carried in South African society and the blame placed upon the women for having a child with a disability.^[67]

United Kingdom[edit]

In the United Kingdom, about 1 out of 4 families with dependent children are single-parent families, 8 to 11 percent of which have a male single-parent.^[68]^[69]^[70] UK poverty figures show that 52% of single parent families are below the Government-defined poverty line (after housing costs).^[71] Single parents in the UK are almost twice as likely to be in low-paid jobs as other workers (39% of working single parents compared with 21% of working people nationally). This is highlighted in a report published by Gingerbread, funded by Trust for London and Barrow Cadbury Trust.^[72]

United States[edit]

In the United States, since the 1960s, there has been a marked increase in the number of children living with a single parent. The jump was caused by an increase in births to unmarried women and by the increasing prevalence of divorces among couples. In 2010, 40.7% of births in the US were to unmarried women.^[73] In 2000, 11% of children were living with parents who had never been married, 15.6% of children lived with a divorced parent, and 1.2% lived with a parent who was widowed.^[74]^[75] The results of the 2010 United States Census showed that 27% of children live with one parent, consistent with the emerging trend noted in 2000.^[76] The most recent data of December 2011 shows approximately 13.7 million single parents in the U.S.^[77] Mississippi leads the nation with the highest percent of births to unmarried mothers with 54% in 2014, followed by Louisiana, New Mexico, Florida and South Carolina.^[78]

In 2006, 12.9 million families in the US were headed by a single parent, 80% of which were headed by a woman.^[79]^[80] Single-parent households are on average much poorer, a pattern largely explained by the lack of a second source of income in the home itself.^[81]

According to a 2016 report from the United States Census Bureau, the percentage of children living in families with two parents decreased from 88 to 69 between 1960 and 2016. Of those 50.7 million children living in families with two parents, 47.7 million live with two married parents and 3.0 million live with two unmarried parents.^[82] The percentage of children living with single parents increased substantially in the United States during the second half of the 20th century. According to a 2013 Child Trends study, only 9% of children lived with single parents in the 1960s—a figure that increased to 28% in 2012.^[83] Single parent households became more common after legislation allowing no fault divorce.^[84]

Zimbabwe[edit]

Historically Zimbabwe has had a tradition of polygamy, and so a second or third wife might run a household and take care of their children as a lone parent.^[85] In contrast to Western societies, financial support for single parents (especially single mothers) typically comes from extended family support systems.^[86]

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^ "Single Parent Success Foundation". America's Children: Key National Indicators of Well-being. www.childstats.gov. Archived from the original on 16 November 2011. Retrieved 9 November 2011.
^ "More Young Adults are Living in Their Parents' Home, Census Bureau Reports" (Press release). United States Census Bureau. 3 November 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
^ "The Most Important Statistics About Single Parents". The Spruce. Retrieved 2017-12-06.
^ "The Number of Births to Unmarried Mothers in Massachusetts is Higher than You Think". Infinity Law Group. 2016-03-28. Retrieved 2016-03-28.
^ Current Population Survey, 2006 Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement (PDF), Washington: United States Bureau of the Census, 2006, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-03-04
^ Navarro, Mireya (September 5, 2008). "The Bachelor Life Includes a Family". The New York Times.
^ Thompson, Derek (Oct 1, 2013). "How America's Marriage Crisis Makes Income Inequality So Much Worse" – via The Atlantic.
^ US Census Bureau. "The Majority of Children Live With Two Parents, Census Bureau Reports". The United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2018-12-07.
^ Amato, Paul R., Sarah Patterson, and Brett Beattie. "Single-Parent Households And Children’S Educational Achievement: A State-Level Analysis." Social Science Research 53.(2015): 191–202. SocINDEX with Full Text. Web. 18 March. 2017.
^ Williamson, AJ (27 November 2023). "What is no-fault divorce, and why do some conservatives want to get rid of it?". CNN. Retrieved 19 June 2024.
^ Kawewe & Moyo 2009, p. 166
^ Kawewe & Moyo 2009, p. 172

Bibliography[edit]

Ntoimo, Lorretta Favour Chizomam; Mutanda, Nyasha (2020), Odimegwu, Clifford O. (ed.), "Demography of single parenthood in Africa: patterns, determinants and consequences" (PDF), Family demography and post-2015 development agenda in Africa, pp. 147–169, retrieved 2024-06-19
Kawewe, Saliwe M.; Moyo, Otrude N. (2009). "Lone motherhood in Zimbabwe: The cocioeconomic conditions of lone parents and their children". Social Work in Public Health. 24 (1–2): 161–177. doi:10.1080/19371910802569732. PMID 19229781.

