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==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4563760.stm BBC report on possible uses of taurine and alcohol damage - 2005]
*[http://taurinerules.blogspot.com/ Taurine Rules - energy drink review blog]

{{Dietary supplement}}

[[Category:Amines]]
[[Category:Sulfonic acids]]

[[ar:توراين]]
[[da:Taurin]]
[[de:Taurin]]
[[es:Taurina]]
[[eo:Taŭrino]]
[[fr:Taurine]]
[[ko:타우린]]
[[id:Taurin]]
[[it:Taurina]]
[[he:טאורין]]
[[hu:Taurin]]
[[nl:Taurine]]
[[ja:タウリン]]
[[no:Taurin]]
[[pl:Tauryna]]
[[pt:Taurina]]
[[ru:Таурин]]
[[sl:Tavrin]]
[[fi:Tauriini]]
[[sv:Taurin]]
[[tr:Taurin]]
[[zh:牛磺酸]]

Revision as of 18:33, 7 February 2008

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Taurine, or 2-aminoethanesulfonic acid, is an organic acid. It is also a major constituent of bile and can be found in lower amounts in the tissues of many animals including humans. [1][2] Taurine is a derivative of the sulfur-containing (sulfhydryl) amino acid, cysteine. Taurine is the only known naturally occurring sulfonic acid.[3]

Taurine is named after the Latin taurus, which means bull or ox, as it was first isolated from ox bile in 1827 by Austrian scientists Friedrich Tiedemann and Leopold Gmelin. It is often called an amino acid, even in scientific literature,[4][5][6] but as it lacks a carboxyl group it is not strictly an amino acid.[7] It does contain a sulfonate group and may be called an amino sulfonic acid. Small polypeptides have been identified which contain taurine but to date no aminoacyl tRNA synthetase has been identified as specifically recognizing taurine and capable of incorporating it onto a tRNA.[8]

Physiological roles

Taurine is conjugated via its amino terminal group with its chenodeoxycholic acid and cholic acid to form the bile salts sodium taurochenodeoxycholate and sodium taurocholate. The low pKa (1.5) of taurine's sulfonic acid group ensures that this moiety is negatively charged in the pH ranges normally found in the intestinal tract and thus improves the surfactant properties of the cholic acid conjugate. Taurine has also been implicated in a wide array of other physiological phenomena including inhibitory neurotransmission,[9] long-term potentiation in the striatum/hippocampus, membrane stabilization, feedback inhibition of neutrophil/macrophage respiratory bursts, adipose tissue regulation, and calcium homeostasis.

Prematurely born infants who lack the enzymes needed to convert cystathionine to cysteine may become deficient in taurine. Thus, taurine is a dietary essential nutrient in these individuals and is often added to many infant formulas as a measure of prudence. There is also evidence that taurine in adult humans reduces blood pressure.[10]

Obese mice demonstrate reduced blood levels of taurine, which may promote further weight gain, and taurine supplementation prevented obesity in mice fed a high-fat, low-taurine diet.[11] Recent studies have also shown that taurine can influence (and possibly reverse) defects in nerve blood flow, motor nerve conduction velocity, and nerve sensory thresholds in experimental diabetic neuropathic rats.[12][13] Taurine levels were found to be significantly lower in vegans than in a control group on a standard American diet. Plasma taurine was 78% of control values, and urinary taurine 29%.[14]

According to some animal studies, taurine produced an anxiolytic-like effect in mice and may act as a modulator or anti-anxiety agent in the central nervous system.[15]

In recent years, taurine has become a common ingredient in energy drinks. Taurine is often used in combination with bodybuilding supplements such as creatine and anabolic steroids, partly due to recent findings in mice that taurine alleviates muscle fatigue in strenuous workouts and raises exercise capacity.[16] Taurine is also used in some contact lens solutions.[17]

Taurine has also been shown in diabetic rats to decrease weight and decrease blood sugar.[18]

Taurine and cats

Taurine is essential for cat health, as a cat cannot synthesize the compound. The absence of taurine causes a cat's retina to slowly degenerate, causing eye problems and (eventually) irreversible blindness as well as hair loss and tooth decay. This condition is called central retinal degeneration (CRD).[19][20] In addition, taurine deficiency can cause feline dilated cardiomyopathy, and supplementation can reverse left ventricular systolic dysfunction. Taurine is now a requirement of the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) and any dry or wet food product labeled approved by the AAFCO should have a minimum of 0.1% taurine.[21]

Synthesis and production

In 1993, approximately 5,000–6,000 t of taurine were produced; 50% for pet food manufacture, 50% in pharmaceutical applications.[3] Synthetic taurine is obtained from isethionic acid (2-hydroxyethanesulfonic acid), which in turn is obtained from the reaction of ethylene oxide with aqueous sodium bisulfite.[22] Another approach is the reaction of aziridine with sulfurous acid. This leads directly to taurine.[citation needed]

As a functional food

Taurine is used as a functional food in many energy drinks and energy products (and more recently, in a candy bar[23]).

