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- User:Noktonissian/sandbox/Tone
Independent vowels
Independent vowels are mainly reserved for writing Pali words, except for ᩐᩣ /ʔau/ which is used as a special vowel sign and not for Pali words.[1]
Tai Tham | IPA | Transliteration | |
---|---|---|---|
ᩋ | /áʔ/ | a | |
ᩋᩣ | /āː/ | aa | |
ᩍ | /íʔ/ | i | |
ᩎ | /īː/ | ii | |
ᩏ | /úʔ/ | u | |
ᩐ | /ūː/ | uu | |
ᩑ | /ēː/ | e | |
ᩒ | /ōː/ | o | |
ᩂ | /li/, /lɯ̄ː/,
/lɯ᷇ʔ/, /lɤː/[2] |
rue, ruue,
ri, roe[2] | |
ᩄ | lue, luue,
li, loe[2] | ||
ᩐᩣ | /aw/ | aw, au, ao |
Consonants table
Group | Consonant | Subjoined
form |
Transliteration | IPA | Class | Equivalence in relating scripts | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Initial | Final | Initial | Final | Burmese | New Tai Lue | Khmer | Thai | Lao | |||||
Ka
(ᩅᩢᨣ᩠ᨣ᩼ ᨠ) |
ᨠ | -᩠ᨠ | k | k | /kǎ/ | [k̚] | high | က | ᦂ | ក | ก | ກ | |
ᨡ | -᩠ᨡ | x | k | /xǎ/ | [k̚] | high | ခ | ᦃ | ខ | ข | ຂ | ||
ᨢ | – | x | – | /xǎ/ | [k̚] | high | - | ฃ | - | ||||
ᨣ | -᩠ᨣ | k | k | /ka᷇/ | [k̚] | low | ဂ | ᦅ | គ | ค | ຄ | ||
ᨤ | – | x | – | /xa᷇/ | [k̚] | low | ᦆ | ฅ | - | ||||
ᨥ | -᩠ᨥ | x | k | /xa᷇/ | [k̚] | low | ဃ | - | ឃ | ฆ | |||
ᨦ | -᩠ᨦ | ng | ng | /ŋa᷇/ | [ŋ] | low | င | ᦇ | ង | ง | ງ | ||
Cha
(ᩅᩢᨣ᩠ᨣ᩼ ᨧ) |
ᨧ | -᩠ᨧ | j | t | /t͡ɕǎ/ | [t̚] | high | စ | ᦈ | ច | จ | ຈ | |
ᨨ | -᩠ᨨ | s | – | /sǎ/ | – | high | ဆ | - | ឆ | ฉ | |||
ᨩ | -᩠ᨩ | j | t | /t͡ɕa᷇/ | [t̚] | low | ဇ | ᦋ | ជ | ช | ຊ | ||
ᨪ | – | s | t | /sa᷇/ | [t̚] | low | ᦌ | ซ | - | ||||
ᨫ | -᩠ᨫ | s | – | /sa᷇/ | – | low | ဈ | - | ឈ | ฌ | |||
ᨬ | -᩠ᨬ | y | n | /ɲa᷇/ or /ja᷇/[3] | [n] | low | ည | - | ញ | ญ | |||
Rata
(ᩅᩢᨣ᩠ᨣ᩼ ᨭ) |
ᨭ | -᩠ᨭ | t | t | /tǎ/ | [t̚] | high | ဋ | - | ដ | ฏ | ||
ᨮ | -᩠ᨮ, -ᩛ | th | t | /tʰǎ/ | [t̚] | high | ဌ | - | ឋ | ฐ | |||
ᨯ | -᩠ᨯ | d or th | t | /dǎ/ | [t̚] | mid | ဍ | ᦡ | ឌ | ฑ, ด | |||
ᨰ | -᩠ᨰ | th | t | /tʰa᷇/ | [t̚] | low | ဎ | - | ឍ | ฒ | |||