Wright, Gemma; Noble, Michael; Ntshongwana, Phakama; Neves, David; Helen, Barnes (2014), The Role of Social Security in Respecting and Protecting Dignity of Lone Mothers in South Africa: Final Report (PDF), Centre for the Analysis of South African Social Policy, University of Oxford, retrieved 2024-06-18

@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 {{Redirect2|Single father|Single mother|other uses|Single Father (disambiguation)|and|Single Mother (disambiguation)}}
 {{Redirect|Motherless}}
+A '''single parent''' is a person who has a child or children but does not have a spouse or live-in partner to assist in the upbringing or support of the child.  Reasons for becoming a single parent include [[decease]], [[divorce]], [[break-up]], [[Child abandonment|abandonment]], becoming [[widow]]ed, [[domestic violence]], [[rape]], childbirth by a single person or single-person adoption. A ''single parent family'' is a family with children that is headed by a single parent.<ref>Miriam-Webster Dictionary [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/single%20parent single parent, noun]</ref><ref>Collins English Dictionary [https://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/single-parent single parent]</ref><ref>US Legal, [https://definitions.uslegal.com/s/single-parent/ Single Parent Law and Legal Definition]</ref><ref>The Social History of the American Family: An Encyclopedia, [http://edge.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/10.7_Single-Parent_Families.pdf Single-Parent Families], Sage Publications</ref>
-=== A '''single parent''' is a person who has a child or children but does not have a spouse or live-in partner to assist in the upbringing or support of the child.  Reasons for becoming a single parent include [[divorce]], [[break-up]], [[Child abandonment|abandonment]], becoming [[Widow|widowed]], [[domestic violence]], [[rape]], [[childbirth by a single person]] or [[single-person adoption]]. A ''single parent family'' is a family with children that is headed by a single parent.<ref>Miriam-Webster Dictionary [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/single%20parent single parent, noun]</ref><ref>Collins English Dictionary [https://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/single-parent single parent]</ref><ref>US Legal, [https://definitions.uslegal.com/s/single-parent/ Single Parent Law and Legal Definition]</ref><ref>The Social History of the American Family: An Encyclopedia, [http://edge.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/10.7_Single-Parent_Families.pdf Single-Parent Families], Sage Publications</ref> ===
 ==History==
+Single parenthood has been common historically due to parental [[mortality rate]] due to [[disease]], [[war]]s, [[homicide]], [[work accidents]] and [[maternal mortality]]. Historical estimates indicate that in French, English, or Spanish villages in the 17th and 18th centuries at least one-third of children lost one of their parents during childhood; in 19th-century [[Milan]], about half of all children lost at least one parent by age 20; in 19th-century [[China]], almost one-third of boys had lost one parent or both by the age of 15.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.faqs.org/childhood/Me-Pa/Orphans.html|title=Orphans|author=Gay Brunet|publisher=Internet FAQ Archives|series=Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood in History and Society}}</ref> Such single parenthood was often short in duration, since remarriage rates were high.<ref>Dupaquier J, Helin E, Laslett P, Livi-Bacci M, Marriage and remarriage in populations of the past, London: Academic Press, 1981.</ref>
+[[Divorce]] was generally rare historically (although this depends by culture and era), and divorce especially became very difficult to obtain after the fall of the Roman Empire, in Medieval Europe, due to strong involvement of [[ecclesiastical courts]] in [[family]] life (though [[annulment]] and other forms of separation were more common).<ref>''Kent's Commentaries on American Law'', p. 125, n. 1 (14th ed. 1896).</ref>
-=== Single parenthood has been common historically due to parental [[mortality rate]] due to [[disease]], [[war]]s, [[homicide]], [[work accidents]] and [[maternal mortality]]. Historical estimates indicate that in French, English, or Spanish villages in the 17th and 18th centuries at least one-third of children lost one of their parents during childhood; in 19th-century [[Milan]], about half of all children lost at least one parent by age 20; in 19th-century [[China]], almost one-third of boys had lost one parent or both by the age of 15.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.faqs.org/childhood/Me-Pa/Orphans.html|title=Orphans|author=Gay Brunet|publisher=Internet FAQ Archives|series=Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood in History and Society}}</ref> Such single parenthood was often short in duration, since remarriage rates were high.<ref>Dupaquier J, Helin E, Laslett P, Livi-Bacci M, Marriage and remarriage in populations of the past, London: Academic Press, 1981.</ref> ===
+Single parent adoptions have existed since the mid 19th century. Men were rarely considered as adoptive parents, and were considered far less desired. Often, children adopted by a single person were raised in pairs rather than alone, and many adoptions by lesbians and gay men were arranged as single parent adoptions. During the mid 19th century many state welfare officials made it difficult if not impossible for single persons to adopt, as agencies searched for married heterosexual couples. In 1965, the Los Angeles Bureau of Adoptions sought single African-Americans for African-American orphans for whom married families could not be found. In 1968, the [[Child Welfare League of America]] stated that married couples were preferred, but there were "exceptional circumstances" where single parent adoptions were permissible.<ref name="Single Parent Adoptions">{{cite web|title=Single Parent Adoptions | url= http://pages.uoregon.edu/adoption/topics/singleparentadoptions.htm |work=The Adoption History Project| publisher= University of Oregon|date =  24 February 2012 |access-date=23 April 2014}}</ref>
-==== [[Divorce]] was generally rare historically (although this depends by culture and era), and divorce especially became very difficult to obtain after the fall of the Roman Empire, in Medieval Europe, due to strong involvement of [[ecclesiastical courts]] in [[family]] life (though [[annulment]] and other forms of separation were more common).<ref>''Kent's Commentaries on American Law'', p. 125, n. 1 (14th ed. 1896).</ref> ====
 ==Demographics==
@@ Line 38: / Line 38: @@
 == Impact on children ==
-{{See also|Implications of divorce}}
 According to [[David Blankenhorn]],<ref>Blankenhorn, 1995 D. Blankenhorn Fatherless America: Confronting Our Most Urgent Social Problem Basic Books, New York (1995)
 </ref> Patrick Fagan,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/1999/06/broken-families-rob-children-of-their-chances-for-future-prosperity|title=How Broken Families Rob Children of Their Chances for Future Prosperity|newspaper=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=2017-01-18|language=en-US}}</ref> Mitch Pearlstein<ref>M. Pearlstein From Family Collapse to America's Decline: The Educational, Economic, and Social Costs of Family Disintegration Rowman & Littlefield, New York, NY (2011)</ref> David Popenoe<ref>D. Popenoe Families without Fathers: Fathers, Marriage, and Children in American Society Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, NJ (2009)</ref> and Barbara Dafoe Whitehead,<ref>B.D. Whitehead The Divorce Culture Alfred Knopf, New York (1997)</ref> living in a single parent family is strongly correlated with school failure and problems of delinquency, drug use, [[teenage pregnancies]], poverty, and welfare dependency in the United States. Using multilevel modelling, [[Suet-Ling Pong]] has shown that a high proportion of American children from single parent families perform poorly on mathematics and reading achievement tests.<ref>Pong SL. Family structure, school context, and eighth-grade math and reading achievement. Journal of Marriage and the Family. 1997 Aug 1:734-46.</ref><ref>Pong SL. The school compositional effect of single parenthood on 10th-grade achievement. Sociology of education. 1998 Jan 1:23-42.</ref>
