Sotho language: Difference between revisions
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==Grammar== |
==Grammar== |
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{{main|Sesotho grammar}} |
{{main|Sesotho grammar}} |
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The most striking properties of Sesotho grammar, and the most important properties which reveal it as a [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] language, are its [[Sesotho nouns|noun gender]] and [[Sesotho concords|concord]] systems. The grammatical gender system does not include sex gender, and indeed, Bantu languages generally have no grammatical means of distinguishing between males and females. |
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Another well-known property of the Bantu languages is their [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] morphology. Additionally, they tend to lack any [[grammatical case]] systems, indicating noun roles almost exclusively through word order. |
Another well-known property of the Bantu languages is their [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] morphology. Additionally, they tend to lack any [[grammatical case]] systems, indicating noun roles almost exclusively through word order. |
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Revision as of 15:10, 26 October 2007
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Sesotho (Sotho, Southern Sotho, or Southern Sesotho[1]) is a Bantu language spoken primarily in South Africa, where it is one the 11 official languages, and in Lesotho, where it is the national language. It is an agglutinative language which uses numerous affixes and derivational and inflexional rules to build complete words.
Notes:
- The orthography used in this and related articles is that of South Africa, not Lesotho. For a discussion of the differences between the two see the notes on Sesotho orthography.
- Hovering the mouse cursor over most [ɪ'talɪk] Sesotho text should reveal an IPA pronunciation key (excluding tones).
Classification
Sesotho is a (narrow) Bantu language, belonging to the Niger-Congo language family. It is most closely related to three other major languages in the Sotho-Tswana language group: Setswana, the Northern Sotho languages (Sesotho sa Leboa), and Silozi. Sesotho is, and has always been, the name of the language in the language itself, and this term has come into wider use in English since the 1980s, especially in South African English and in Lesotho. It is also sometimes referred to as Southern Sotho, principally to distinguish it from Northern Sotho.
The Sotho-Tswana languages are in turn closely related to other Southern Bantu language groups, including the Tshivenḓa, Xitsonga, Inhambane, and Nguni languages, and possibly also the Makua languages of Tanzania and Mozambique.
Dialects
Standard Sesotho is remarkable in having little to no distinctive dialectal variation. Except for faint lexical variation within Lesotho, and except for marked lexical variation between the Lesotho/Free State variety, and that of the large urban townships to the north (e.g. Soweto) due to heavy borrowing from neighbouring languages, there is no discernible dialect variation in this language.
However, one point which seems to often confuse authors who attempt to study the dialectology of Sesotho is the term "Basotho" which can variously mean "Sotho-Tswana speakers," "Sesotho and Northern Sotho speakers," "Sesotho speakers," and "residents of Lesotho." Thus, when considering speech varieties, all minor ethnic groups living in Lesotho may be considered to be Sesotho speakers, and this has resulted in the Nguni language isiPhuthi (which has been heavily influenced by Sesotho, and whose speakers have strong Sotho-Tswana ancestry) sometimes being treated as a dialect of Sesotho named "Sephuthi."
Additionally, due to being derived from a language or dialect very closely related to modern Sesotho,[2] the Zambian Sotho-Tswana language Silozi is also sometimes cited as a modern dialect of Sesotho named "Serotse" or "Sekololo."
The oral history of the Basotho and Northern Sotho peoples (as contained in their diboko) states that Mathulare, a daughter of the chief of the Bafokeng nation (an old and respected people), was married to chief Tabane of the (Southern) Bakgatla (a branch of Bahurutse, who are one of the most ancient of the Sotho-Tswana clans), and bore the founders of five clans: Bapedi (by Mopedi), Makgolokwe (by Kgetsi), Baphuthing (by Mophuthing, and later the Mzizi of Dlamini, connected with the present-day amaNdebele), Batlokwa (by Kgwadi), and Basia (by Mosia). These were the first peoples to be called "Basotho", before many of their descendants and other peoples came together to form Moshoeshoe I's nation in the early 19th century. The situation is even further complicated by various historical factors, such as members of parent clans joining their descendants, or various different clans calling themselves by the same names (because they honour the same legendary ancestor or have the same totem).