ᨱ | -᩠ᨱ | n | n | /na᷇/ | [n] | low | ဏ | - | ណ | ณ | |||
Ta
(ᩅᩢᨣ᩠ᨣ᩼ ᨲ) |
ᨲ | -᩠ᨲ | t | t | /tǎ/ | [t̚] | high | တ | ᦎ | ត | ต | ຕ | |
ᨳ | -᩠ᨳ | th | t | /tʰǎ/ | [t̚] | high | ထ | ᦏ | ថ | ถ | ຖ | ||
ᨴ | -᩠ᨴ | t | t | /ta᷇/ | [t̚] | low | ဒ | ᦑ | ទ | ท | ທ | ||
ᨵ | -᩠ᨵ | th | t | /tʰa᷇/ | [t̚] | low | ဓ | ᦒ | ធ | ธ | |||
ᨶ | -᩠ᨶ | n | n | /na᷇/ | [n] | low | န | ᦓ | ន | น | ນ | ||
Pa
(ᩅᩢᨣ᩠ᨣ᩼ ᨷ) |
ᨷ | -᩠ᨷ | b or p | p | /bǎ/ or /pǎ/ | [p̚] | mid | ပ | ᦢ | ប | บ | ບ | |
ᨸ | -᩠ᨸ | p | p | /pǎ/ | [p̚] | high | ᦔ | ป | ປ | ||||
ᨹ | -᩠ᨹ | ph | – | /pʰǎ/ | – | high | ဖ | ᦕ | ផ | ผ | ຜ | ||
ᨺ | - | f | – | /fǎ/ | – | high | ᦚ | ฝ | ຝ | ||||
ᨻ | -᩠ᨻ ᩛ | p | p | /pa᷇/ | [p̚] | low | ဗ | ᦗ | ព | พ | ພ | ||
ᨼ | – | f | p | /fa᷇/ | [p̚] | low | ᦝ | ฟ | ຟ | ||||
ᨽ | -᩠ᨽ | ph | p | /pʰa᷇/ | [p̚] | low | ဘ | ᦘ | ភ | ภ | |||
ᨾ | -᩠ᨾ | m | m | /ma᷇/ | [m] | low | မ | ᦙ | ម | ม | ມ | ||
Awak
(ᩋᩅᩢᨣ᩠ᨣ᩼) |
ᨿ | -᩠ᨿ | y | – or n | /ɲa᷇/ or /ja᷇/ | – or [n] | low | ယ | ᦍ | យ | ย ต่ำ | ຍ | |
ᩀ | – | y | – | /jǎ/ | – | mid | ᦊ | ย กลาง, อย | ຢ | ||||
ᩁ | -᩠ᩁ -ᩕ | h or l | n | /ha᷇/ or /la᷇/ | [n] | low | ရ | ᦣ | រ | ร | ຣ (modern: ລ) | ||
ᩃ | -᩠ᩃ -ᩖ | l | n | /la᷇/ | [n] | low | လ | ᦟ | ល | ล | ລ | ||
ᩅ | -᩠ᩅ | w | – | /wa᷇/ | – | low | ဝ | ᦞ | វ | ว | ວ | ||
ᩆ | -᩠ᩆ | s | t | /sǎ/ | [t̚] | high | ၐ (modern: သ) | - | ឝ (modern: ស) | ศ | |||
ᩇ | -᩠ᩇ | s | t | /sǎ/ | [t̚] | high | ၑ (modern: သ) | - | ឞ (modern: ស) | ษ | |||
ᩈ | -᩠ᩈ | s | t | /sǎ/ | [t̚] | high | သ | ᦉ | ស | ส | ສ | ||
ᩉ | -᩠ᩉ | h | – | /hǎ/ | – | high | ဟ | ᦠ | ហ | ห | ຫ | ||
ᩊ | -᩠ᩊ | l | n | /la᷇/ | [n] | low | ဠ | - | ឡ | ฬ | |||
ᩋ | -ᩬ | – | – | /ʔǎ/ | – | mid | အ | ᦀ | អ | อ | ອ | ||
ᩌ | – | h | – | /ha᷇/ | – | low | - | - | - | ฮ | ຮ |
- ^ Watcharasastr, Boonkid (2005). แบบเรียนภาษาเมืองล้านนา ᨷᩯ᩠ᨷᩁ᩠ᨿᩁᨽᩣᩇᩣᨾᩮᩬᩨᨦᩃ᩶ᩣ᩠ᨶᨶᩣ (in Thai). Chiang Mai: Thara Thong Publishing. p. 24. ISBN 9748547205.