@@ Line 46: / Line 44: @@
 The United Kingdom [[Office for National Statistics]] has reported that children of single parents, after controlling for other variables like family income, are more likely to have problems, including being twice as likely to suffer from mental illness.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2006/feb/21/mentalhealth.childrensservices|title=Single-parent families double likelihood of child mental illness|author=David Batty|newspaper=the Guardian|date=2006-02-21}}</ref> Both British and American researchers show that children with no fathers are three times more likely to be unhappy, and are also more likely to engage in anti-social behavior, abuse substances and engage in juvenile deliquency.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=353977|title=The Effects of Single-Mother Families and Nonresident Fathers on Delinquency and Substance Abuse in Black and White Adolescents|first1=George|last1=Thomas|first2=Michael P.|last2=Farrell|first3=Grace M.|last3=Barnes|date=1 January 1996|journal=Journal of Marriage and Family|volume=58|issue=4|pages=884–894|doi=10.2307/353977}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1533-8525.1982.tb01014.x | volume=23 | issue=3 | title=The Family and Juvenile Delinquency* | journal=The Sociological Quarterly | pages=301–319| year=1982 | last1=Gove | first1=Walter R. | last2=Crutchfield | first2=Robert D. | s2cid=143647741 }}</ref>
-== In American society ==
-In 2017, the U.S Census Bureau published a report breaking down the number of children living in single parent households by the race of the family. The report found dramatic disparities in the rates of single parent families among the races examined.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://datacenter.kidscount.org/data/Tables/107-children-in-single-parent-families-by-race|title=Children in single-parent families by race {{!}} KIDS COUNT Data Center|website=datacenter.kidscount.org|language=en|access-date=2019-05-13}}</ref>
-==Cultural norms and attitudes==
-{{See also|Family structure in the United States}}
-There is some debate among experts as to what the important component of the family structure is, particularly in the US, centring on whether or not a complete family or the love and affection of the children's parents is more important. There are even some that argue that a single-parent family is not even really a family.<ref name="University of Maryland, College Park">{{cite web|first=Stacey | last = Snowdon|title=DIVORCE AND ITS EFFECTS ON CHILDREN|url=http://www.wright-house.com/ac/papers97/Snowdon-ac1.html| year = 1997 | publisher =  Advocates for Children program, College Park Scholars, University of Maryland | access-date=14 November 2011}}</ref> In the United States, where living standards are generally high, single-parent households are on average much poorer, a pattern largely explained by the lack of a second source of income in the home itself.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/10/how-americas-marriage-crisis-makes-income-inequality-so-much-worse/280056/|title=How America's Marriage Crisis Makes Income Inequality So Much Worse|last=Thompson|first=Derek|date=Oct 1, 2013|via=The Atlantic}}</ref> With respect to this, recent public policy debates have centered on whether or not government should give aid to single parent households, which some believe will reduce poverty and improve their situation, or instead focus on wider issues like protecting employment.<ref name="Single Parents">{{cite web | title = About Single Parent | date = April 23, 2011 | url = http://singleparentsnetwork.com/Articles/Work/ | publisher = Single Parenting | access-date = 8 November 2012 | archive-date = 12 December 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121212084048/http://singleparentsnetwork.com/Articles/Work/ | url-status = dead }}</ref>  In addition, there is a debate on the behavioral effects of [[children of incarcerated parents|children with incarcerated parents]], and how losing one or both parents to incarceration affects their academic performance and social well-being with others.<ref name="Children of Incarcerated Parents">{{cite web|last=Reed|first=Diane and Edward|title=Children of Incarcerated Parents|url=http://www.parentsinaction.net/english/Prison/Children%20of%20Incarcerated20Parents.htm|work=Social Justice, Fall 1997 v24 n3 p152(18).|access-date=14 November 2011|archive-date=12 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111012054538/http://parentsinaction.net/english/Prison/Children%20of%20Incarcerated%20Parents.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
-It is encouraged that each parent respects the other, at least in the child's presence{{By whom|date=July 2014}}, and provide [[child support]] for the [[primary caregiver]], when parents are not married or separated.<ref name="Single Parents"/><ref name="Attachment and Divorce: Family Consequences">{{cite web|last=Eagan|first=Cristina|title=Attachment and Divorce: Family Consequences|url=http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/eagan.html|publisher=Rochester Institute of Technology|access-date=14 November 2011}}</ref> The civil behaviour among separated parents has a direct effect on how the child copes with their situation; this is especially seen in younger children who do not yet understand their familial separation, requiring both parents to establish a limited friendship to support the upbringing of their child.<ref name="Attachment and Divorce: Family Consequences"/>
 == Causes of single-parenthood ==
@@ Line 62: / Line 51: @@
 ===Divorced parents===
-====Divorce statistics====
-In 2009, the overall [[divorce rate]] was around 9/1000 in the [[United States]]. It was also found that more influence came from the south, with the rates there being about 10.5/1000, as opposed to the north where it was around 7/1000.<ref name="CNN">{{cite news |title=The American South has the country's highest divorce rates |url=http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2011/08/25/the-american-south-has-the-countrys-highest-divorce-rates/ |publisher=GlobalPost |access-date=14 November 2011 |date=25 August 2011 |archive-date=4 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404035439/http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2011/08/25/the-american-south-has-the-countrys-highest-divorce-rates/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>  This resulted in about 1.5% (around 1 million) children living in the house of a recently divorced parent in the same year.<ref name="United States Divorce Rate: 2009 Census Report Reveals Startling Marriage Trends">{{cite news|last=Yen|first=Hope|title=United States Divorce Rate: 2009 Census Report Reveals Startling Marriage Trends|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/25/united-states-divorce-rat_n_935938.html|access-date=14 November 2011|work=Huffington Post|date=25 August 2011}}</ref> Along with this, it has been shown that for the past 10 years or so, first marriages have a 40% chance of ending in [[divorce]].{{citation needed|date=April 2014|https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/sex/divorce/9856012/Survive-the-first-ten-years-and-marriage-stays-strong.html=}} And, for other marriages after a first divorce, the chance of another divorce increases. In 2003, a study showed that about 69% of children in American living in a household that was a different structure than the typical [[nuclear family]]. This was broken down into about 30% living with a stepparent, 23% living with a biological mother, 6% with grandparents as caregivers, 4% with a biological father, 4% with someone who was not a direct relative, and a small 1% living with a foster family.<ref name="Divorce Statistics">{{cite web|title=Divorce Statistics|url=http://www.rainbows.org/statistics.html|access-date=14 November 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113053630/http://www.rainbows.org/statistics.html|archive-date=13 November 2011}}</ref>