An oft-repeated story is that when the modern Basotho nation was established by King Moshoeshoe I, his own "dialect" Sekwena was chosen over two other popular variations Setlokwa and Setaung, and that these two still exist as "dialects" of modern Sesotho. The inclusion of Setlokwa in this scenario is confusing, as the modern language named "Setlokwa" is a Northern Sotho language spoken by descendants of the same Batlokwa whose attack on the young chief Moshoeshoe's settlement during Difaqane (lead by the famous widow Mmanthatisi) caused them to migrate to present day Lesotho. On the other hand, Doke & Mofokeng claims that the tendency of many Sesotho speakers to say e.g. [kʼɪʀʊŋ̩ŋʷe] instead of [kʼɪʀʊmilʷe] when forming the perfect of the passive of verbs ending in [mɑ] (as well as forming their perfects with [m̩me] instead of [mile]) is "a relic of the extinct Tlokwa dialect."
Geographic distribution
According to 2001 census data, there were almost four million first language Sesotho speakers recorded in South Africa — approximately eight per cent of the population. Sesotho is also the main language spoken by the people of Lesotho, where, according to 1993 data, it was spoken by about 1 493 000 people, or 85% of the population. The census fails, unfortunately, to record the at least five million further South Africans for whom Sesotho is a second or third language. Such speakers are found in all major residential areas of greater Johannesburg, Soweto and Tshwane, where multilingualism and polylectalism are very high.
Official status
Sesotho is one of the eleven official languages of South Africa, and one of the two official languages of Lesotho.
Derived languages
Sesotho is one of the many languages from which the pseudo-language Tsotsitaal is derived. Tsotsitaal is not a proper language, as it is primarily a unique vocabulary and a set of idioms but used with the grammar and inflexion rules of another language (usually Sesotho or isiZulu). It is a part of the youth culture in most Southern Gauteng "townships" and is the primary language used in Kwaito music.
Phonology
The sound system of Sesotho is unusual in many respects. It has ejective consonants, click consonants, a uvular trill, a relatively large number of affricate consonants, no prenasalized consonants, and a rare form of vowel-height (alternatively, advanced tongue root) harmony. In total, the language contains some 39 consonantal[3] and 9 vowel phonemes.
It also has a large number of complex sound transformations which often change the phones of words due to the influence of other (sometimes invisible) sounds.
Grammar
The most striking properties of Sesotho grammar, and the most important properties which reveal it as a Bantu language, are its noun gender and concord systems. The grammatical gender system does not include sex gender, and indeed, Bantu languages generally have no grammatical means of distinguishing between males and females.
Another well-known property of the Bantu languages is their agglutinative morphology. Additionally, they tend to lack any grammatical case systems, indicating noun roles almost exclusively through word order.
Notes
- ^ or Suto, or Suthu, or Souto, or Sisutho, or Sutu, or Sesutu etc. by various authors and sources during various periods. The language's name has not changed for the last 200 years, though.
- ^ To the extent that it even has several words which resemble Sesotho words with clicks:
- ku kala to begin (Sesotho [hʊǃlɑ])
- ku kabana to quarrel (Sesotho [hʊǃɑbɑnɑ])
- ^ 75 if you include the labialized consonants.
See also
References
- Batibo, H. M., Moilwa, J., and Mosaka N. 1997. The historical implications of the linguistic relationship between Makua and Sotho languages. In PULA Journal of African Studies, vol. 11, no. 1
- Doke, C. M., and Mofokeng, S. M. 1974. Textbook of Southern Sotho Grammar. Cape Town: Longman Southern Africa, 3rd. impression. ISBN 0 582 61700 6.
- Ntaoleng, B. S. 2004. Sociolinguistic variation in spoken and written Sesotho: A case study of speech varieties in Qwaqwa. M.A. thesis. University of South Africa.
- Tšiu, W. M. 2001. Basotho family odes (Diboko) and oral tradition'. M.A. thesis. University of South Africa
External links
- Sesotho.web.za A gentle introduction to the Sesotho language and Basotho culture.
- Weblog on Sesotho
- Translate.org.za Project translating Free and Open Source Software into South African languages, including Sesotho.
- PanAfrican L10n page on Sesotho Information on the language and localization.
- Sesotho language tutorial A beginner's language text, designed for the US Peace Corps.