- ^ a b c นาคสุข, ยุทธพร (4 สิงหาคม 2563). "อักษรธรรมล้านนาที่ประดิษฐ์ขึ้นเพิ่มเติมเพื่อใช้เขียนภาษาสันสกฤต". Humanities & Social Sciences. 37: 297–344.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - ^ In Tai Lue
Consonant table reduced
Group | Consonant | Subscript form |
Name | Transliteration | IPA | Class | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Translit. | IPA | Initial | Final | Initial | Final | |||||
1. Wak Ka | ᨠ | -᩠ᨠ | ka | [kǎ] | k | k | [k] | [k̚] | high | |
ᨡ | -᩠ᨡ | xa, kha | [xǎ] | x, kh | k | [x] | [k̚] | high | ||
ᨢ[a] | – | xa, kha | [xǎ] | x, kh | – | [x] | [k̚] | high | ||
ᨣ | -᩠ᨣ | ka | [ka᷇] | k | k | [k] | [k̚] | low | ||
ᨤ[a] | – | xa, kha | [xa᷇] | x, kh | – | [x] | [k̚] | low | ||
ᨥ | -᩠ᨥ | xa, kha | [xa᷇] | x, kh | k | [x] | [k̚] | low | ||
ᨦ | -᩠ᨦ | nga | [ŋa᷇] | ng | ng | [ŋ] | [ŋ] | low | ||
2. Wak Ja | ᨧ | -᩠ᨧ | ja, ca | [t͡ɕǎ] | j, c | t | [t͡ɕ] | [t̚] | high | |
ᨨ | -᩠ᨨ | sa, cha | [sǎ] | s, ch | – | [s] | – | high | ||
ᨩ | -᩠ᨩ | ja, ca | [t͡ɕa᷇] | j, c | t | [t͡ɕ] | [t̚] | low | ||
ᨪ[a] | – | sa | [sa᷇] | s | t | [s] | [t̚] | low | ||
ᨫ | -᩠ᨫ | sa, cha | [sa᷇] | s, ch | t | [s] | [t̚] | low | ||
ᨬ | -᩠ᨬ | nya | [ɲa᷇] | ny, y | n | [ɲ], [j][b] | [n] | low | ||
3. Wak Rata | ᨭ | -᩠ᨭ | rata | [lǎ.tǎ] | t | t | [t] | [t̚] | high | |
ᨮ | -᩠ᨮ , -ᩛ | ratha | [lǎ.tʰǎ] | th | t | [tʰ] | [t̚] | high | ||
ᨯ | -᩠ᨯ | da | [dǎ] | d, th[c] | t | [d], [tʰ][c] | [t̚] | mid | ||
ᨰ | -᩠ᨰ | ratha | [lǎ.tʰa᷇] | th | t | [tʰ] | [t̚] | low | ||
ᨱ | -᩠ᨱ | rana | [lǎ.na᷇] | n | n | [n] | [n] | low | ||
4. Wak Ta | ᨲ | -᩠ᨲ | ta | [tǎ] | t | t | [t] | [t̚] | high | |
ᨳ | -᩠ᨳ | tha | [tʰǎ] | th | t | [tʰ] | [t̚] | high | ||
ᨴ | -᩠ᨴ | ta | [ta᷇] | t | t | [t] | [t̚] | low | ||
ᨵ | -᩠ᨵ | tha | [tʰa᷇] | th | t | [tʰ] | [t̚] | low | ||
ᨶ | -᩠ᨶ | na | [na᷇] | n | n | [n] | [n] | low | ||
5. Wak Pa | ᨷ | -᩠ᨷ , -ᩝ | ba | [bǎ] | b, p | p | [b], [p][d] | [p̚] | mid | |
ᨸ[a] | – | pa | [pǎ] | p | p | [p] | [p̚] | high | ||
ᨹ | -᩠ᨹ | pha | [pʰǎ] | ph | – | [pʰ] | – | high | ||
ᨺ[a] | – | fa | [fǎ] | f | – | [f] | – | high | ||
ᨻ | -᩠ᨻ , -ᩛ | pa | [pa᷇] | p | p | [p] | [p̚] | low | ||
ᨼ[a] | – | fa | [fa᷇] | f | p | [f] | [p̚] | low | ||
ᨽ | -᩠ᨽ | pha | [pʰa᷇] | ph | p | [pʰ] | [p̚] | low | ||