-Around the mid-1990s, there was a significant number of single parents raising children, with 1.3 million single fathers and 7.6 million single mothers in the United States alone. {{citation needed|date=December 2014}} However, many parents desire, or attempt, to get sole custody, which would make them a single parent, but are unsuccessful in the court process. There are many parents who may single parent, but do so without official custody, further biasing statistics.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}
-====Children and divorce====
 {{See also|Implications of divorce}}
+[[Child custody]] in reference to [[divorce]] refers to which parent is allowed to make important decisions about the children involved. [[Physical custody]] refers to which parent the child lives with. Among divorced parents, "parallel parenting" refers to parenting after divorce in which each parent does so independently; this is most common. In comparison, cooperative parenting occurs when the parents involved in the child's life work together around all involved parties' schedules and activities, and this is far less common. After a certain "crisis period," most children resume normal development; however, their future relationships are often affected, as they lack a model upon which to base a healthy long-term relationship. Nonetheless, as adults children of divorcees cope better with change.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Baker|first1=A.L.|author2=Ben-Ami, N.|title=Adult Recall of Childhood psychological maltreatment in "Adult Children of divorce": Prevalence and associations with concurrent measures of well being|journal=Journal of Divorce & Remarriage|volume=52|issue=4|pages=203–219|doi=10.1080/10502556.2011.556973|year=2011|s2cid=143613787}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Thomas|first1=D.A.|author2=Woodside, M.|title=Resilience in adult children of divorce: A multiple case study|journal=Marriage & Family Review|volume=47|issue=4|pages=213–234|doi=10.1080/01494929.2011.586300|year=2011|s2cid=144236587}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Cherlin|first=Andrew|title=Public and Private Families|year=2010|publisher=McGraw Hill|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-07-340435-6}}</ref>
+Keeping in touch with both parents and having a healthy relationship with both mother and father appears to have the most effect on a child's behavior; which leads to an easier time coping with the divorce as well as development through the child's life.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hess|first1=Robert D.|last2=Camara|first2=Kathleen A.|date=1979-10-01|title=Post-Divorce Family Relationships as Mediating Factors in the Consequences of Divorce for Children|journal=Journal of Social Issues|language=en|volume=35|issue=4|pages=79–96|doi=10.1111/j.1540-4560.1979.tb00814.x|issn=1540-4560}}</ref> Children will do better with their parents divorce if they have a smooth adjustment period. One way to make this adjustment easier on children is to let them "remain in the same neighborhoods and schools following divorce."<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.5559/di.23.1.01|url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/4d0ccfaf8eec904ea8d42bc9dc107ab7/1|title=The Consequences of Divorce for Adults and Children: An Update|journal=Društvena Istraživanja|volume=23|pages=5–24|year=2014|last1=Amato|first1=Paul R.|doi-access=free}}</ref>
-[[Child custody]] in reference to [[divorce]] refers to which parent is allowed to make important decisions about the children involved. [[Physical custody]] refers to which parent the child lives with. Among divorced parents, "parallel parenting" refers to parenting after divorce in which each parent does so independently; this is most common. In comparison, cooperative parenting occurs when the parents involved in the child's life work together around all involved parties' schedules and activities, and this is far less common. After a certain "crisis period," most children resume normal development; however, their future relationships are often affected, as they lack a model upon which to base a healthy long-term relationship. Nonetheless, as adults children of divorcees cope better with change.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Baker|first1=A.L.|author2=Ben-Ami, N.|title=Adult Recall of Childhood psychological maltreatment in "Adult Children of divorce": Prevalence and associations with concurrent measures of well being|journal=Journal of Divorce & Remarriage|volume=52|issue=4|pages=203–219|doi=10.1080/10502556.2011.556973|year=2011|s2cid=143613787|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/e1a8a51b477457673e4e3f20146b637fc9a567cc}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Thomas|first1=D.A.|author2=Woodside, M.|title=Resilience in adult children of divorce: A multiple case study|journal=Marriage & Family Review|volume=47|issue=4|pages=213–234|doi=10.1080/01494929.2011.586300|year=2011|s2cid=144236587}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Cherlin|first=Andrew|title=Public and Private Families|year=2010|publisher=McGraw Hill|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-07-340435-6}}</ref>
-Children are affected by divorce in many different ways, varying by the circumstances and age of the child. Young children ages two to six are generally the most fearful of parental separation, and often feel abandoned or confused. Both boys and girls have the same amount of trouble coping, but often show this in different ways. Nonetheless this age group adapts best to their situations, as they are often too young to remember their non-custodial parent vividly. Children ages seven to twelve are much better at expressing emotions and accepting parentage breakage, but often distrust their parents, rely on outside help and support for encouragement, and may manifest social and academic problems. Adolescents cope the worst with divorce; they often struggle most with the change, and may even turn away from their family entirely, dealing with their situation on their own. They often have problems expressing feelings, similar to far younger children, and may have adjustment issues with long-term relationships due to these feelings.<ref>{{cite web|publisher = Psych Page | last=Niolon, PhD|first=Richard|title=Children of Divorce and Adjustment| url= http://www.psychpage.com/family/divorce/childrenadjust.html|access-date=29 November 2011}}</ref> Keeping in touch with both parents and having a healthy relationship with both mother and father appears to have the most effect on a child's behavior; which leads to an easier time coping with the divorce as well as development through the child's life.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hess|first1=Robert D.|last2=Camara|first2=Kathleen A.|date=1979-10-01|title=Post-Divorce Family Relationships as Mediating Factors in the Consequences of Divorce for Children|journal=Journal of Social Issues|language=en|volume=35|issue=4|pages=79–96|doi=10.1111/j.1540-4560.1979.tb00814.x|issn=1540-4560}}</ref> Children will do better with their parents divorce if they have a smooth adjustment period. One way to make this adjustment easier on children is to let them "remain in the same neighborhoods and schools following divorce."<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.5559/di.23.1.01|url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/4d0ccfaf8eec904ea8d42bc9dc107ab7/1|title=The Consequences of Divorce for Adults and Children: An Update|journal=Društvena Istraživanja|volume=23|pages=5–24|year=2014|last1=Amato|first1=Paul R.|doi-access=free}}</ref>