Energy Drink (not comprehensive list) Taurine concentration Normalized concentration
Full Throttle 1194 mg/16 oz (2 servings) 263.2 mg/100g
Monster 2000 mg/16 oz (2 servings) 440.9 mg/100g
NOS 1000 mg/8 oz (1 serving) 440.9 mg/100g
Red Bull 1000 mg/8.3 oz (1 serving) 425 mg/100g
Rip It 1000 mg/8 oz (1 serving) 440.9 mg/100g
Rockstar 2000 mg/16 oz (2 servings) 440.9 mg/100g
SoBe 2000 mg/16 oz (2 servings) 440.9 mg/100g
V 473 mg/8 oz 208.6 mg/100g
Vitamin Water Power C Dragon Fruit Flavor 25 mg/20 fl oz (2.5 servings)
Von Dutch 1.6 mg/100g (1/5 of a can) 2000 mg/16 oz (2 servings) 440.9 mg/100g
Bacchus-D (drink, available in South Korea) 2000 mg/100 mL (1 bottle) 2000 mg/100 mL (1 serving)
Relentless 2000 mg/16 oz (2 servings) 440.9 mg/100g

Despite its presence in many energy drinks, taurine has not been shown to be energy-giving. A study of mice hereditarily unable to transport taurine suggests that it is needed for proper maintenance and functioning of skeletal muscles.[24]

References

  1. ^ Bouckenooghe T, Remacle C, Reusens B (2006). "Is taurine a functional nutrient?". Curr Opin Clin Nutr. 9 (6): 728–733.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ Brosnan J, buffalo bill Brosnan M (2006). "The sulfur-containing amino acids: an overview". J Nutr. 136 (6 Suppl): 1636S–1640S. PMID 16702333.
  3. ^ a b Tully, Paul S. Sulfonic Acids. In Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published online 2000. doi:10.1002/0471238961.1921120620211212.a01
  4. ^ Stapleton, PP (1998). "Host defense--a role for the amino acid taurine?". Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. 22 (1): 42–48. Retrieved 2006-08-19. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ Weiss, Stephen J. (1982). "Chlorination of Taurine by Human Neutrophils". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 70 (3): 598–607. Retrieved 2006-08-19. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ Kirk, Kiaran (1993). "Volume-regulatory taurine release from a human heart cancer cell line". FEBS Letters. 336 (1): 153–158. doi:10.1016/0014-5793(93)81630-I. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ Carey, Francis A. (2006) [1987]. Organic Chemistry (6th ed. ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. p. 1149. ISBN 0-07-282837-4. Amino acids are carboxylic acids that contain an amine function. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  8. ^ Lahdesmaki, P (1987). "Biosynthesis of taurine peptides in brain cytoplasmic fraction in vitro". Int J Neuroscience. 37 (1–2): 79–84. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  9. ^ Olive MF. Interactions between taurine and ethanol in the central nervous system. Amino Acids 2002;23(4):345-57
  10. ^ Militante, J. D. (2002). "Treatment of hypertension with oral taurine: experimental and clinical studies". Amino Acids. 23 (4): 381–393. doi:10.1007/s00726-002-0212-0. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  11. ^ Tsuboyama-Kasaoka, Nobuyo (2006). "Taurine (2-Aminoethanesulfonic Acid) Deficiency Creates a Vicious Circle Promoting Obesity". Endocrinology. 147 (7): 3276–3284. doi:10.1210/en.2005-1007. Retrieved 2006-08-22. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ Li F, Abatan OI, Kim H, Burnett D, Larkin D, Obrosova IG, Stevens MJ (2006 Jun). "Taurine reverses neurological and neurovascular deficits in Zucker diabetic fatty rats". Neurobiology of Disease. 22 (3): 669-676. PMID 16624563. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Pop-Busui R, Sullivan KA, Van Huysen C, Bayer L, Cao X, Towns R, Stevens MJ (2001 Apr). "Depletion of taurine in experimental diabetic neuropathy: implications for nerve metabolic, vascular, and functional deficits". Exp Neurol. 168 (2): 259-272. PMID 11259114. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Laidlaw S, Shultz T, Cecchino J, Kopple J (1988) "Plasma and urine taurine levels in vegans." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 47, pp. 660-663.
  15. ^ Kong WX, Chen SW, Li YL; et al. (2006). "Effects of taurine on rat behaviors in three anxiety models". Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 83 (2): 271–6. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2006.02.007. PMID 16540157. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ U. Warskulat, U. Flogel, C. Jacoby, H.-G. Hartwig, M. Thewissen, M. W. Merx, A. Molojavyi, B. Heller-Stilb, J. Schrader and D. Haussinger (2004). "Taurine transporter knockout depletes muscle taurine levels and results in severe skeletal muscle impairment but leaves cardiac function uncompromised". FASEB J.: 03-0496fje. doi:10.1096/fj.03-0496fje.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  17. ^ James, TJ (2004-04-01). "Ocular Health and Next Generation Solutions". Optometric Management. Retrieved 2008-01-10. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ "Taurine improves insulin sensitivity in the Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty rat, a model of spontaneous type 2 diabetes". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 71 (1): 54–58. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help); Text "date January 2000" ignored (help)
  19. ^ "Taurine And Its Importance In Cat Foods". Iams Cat Nutrition Library. 2004. Retrieved 2006-08-22.
  20. ^ "Nutrient Requirements of Cats". Nutrient Requirements of Cats, Revised Edition, 1986. 1986. Retrieved 2006-09-10.
  21. ^ AAFCO
  22. ^ Kurt Kosswig. Sulfonic Acids, Aliphatic. in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH, 2000. doi:10.1002/14356007.a25_503
  23. ^ Boniface, Dan (2008-01-23). "New candy bar offers more than just a sugar high". 9news.com. Retrieved 2008-01-24.
  24. ^ U. Warskulat, U. Flogel, C. Jacoby, H.-G. Hartwig, M. Thewissen, M. W. Merx, A. Molojavyi, B. Heller-Stilb, J. Schrader and D. Haussinger (2004). "Taurine transporter knockout depletes muscle taurine levels and results in severe skeletal muscle impairment but leaves cardiac function uncompromised". FASEB J.: 03-0496fje. doi:10.1096/fj.03-0496fje. PMID 14734644.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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