ᨾ | -᩠ᨾ , -ᩜ | ma | [ma᷇] | m | m | [m] | [m] | low | ||
6. Awak | ᨿ | -᩠ᨿ | nya | [ɲa᷇] | ny, y | – | [ɲ], [j][b] | – | low | |
ᩀ[a] | – | ya | [jǎ] | y | – | [j] | – | mid | ||
ᩁ | -᩠ᩁ , -ᩕ | ra, la | [la᷇] | r,[e] l, h | n | [r],[c] [l],[c] [h] | [n] | low | ||
ᩃ | -᩠ᩃ , -ᩖ | la | [la᷇] | l | n | [l] | [n] | low | ||
ᩅ | -᩠ᩅ | wa | [wa᷇] | w | – | [w] | – | low | ||
ᩆ | -᩠ᩆ | sa | [sǎ] | s | t | [s] | [t̚] | high | ||
ᩇ | -᩠ᩇ | sa | [sǎ] | s | t | [s] | [t̚] | high | ||
ᩈ | -᩠ᩈ , -ᩞ | sa | [sǎ] | s | t | [s] | [t̚] | high | ||
ᩉ | -᩠ᩉ | ha | [hǎ] | h | – | [h] | – | high | ||
ᩊ | -᩠ᩊ | la | [la᷇] | l | n | [l] | [n] | low | ||
ᩋ | -ᩬ | a | [ʔǎ] | – | – | [ʔ] | – | mid | ||
ᩌ[a] | – | ha | [ha᷇] | h | – | [h] | – | low |
- Notes
- ^ a b c d e f g h Added consonant invented for Tai sound, as an extension to the original chategorized Pali 'vagga' consonants. These consonants have the characteristics of lacking the subscript form.
- ^ a b In Tai Lue language
- ^ a b c d Influence from Thai, Pali, and Sanskrit languages.
- ^ For Pali and Sanskrit words.
- ^ Often transliterated as 'r' to preserve the semantics for Thai and Pali-Sanskrit words.
Consonant digraphs and ligatures
Consonant
digraphs |
Name | Transliteration | IPA | Class | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Translit. | IPA | Initial | Final | Initial | Final | ||
ᩉ᩠ᨦ | nga | [ŋǎ] | ng | – | [ŋ] | – | high |
ᩉ᩠ᨶ | na | [nǎ] | n | – | [n] | – | high |
ᩉ᩠ᨾ | ma | [mǎ] | m | – | [m] | – | high |
ᩉ᩠ᨿ | nya | [ɲǎ] | ny | – | [ɲ], [j][a] | – | high |
ᩉᩕ | ra, la, ha | [rǎ], [lǎ], [hǎ] | r,[b] l, h | – | [r],[c] [l],[c] [h] | – | high |
ᩉᩖ, ᩉ᩠ᩃ | la | [lǎ] | l | – | [l] | – | high |
ᩉ᩠ᩅ | wa | [wǎ] | w | – | [w] | – | high |
Letter | Name | Phonetic value
(IPA) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tham | Translit. | IPA | |||
ᩓ | ᩃᩯᩡ, ᩃᩯ | lae | [lɛ̄ː] | [lɛʔ], [lɛ̄ː] | |
ᨶᩣ | ᨶᩣ | naa | [nāː] | [nāː] | |
ᨬ᩠ᨬ | ᨬᨬ | nya nya | [ɲa᷇ʔ ɲa᷇ʔ] | [n.ɲ] | |
ᩔ | ᩈ ᩈᩬᨦᩉᩬ᩶ᨦ | sa song hong | [sǎː sɔ̌ːŋ hɔ᷇ːŋ] | [t̚.s], [s̚.s] | |
ᩕ | ᩁᩁᩰᩫ᩠ᨦ | rarong, rahong | la᷇.hōːŋ | [r], [l], [ʰ] |
In dictionary, letter ᩂ and ᩄ are often put in the consonant list following the letter ᩁ and ᩃ respectively. However, they are a syllabary (also a vowel) and not a consonant letter.