-===Single woman births===
+===Unintended pregnancy===
-====Unintended pregnancy====
 {{main|Unintended pregnancy}}
 Many out-of-wedlock births are unintentional. Out-of-wedlock births are frequently not acceptable to society, and they often result in single parenting.  A partner may also leave as he or she may want to shirk responsibility of bringing up the child. This also may harm the child.<ref name="Negative Impact">{{cite web |url=http://nydivorcefirm.com/single-parent-households-does-affect-children/|title=Single Parent Households – How Does it Affect the Children? |access-date=23 April 2014}}</ref> Where they are not acceptable, they sometimes result in [[forced marriage]], however such marriages fail more often than others.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}
@@ Line 87: / Line 66: @@
 "Fragile families" are usually caused by an unintended pregnancy out of wedlock. Usually in this situation the father is not completely in the picture and the relationship between the mother, father, and child is consistently unstable. As well as instability, "fragile families" are often limited in resources such as human capital and money. The kids that come from these families are more likely to be hindered within school and don't succeed{{Clarify|date=August 2022}} as well as kids who have strictly single parents or two parent homes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Waldfogel|first1=Jane|last2=Craigie|first2=Terry-Ann|last3=Brooks-Gunn|first3=Jeanne|date=2010-01-01|title=Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing|journal=The Future of Children |volume=20|issue=2|pages=87–112|issn=1054-8289|pmc=3074431|pmid=20964133|doi=10.1353/foc.2010.0002}}</ref> Usually within these families the father plans to stick around and help raise the child but once the child is born the fathers do not stay for much longer and only one third stay after five years of the child's birth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McLanahan|first1=Sara|last2=Beck|first2=Audrey N.|date=2010-01-01|title=Parental relationships in fragile families|journal=The Future of Children|volume=20|issue=2|pages=17–37|issn=1054-8289|pmc=3053572|pmid=20964130|doi=10.1353/foc.2010.0007}}</ref> Most of these fragile families come from low economic status to begin with and the cycle appears to continue; once the child grows up they are just as likely to still be poor.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McLanahan|first=Sara|date=2009-01-01|title=Fragile Families and the Reproduction of Poverty|journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science|language=en|volume=621|issue=1|pages=111–131|doi=10.1177/0002716208324862|issn=0002-7162|pmc=2831755|pmid=20204078}}</ref> Most fragile families end with the mother becoming a single parent, leaving it even more difficult to come out of the poverty cycle. The gender of the baby seems to have no effect if the father is not living with the mother at the time of the birth, meaning they are still likely to leave after one year of the child's birth. Yet there is some evidence that suggests that if the father is living with the mother at the time of the birth he is more likely to stay after one year if the child is a son rather than a daughter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lundberg|first1=Shelly|last2=McLanahan|first2=Sara|last3=Rose|first3=Elaina|title=Child gender and father involvement in fragile families|journal=Demography|language=en|volume=44|issue=1|pages=79–92|doi=10.1353/dem.2007.0007|pmid=17461337|issn=0070-3370|year=2007|s2cid=21148498|doi-access=free}}</ref>
-====Choice====
+===Choice===
+Some women use artificial insemination to become single mothers by choice.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fiese |first1=Barbara |title=Single Mothers by Choice: Mother–Child Relationships and Children's Psychological Adjustment |journal=J Fam Psychol |date=2016 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=409–418 |doi=10.1037/fam0000188 |pmid=26866836 |pmc=4886836 }}</ref> Others choose to adopt. Men may also choose to become single fathers through adoption or surrogacy.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kale |first1=Sirin |title='I always wanted to be a dad': the rise of single fathers by choice |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/jan/29/i-always-wanted-to-be-a-dad-the-rise-of-single-fathers-by-choice |website=The Guardian |date=29 January 2020 |access-date=17 June 2024}}</ref>
-Some individuals choose to become pregnant and parent on their own. Others choose to adopt. Typically referred to in the West as "Single Mothers by Choice" or "Choice Moms" though, fathers also (less commonly) may choose to become single parents through adoption or surrogacy. Many turn to single parenthood by choice after not finding the right person to raise children with, and for women, it often comes out of a desire to have biological children before it is too late to do so.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}
-===Single-parent adoption===
+===Adoption===
 [[File:Doing the best she can.jpg|thumb|right|A single mother and child]]
-====History====
-Single parent adoptions have existed since the mid 19th century. Men were rarely considered as adoptive parents, and were considered far less desired. Often, children adopted by a single person were raised in pairs rather than alone, and many adoptions by lesbians and gay men were arranged as single parent adoptions. During the mid 19th century many state welfare officials made it difficult if not impossible for single persons to adopt, as agencies searched for "normal" families with married men and women. In 1965, the Los Angeles Bureau of Adoptions sought single African-Americans for African-American orphans for whom married families could not be found. In 1968, the [[Child Welfare League of America]] stated that married couples were preferred, but there were "exceptional circumstances" where single parent adoptions were permissible.<ref name="Single Parent Adoptions">{{cite web|title=Single Parent Adoptions | url= http://pages.uoregon.edu/adoption/topics/singleparentadoptions.htm |work=The Adoption History Project| publisher= University of Oregon|date =  24 February 2012 |access-date=23 April 2014}}</ref>
-Not much has changed with the adoption process since the 1960s. However, today, many countries only allow women to adopt as a single parent, and many others only allow men to adopt boys.<ref name="Intercountry Adoption">{{cite web|title=Intercountry Adoption | url= http://adoption.state.gov/|publisher = U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs |access-date=23 April 2014}}</ref>
-====Considerations====