Superscript final consonants
ᨷᨠᨲᩥ | ᩁᩪ᩠ᨷ | ᨳᩬᨯᩋᨠ᩠ᨡᩁ | ᨳᩬᨯᨩᩨ᩵ | ᩈ᩠ᨿᨦ | ᨲ᩠ᩅᩫᩀ᩵ᩣ᩠ᨦ | ᩋ᩵ᩣ᩠ᨶᩅ᩵ᩤ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ก | ไม้กั๋ก, กะปู๋ยาด | /k/ | ᨧᩢ ᨯᩬᩢᩡ ᩉ᩠ᨾᩣᩢ | ᨧᩢ᩠ᨠ ᨯᩬᨠ ᩉ᩠ᨾᩣ᩠ᨠ | ||
ง | /ŋ/ | ᨩ᩠ᨿᩙᨲᩩᨦ | ᨩ᩠ᨿᨦᨲᩩᨦ | |||
ร, น | /n/ | ᨡ᩠ᨿ᩺ | ᨡ᩠ᨿᩁ | |||
ᩚ | ᨣᨻᩚ | ᨣᩢᨻ᩠ᨻ | ||||
ᨯ᩠ᨿᩴ | ᨯ᩠ᨿᩅ |
Tones conjugation
A couple of high-class and low-class consonant letters are used for conjugating the 6 tones. Unlike standard Thai, Northern Thai has 8 tones: 6 for live syllable, 2 for dead syllable. Each character
IPA | High class | Low class |
---|---|---|
[k] | ᨠ | ᨣ |
[x] | ᨡ, ᨢ | ᨤ, ᨥ |
[ŋ] | ᨦ | ᩉ᩠ᨦ |
[t͡ɕ] | ᨧ | ᨩ |
[s] | ᨨ, ᩆ, ᩇ, ᩈ | ᨪ, ᨫ |
[ɲ] | ᨬ, ᨿ | ᩉ᩠ᨬ, ᩉ᩠ᨿ |
[t] | ᨭ, ᨲ | ᨴ |
[tʰ] | ᨮ, ᨳ | ᨰ, ᨵ |
[n] | ᨱ, ᨶ | ᩉ᩠ᨶ |
[p] | ᨸ | ᨻ |
[pʰ] | ᨹ | ᨽ |
[f] | ᨺ | ᨼ |
[m] | ᩉ᩠ᨾ | ᨾ |
[r] | ᩉᩕ | ᩁ |
[l] | ᩉᩖ, ᩉ᩠ᩃ, ᩉᩕ | ᩃ, ᩊ, ᩁ |
[h] | ᩉ, ᩉᩕ | ᩌ, ᩁ |
[w] | ᩉ᩠ᩅ | ᩅ |
Relation with other scripts
Group | Tai Tham | Burmese | New Tai Lue | Khmer | Thai | Lao | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unicode | Lanna style | ||||||
1. Wak Ka | ᨠ | က | ᦂ | ក | ก | ກ | |
ᨡ | ခ | ᦃ | ខ | ข | ຂ | ||
ᨢ | – | – | – | ฃ | – | ||
ᨣ | ဂ | ᦅ | គ | ค | ຄ | ||
ᨤ | – | ᦆ | – | ฅ | – | ||
ᨥ | ဃ | – | ឃ | ฆ | (modern: ຄ) | ||
ᨦ | င | ᦇ | ង | ง | ງ | ||
2. Wak Ja | ᨧ | စ | ᦈ | ច | จ | ຈ | |
ᨨ | ဆ | – | ឆ | ฉ | (modern: ສ) | ||
ᨩ | ဇ | ᦋ | ជ | ช | ຊ | ||
ᨪ | – | ᦌ | – | ซ | – | ||
ᨫ | ဈ | – | ឈ | ฌ | (modern: ຊ) | ||
ᨬ | ည | – | ញ | ญ | (modern: ຍ) | ||
3. Wak Rata | ᨭ | ဋ | – | ដ | ฏ | (modern: ຕ) | |
ᨮ | ဌ | – | ឋ | ฐ | (modern: ຖ) | ||
ᨯ | ဍ | ᦡ | ឌ | ฑ, ฎ, ด | (modern: ທ, ດ) | ||
ᨰ | ဎ | – | ឍ | ฒ | (modern: ທ) | ||
ᨱ | ဏ | – | ណ | ณ | (modern: ນ) | ||
4. Wak Ta | ᨲ | တ | ᦎ | ត | ต | ຕ | |
ᨳ | ထ | ᦏ | ថ | ถ | ຖ | ||
ᨴ | ဒ | ᦑ | ទ | ท | ທ | ||
ᨵ | ဓ | ᦒ | ធ | ธ | (modern: ທ) | ||
ᨶ | န | ᦓ | ន | น | ນ | ||
5. Wak Pa | ᨷ | ပ | ᦢ | ប | บ | ບ | |
ᨸ | – | ᦔ | – | ป | ປ | ||