 Single parent adoptions are controversial. They are, however, still preferred over divorcees, as divorced parents are considered an unnecessary stress on the child.<ref name="Single Parent Adoptions: Why Not?">{{cite web |last=Cake-Hanson-Cormell |title=Single Parent Adoptions: Why Not? |url=http://www.adopting.org/adoptions/single-parent-adoptions-why-not-2.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206130647/http://www.adopting.org/adoptions/single-parent-adoptions-why-not-2.html |archive-date=6 December 2008 |publisher=Adopting.org |year=2001 |url-status=dead |access-date=23 April 2014 }}</ref> In one study, the interviewers asked children questions about their new lifestyle in a single-parent home. The interviewer found that when asked about fears, a high proportion of children feared illness or injury to the parent. When asked about happiness, half of the children talked about outings with their single adoptive parent.<ref name="Single Parent Adoptions: a Longitudinal Study">{{cite journal |title=Single Parent Adoptions: A Longitudinal Study |journal = Children and Youth Services Review|volume = 7 | issue = 4 | year = 1985 |pages=321–334 |first1=Joan F. |last1=Shireman |first2=Renny R. |last2=Johnson |doi=10.1016/S0190-7409(85)80005-0}}</ref> A single person wanting to adopt a child has to be mindful of the challenges they may face, and there are certain agencies that will not work with single adoptive parents at all. Single parents will typically only have their own income to live off of, and thus might not have a backup plan for potential children in case something happens to them.<ref name="Single Parent Adoption">{{cite web|title=Single Parent Adoption |url=http://www.adoptionservices.org/adoption_special/adoption_single.htm |publisher=Adoption Services |access-date=23 April 2014}}</ref> Traveling is also made more complex, as the child must either be left in someone else's care, or taken along.<ref name="Single Parent Adoption: Challenges of Single Adoption">{{cite web |title=Single Parent Adoption: Challenges of Single Adoption |url=http://www.adoptionstogether.org/ResourcesandSupport/SingleParentAdoption.aspx |publisher=Adoptions Together |access-date=23 April 2014 |archive-date=24 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424061926/http://www.adoptionstogether.org/ResourcesandSupport/SingleParentAdoption.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref>
@@ Line 108: / Line 80: @@
 Single parents in Australia are eligible for support payments from the government, but only if they are caring for at least one child under the age of eight.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.humanservices.gov.au/customer/services/centrelink/parenting-payment|title=Parenting Payment – Australian Government Department of Human Services|website=www.humanservices.gov.au|access-date=2016-05-17}}</ref>
+=== India ===
+The [[Supreme Court of India]] and various [[High courts of India|High Courts of India]] have recognized the rights of single mothers to give birth and raise children.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Welle (www.dw.com) |first=Deutsche |title=Single mothers in India not compelled to disclose father's identity: Supreme Court {{!}} DW {{!}} 07.07.2015 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/single-mothers-in-india-not-compelled-to-disclose-fathers-identity-supreme-court/a-18565929 |access-date=2021-11-27 |website=DW.COM |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=A |first=Aruna |date=2021-09-14 |title=Need to understand the rights of a single mother by choice. |url=https://www.legalbay.co.in/post/need-to-understand-the-rights-of-a-single-mother-by-choice |access-date=2021-11-27 |website=Legal Bay |language=en}}</ref> The [[Kerala High Court|High Court of Kerala]], has declared in a case argued by Advocate Aruna A. that, the birth registration authorities cannot insist on the details of the father for registration of birth of a child born to a single mother, conceived through [[In vitro fertilisation|IVF]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 August 2021 |title=No need for single mother conceiving via IVF to give father's name on birth certificate: Kerala HC |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2021/aug/16/no-need-for-single-mother-conceiving-via-ivf-to-give-fathers-name-on-birth-certificate-kerala-hc-2345439.html |access-date=2021-11-27 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=Aug 17, 2021 |title=Asking sperm donor's name violates right to privacy, says Kerala high court {{!}} Kochi News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/asking-sperm-donors-name-violates-right-to-privacy-says-kerala-high-court/articleshow/85389241.cms |access-date=2021-11-27 |website=The Times of India |language=en |agency=TNN}}</ref> The [[Delhi High Court]] has held that "mother’s name is sufficient in certain cases like the present one to apply for passport, especially as a single woman can be a natural guardian and also a parent".<ref>{{Cite web |last=SCC Online |first=SCC Times |date=20 May 2016 |title=Requirement of father's name of applicant not mandatory for issuing passport, mother's name sufficient... |url=https://www.scconline.com/blog/post/2016/05/20/requirement-of-fathers-name-of-applicant-not-mandatory-for-issuing-passport-mothers-name-sufficient/ |access-date=26 February 2024 |website=SCC Online}}</ref> Considering these socio-legal transformations, a study suggested that despite facing numerous challenges, single mothers who are raising their children with little support from the families, society or state are challenging the dominant male breadwinner and provider model while redefining the heteronormative model of parenting.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nigam |first=Shalu |title=Single Mothers, Patriarchy and Citizenship in India: Rethinking Lone Motherhood through the Lens of Socio-legal and Policy Framework |date=18 February 2024 |publisher=We the People Network, Delhi |isbn=9798879683103 |location=India}}</ref>
 ===New Zealand===
 At the 2013 census, 17.8% of [[New Zealand]] families were single-parent, of which five-sixths were headed by a female. Single-parent families in New Zealand have fewer children than two-parent families; 56% of single-parent families have only one child and 29% have two children, compared to 38% and 40% respectively for two-parent families.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census/profile-and-summary-reports/qstats-families-households.aspx |title= 2013 Census QuickStats about families and households |publisher= [[Statistics New Zealand]] |date= 4 November 2014 |access-date= 11 December 2014 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141113151557/http://www.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census/profile-and-summary-reports/qstats-families-households.aspx |archive-date= 13 November 2014 }}</ref>
+=== Sierra Leone ===
+In [[Sierra Leone]], a 1994 study observed that it was socially acceptable for unmarried single [[Mende people|Mende women]] to have children due to the social stigma of being a women with no children.<ref name=Ntoimo4>{{harvnb|Ntoimo|Mutanda|2020|p=150}}</ref>
+=== South Africa ===
+In [[South Africa]], the number of single-parent households has risen in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries due to a variety of factors, including the [[HIV/AIDS in South Africa|HIV/AIDs epidemic]], increasing [[economic migration]] within the country, and the social changes brought about by [[Colonisation of Africa|colonialism]] and [[apartheid]]. As of 2012, 39% of children living in South Africa lived with their biological mother and not their father, and 4% lived with their biological father but not their mother.<ref name = Dignitypg40>{{harvnb|Wright|Noble|Ntshongwana|Neves|Barnes|2014|p=40}}</ref>
+In South African academic literature, single mothers are studied as a part of the "female headed household" demographic.<ref name = Dignitypg36>{{harvnb|Wright|Noble|Ntshongwana|Neves|Barnes|2014|p=36}}</ref> Colloquially, the term "single-parent household" or "single mother" is more widely used.<ref name = Dignitypg37>{{harvnb|Wright|Noble|Ntshongwana|Neves|Barnes|2014|p=37}}</ref> The perception of single mothers within South African society varies depending on the cause of their situation. Women whose husbands died are not typically judged in the same way as divorced, separated, or unmarried women.<ref name = Dignitypg38>{{harvnb|Wright|Noble|Ntshongwana|Neves|Barnes|2014|p=38}}</ref> Within South African media, the idea that unmarried women may seek to become pregnant in order to access [[Social welfare programmes in South Africa#The Child Support Grant (CSG)|child benefits]] is a common one.<ref name = Dignitypg39>{{harvnb|Wright|Noble|Ntshongwana|Neves|Barnes|2014|p=39}}</ref> To avoid social stigma, the families of unmarried women with children will often raise the child(ren) as their own.<ref name = Dignitypg40></ref> It is especially common for the child to be raised as a sibling of their mother.<ref name = Dignitypg41>{{harvnb|Wright|Noble|Ntshongwana|Neves|Barnes|2014|p=41}}</ref> However, this is not the case when the child has a disability. A 2023 study found that South African women who gave birth to children with disabilities were often rejected and left by their partners, their partner's family, and their own family. This is due to stigma disabilities have carried in South African society and the blame placed upon the women for having a child with a disability.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mbanjwa |first1=Siya |last2=Harvey |first2=Clare |date=2023-11-17 |title=South African single mothers' experiences of raising a child with a disability |journal=African Journal of Disability |volume=12 |page=1321 |doi=10.4102/ajod.v12i0.1321|pmid=38059152 |pmc=10696581 }}</ref>
 ===United Kingdom===
@@ Line 117: / Line 99: @@
 ===United States===
 {{main|Single parents in the United States}}
+{{See also|Family structure in the United States}}
 [[File:US single parent family income distribution.svg|600px|right]]
@@ Line 123: / Line 107: @@
 leads the nation with the highest percent of births to unmarried mothers with 54% in 2014, followed by [[Louisiana]], [[New Mexico]], [[Florida]] and [[South Carolina]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infinlaw.com/faq/marriage-divorce-unmarried-births/|title=The Number of Births to Unmarried Mothers in Massachusetts is Higher than You Think|website=Infinity Law Group|language=en-US|access-date=2016-03-28|date=2016-03-28}}</ref>
-In 2006, 12.9 million families in the US were headed by a single parent, 80% of which were headed by a female.<ref name="census">{{citation | url = https://www.census.gov/apsd/techdoc/cps/cpsmar06.pdf | title = Current Population Survey, 2006 Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement | publisher = United States Bureau of the Census | location = Washington | year = 2006 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130304014610/http://www.census.gov/apsd/techdoc/cps/cpsmar06.pdf | archive-date = 2013-03-04 }}</ref><ref name="nytimes">{{Cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/07/fashion/07single.html?_r=1&em&oref=slogin | title = The Bachelor Life Includes a Family | first = Mireya |last = Navarro | date = September 5, 2008  | newspaper = [[The New York Times]]}}</ref>
+In 2006, 12.9 million families in the US were headed by a single parent, 80% of which were headed by a woman.<ref name="census">{{citation | url = https://www.census.gov/apsd/techdoc/cps/cpsmar06.pdf | title = Current Population Survey, 2006 Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement | publisher = United States Bureau of the Census | location = Washington | year = 2006 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130304014610/http://www.census.gov/apsd/techdoc/cps/cpsmar06.pdf | archive-date = 2013-03-04 }}</ref><ref name="nytimes">{{Cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/07/fashion/07single.html?_r=1&em&oref=slogin | title = The Bachelor Life Includes a Family | first = Mireya |last = Navarro | date = September 5, 2008  | newspaper = [[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Single-parent households are on average much poorer, a pattern largely explained by the lack of a second source of income in the home itself.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/10/how-americas-marriage-crisis-makes-income-inequality-so-much-worse/280056/|title=How America's Marriage Crisis Makes Income Inequality So Much Worse|last=Thompson|first=Derek|date=Oct 1, 2013|via=The Atlantic}}</ref>
-According to a 2016 report from the [[United States Census Bureau]], the percentage of children living in families with two parents decreased from 88 to 69 between 1960 and 2016. Of those 50.7 million children living in families with two parents, 47.7 million live with two married parents and 3.0 million live with two unmarried parents.<ref name="Bureau">{{Cite web |last=US Census Bureau |title=The Majority of Children Live With Two Parents, Census Bureau Reports |url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2016/cb16-192.html |access-date=2018-12-07 |website=The United States Census Bureau |language=EN-US}}</ref>
+According to a 2016 report from the [[United States Census Bureau]], the percentage of children living in families with two parents decreased from 88 to 69 between 1960 and 2016. Of those 50.7 million children living in families with two parents, 47.7 million live with two married parents and 3.0 million live with two unmarried parents.<ref name="Bureau">{{Cite web |last=US Census Bureau |title=The Majority of Children Live With Two Parents, Census Bureau Reports |url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2016/cb16-192.html |access-date=2018-12-07 |website=The United States Census Bureau |language=EN-US}}</ref> The percentage of children living with single parents increased substantially in the United States during the second half of the 20th century. According to a 2013 [[Child Trends]] study, only 9% of children lived with single parents in the 1960s—a figure that increased to 28% in 2012.<ref name=":2">Amato, Paul R., Sarah Patterson, and Brett Beattie. "Single-Parent Households And Children’S Educational Achievement: A State-Level Analysis." ''Social Science Research'' 53.(2015): 191–202. ''SocINDEX with Full Text''. Web. 18 March. 2017.</ref> Single parent households became more common after legislation allowing [[no fault divorce]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Williamson |first1=AJ |title=What is no-fault divorce, and why do some conservatives want to get rid of it? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/11/27/us/no-fault-divorce-explained-history-wellness-cec|website=CNN |date=27 November 2023 |access-date=19 June 2024}}</ref>
+=== Zimbabwe ===
-The percentage of children living with single parents increased substantially in the United States during the second half of the 20th century. According to a 2013 [[Child Trends]] study, only 9% of children lived with single parents in the 1960s—a figure that increased to 28% in 2012.<ref name=":2">Amato, Paul R., Sarah Patterson, and Brett Beattie. "Single-Parent Households And Children’S Educational Achievement: A State-Level Analysis." ''Social Science Research'' 53.(2015): 191–202. ''SocINDEX with Full Text''. Web. 18 March. 2017.</ref> The main cause of single parent families are high rates of divorce and non-marital childbearing.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}
+Historically [[Zimbabwe]] has had a tradition of [[Polygamy in Zimbabwe|polygamy]], and so a second or third wife might run a household and take care of their children as a lone parent.<ref>{{harvnb|Kawewe|Moyo|2009|p=166}}</ref> In contrast to Western societies, financial support for single parents (especially single mothers) typically comes from extended family support systems.<ref>{{harvnb|Kawewe|Moyo|2009|p=172}}</ref>
-=== [[India]] ===