ᨹ | ဖ | ᦕ | ផ | ผ | ຜ | ||
ᨺ | – | ᦚ | – | ฝ | ຝ | ||
ᨻ | ဗ | ᦗ | ព | พ | ພ | ||
ᨼ | – | ᦝ | – | ฟ | ຟ | ||
ᨽ | ဘ | ᦘ | ភ | ภ | (modern: ພ) | ||
ᨾ | မ | ᦙ | ម | ม | ມ | ||
6. Awak | ᨿ | ယ | ᦍ | យ | ย | ຍ | |
ᩀ | – | ᦊ | – | อย | ຢ | ||
ᩁ | ရ | ᦣ | រ | ร | ຣ
(modern: ລ) | ||
ᩃ | လ | ᦟ | ល | ล | ລ | ||
ᩅ | ဝ | ᦞ | វ | ว | ວ | ||
ᩆ | ၐ (modern: သ) | – | ឝ (modern: ស) | ศ | (modern: ສ) | ||
ᩇ | ၑ (modern: သ) | – | ឞ (modern: ស) | ษ | (modern: ສ) | ||
ᩈ | သ | ᦉ | ស | ส | ສ | ||
ᩉ | ဟ | ᦠ | ហ | ห | ຫ | ||
ᩊ | ဠ | – | ឡ | ฬ | (modern: ລ) | ||
ᩋ | အ | ᦀ | អ | อ | ອ | ||
ᩌ | – | – | – | ฮ | ຮ | ||
7. Special | ᩂ | ၒ | – | ឫ | ฤ | – | |
ᩄ | ၔ | – | ឭ | ฦ | – |
Sanskrit
Sanskrit possesses a symmetric consonantal phoneme structure based on how the sound is articulated, though the actual usage of these sounds conceals the lack of parallelism in the apparent symmetry possibly from historical changes within the language.[1]
sparśa(Plosive) | anunāsika(Nasal) | antastha(Approximant) | ūṣman/saṃgharṣhī(Fricative) | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Voicing → | aghoṣa | ghoṣa | aghoṣa | |||||||||||
Aspiration → | alpaprāṇa | mahāprāṇa | alpaprāṇa | mahāprāṇa | alpaprāṇa | mahāprāṇa | ||||||||
kaṇṭhya(Guttural) | ᨠ | ka[k] | ᨡ | kha[kʰ] | ᨣ | ga[ɡ] | ᨥ | gha[ɡʱ] | ᨦ | ṅa[ŋ] | ᩉ | ha[ɦ] | ||
tālavya(Palatal) | ᨧ | ca[t͜ɕ] | ᨨ | cha[t͜ɕʰ] | ᨩ | ja[d͜ʑ] | ᨫ | jha[d͜ʑʱ] | ᨬ | ña[ɲ] | ᨿ | ya[j] | ᩆ | śa[ɕ] |
mūrdhanya(Retroflex) | ᨭ | ṭa[ʈ] | ᨮ | ṭha[ʈʰ] | ᨯ | ḍa[ɖ] | ᨰ | ḍha[ɖʱ] | ᨱ | ṇa[ɳ] | ᩁ | ra[ɽ] | ᩇ | ṣa[ʂ] |
dantya(Dental) | ᨲ | ta[t] | ᨳ | tha[tʰ] | ᨴ | da[d] | ᨵ | dha[dʱ] | ᨶ | na[n] | ᩃ | la[l] | ᩈ | sa[s] |
oṣṭhya(Labial) | ᨷ | pa[p] | ᨹ | pha[pʰ] | ᨻ | ba[b] | ᨽ | bha[bʱ] | ᨾ | ma[m] | ᩅ | va[ʋ] |
Sanskrit had a series of retroflex stops originating as conditioned alternants of dentals, albeit by Sanskrit they had become phonemic.[1]
- ^ a b Jamison 2008, pp. 9–10.