-The [[Supreme Court of India]] and various [[High courts of India|High Courts of India]] have recognized the rights of single mothers to give birth and raise children.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Welle (www.dw.com)|first=Deutsche|title=Single mothers in India not compelled to disclose father's identity: Supreme Court {{!}} DW {{!}} 07.07.2015|url=https://www.dw.com/en/single-mothers-in-india-not-compelled-to-disclose-fathers-identity-supreme-court/a-18565929|access-date=2021-11-27|website=DW.COM|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=A|first=Aruna|date=2021-09-14|title=Need to understand the rights of a single mother by choice.|url=https://www.legalbay.co.in/post/need-to-understand-the-rights-of-a-single-mother-by-choice|access-date=2021-11-27|website=Legal Bay|language=en}}</ref> The [[Kerala High Court|High Court of Kerala]], has declared in a case argued by Advocate Aruna A. that, the birth registration authorities cannot insist on the details of the father for registration of birth of a child born to a single mother, conceived through [[In vitro fertilisation|IVF]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=No need for single mother conceiving via IVF to give father's name on birth certificate: Kerala HC|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2021/aug/16/no-need-for-single-mother-conceiving-via-ivf-to-give-fathers-name-on-birth-certificate-kerala-hc-2345439.html|access-date=2021-11-27|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|agency=TNN|date=Aug 17, 2021|title=Asking sperm donor's name violates right to privacy, says Kerala high court {{!}} Kochi News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/asking-sperm-donors-name-violates-right-to-privacy-says-kerala-high-court/articleshow/85389241.cms|access-date=2021-11-27|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
 ==See also==
 {{Portal|Society}}
+*[[Single Parents in UK Parliaments]]
 * [[Cost of raising a child]]
 * [[Family planning]]
@@ Line 142: / Line 125: @@
 ==References==
 {{Reflist}}
+===Bibliography===
+* {{Citation |last1=Ntoimo |first1=Lorretta Favour Chizomam |title=Demography of single parenthood in Africa: patterns, determinants and consequences |work=Family demography and post-2015 development agenda in Africa |pages=147–169 |year=2020 |editor-last=Odimegwu |editor-first=Clifford O. |url=https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/89075864/978-3-030-14887-420220728-1-y0vyn5-libre.pdf?1659019630=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DFamily_Demography_and_Post_2015_Developm.pdf&Expires=1718789616&Signature=chvFbzqnWFloE7JQhwYXSlMzpA0fmpHQuYozTUtkzuKqrFqpFJX4ugWdPWRikOVy1AfhzrZJg80r2oT-4Gr95Q6n6pDQJIv7E8q6DsiRKafIJdI2XJeDnmGRQxvv33Uzg0e291WUVLm6TAbzuY2FHj4Df-UNcISmv4ORQz-lIx1hJU2vlP~87hfM6rcOAry~xtAsk7VAV-13bC3kVemf9PcH-4ViKBqoKkxpzR0dokB3PBPqE4PKEbm4nfjZLwo8VcaaqHPmKx5VkntjzZpf~oOdSlt6TeYcCysb99EiqLKcfakNGH1y4tVA1~l5x-JhTi6yD8wwfpJHEkEtgacMMA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA#page=156 |access-date=2024-06-19 |last2=Mutanda |first2=Nyasha}}
+*{{Cite journal |last1=Kawewe |first1=Saliwe M. |last2=Moyo |first2=Otrude N. |year=2009 |title=Lone motherhood in Zimbabwe: The cocioeconomic conditions of lone parents and their children |journal=[[Social Work in Public Health]] |volume=24 |issue=1–2 |pages=161–177 |doi=10.1080/19371910802569732|pmid=19229781 }}
+*{{Citation |last1=Wright |first1=Gemma |title=The Role of Social Security in Respecting and Protecting Dignity of Lone Mothers in South Africa: Final Report |year=2014 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/43542923.pdf |access-date=2024-06-18 |publisher=Centre for the Analysis of South African Social Policy, University of Oxford |last2=Noble |first2=Michael |last3=Ntshongwana |first3=Phakama |last4=Neves |first4=David |last5=Helen |first5=Barnes}}
 ==Further reading==
 {{Library resources box}}
@@ Line 155: / Line 143: @@
 * {{cite journal | last1 = Mulkey |first1= L. |last2= Crain |first2= R | last3= Harrington |first3= A.M. |title = One-Parent Households and Achievement: Economic and Behavioral Explanations of a Small Effect |journal = Sociology of Education  |volume = 65 |issue= 1 | date = January 1992| pages =  48–65 | doi=10.2307/2112692|jstor= 2112692 }}
 * {{cite journal | last = Pong |first=Suet-ling | title = The School Compositional Effect of Single Parenthood on 10th Grade Achievement |journal = Sociology of Education |volume = 71|issue= 1 | year = 1998| pages =  23–42 | doi=10.2307/2673220|jstor=2673220 }}
-*  {{cite journal | last = Quinlan | first = Robert J. | title = Father absence, parental care, and female reproductive development | journal = Evolution and Human Behavior | volume =24 | issue= 6| date = November 2003 |pages =376–390 | doi=10.1016/S1090-5138(03)00039-4}}
+*  {{cite journal | last = Quinlan | first = Robert J. | title = Father absence, parental care, and female reproductive development | journal = Evolution and Human Behavior | volume =24 | issue= 6| date = November 2003 |pages =376–390 | doi=10.1016/S1090-5138(03)00039-4| bibcode = 2003EHumB..24..376Q }}
 * {{cite journal | last1 = Richards | first1 =Leslie N. |last2= Schmiege |first2= Cynthia J. |journal= [[Family Relations (journal)|Family Relations]] | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | title = Family Diversity | date = July 1993 | pages = 277–285 | doi=10.2307/585557| jstor =585557 }}
 * {{cite journal | last1 = Risman | first1 = Barbara J. |author-link=Barbara Risman| last2 = Park | first2= Kyung | date = November 1988 | title = Just The Two of Us: Parent-Child Relationships in Single-Parent Homes | journal = Journal of Marriage and the Family  |volume = 50 |issue = 4 |pages = 1049–1062 | jstor = 352114 | doi=10.2307/352114}}

v t e Parenting
Kinship terminology	Parent Mother Father Adoptive Alloparenting Coparenting Extended family Foster care Kommune 1 Noncustodial Nuclear family Orphaned Shared parenting Single parent Blended family Surrogacy In loco parentis
Theories · Areas	Attachment theory Applied behavior analysis Behaviorism Child development Cognitive development Developmental psychology Human development Identity formation Introjection Love Maternal bond Nature versus nurture Parental investment Paternal bond Pediatrics Social emotional development Socialization Social psychology
Styles	Achievement ideology Atlas personality Attachment parenting Baby talk Buddha-like parenting Concerted cultivation Enmeshment Free-range parenting Gatekeeper parent Helicopter parent Nurturant parenting Slow parenting Soccer mom Strict father model Taking children seriously Theybie Tiger parenting Work at home parent
Techniques	After-school activity Allowance Bedtime Child care Co-sleeping Dishabituation Education Habituation Homeschooling Identification (psychology) Introjection Latchkey kid Moral development Normative social influence Parent management training Play (date) Role model Social integration Television The talk (race) The talk (sex education) Toy (educational) Positive Parenting Program
Child discipline	Blanket training Corporal punishment in the home Curfew Grounding Positive discipline Tactical ignoring Time-out
Abuse	Adverse childhood experiences Child abandonment Child abuse Child labour Child neglect Cinderella effect Codependency Dysfunctional family Effects of domestic violence Incest Narcissistic parent Parental abuse by children Stress in early childhood
Legal and social aspects	Child custody Child support Cost of raising a child Deadbeat parent Disownment Family disruption Management of domestic violence Marriage Parental alienation Parental responsibility Paternity Shared parenting
Experts	Mary Ainsworth John Bowlby T. Berry Brazelton Rudolf Dreikurs David Elkind Jo Frost Haim Ginott Thomas Gordon Alan E. Kazdin Truby King Annette Lareau Penelope Leach Matthew Sanders William Sears B. F. Skinner Benjamin Spock
Organizations	Families Need Fathers Mothers Apart from Their Children Mothers' Union National Childbirth Trust National Fatherhood Initiative National Parents Organization Parent–teacher association Parents Against Child Exploitation