Ir al contenido

Diferencia entre revisiones de «Usuario:Calimeronte/taller»

De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre
Contenido eliminado Contenido añadido
Calimeronte (discusión · contribs.)
Sin resumen de edición
Geagea (discusión · contribs.)
 
(No se muestran 308 ediciones intermedias de 6 usuarios)
Línea 1: Línea 1:
<small>''Esta es mi zona de pruebas. Es subpágina de mi página de usuario y me sirve para hacer pruebas. '''Ella no es un artículo de la enciclopedia'''. Solicito no modificarla. Gracias, Calimeronte''</small>
{{destruir|1=U3}}
[[Archivo:St Pons de Thomières miséricorde.JPG|350px|thumb|Talla con monje inspirado por un ángel al traducir el texto bíblico. Inscr.: "Nuestro padre que [está] en los cielos santificará tu nombre". Misericordia gótica, Pons de Thomières, Francia.]]
==Cronología==

==Cita literal de imagen en Commons==

Planchas sobre la Inquisición en ''Caprichos'' 23 y 24, con personajes vestidos con [[sambenito]] y titulados ellos ''[[:Archivo:Goya - Caprichos (23).jpg|Aquellos polbos]]'' y ''[[:Archivo:Goya - Caprichos (24).jpg|No hubo remedio]]''.
En sus apuntes (Álbum C, 1803-24), Goya expresa su resentimiento hacia la Inquisición. Allí, muchas de las imágenes están comentadas o tituladas explicando la causa de lo que ocurre: ''[[:Archivo:Goya9.jpg|Por haber nacido en otra parte]]'', ''Por linaje de ebreos'', ''Por mober la lengua en otro modo'', ''Por casarse con quien quiso'', etc. señalando la frivolidad con que la Inquisición perseguía a sus víctimas.
La visión de Goya con respecto a la Inquisición ya había cambiado. De ser una institución anticuada, que se asienta sobre supersticiones y un pueblo ignorante, una institución específicamente española, pasa a convertirse en un símbolo de la injusticia universal.

==A verificar==
* [[Arte sefardí]]
* [[Sefarad]], [[Hagadá]], [[Hagadá de Sarajevo]], [[Dayenú]]
* [[Arte judío]], [[Cultura judía]], [[Beth Hatefutsoth]], [[Museo de Israel]]
* * [http://www.english.imjnet.org.il/ Museo de Israel, Jerusalén] — [http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/galleries/judaicaE.asp Colecciones del Departamento de Judaica]: [http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/galleries/viewGalleryE.asp?case=26 Manuscritos hebreos miniados],[http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/galleries/viewGalleryE.asp?case=27 Implementos Sinagogales], [http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/galleries/viewItem2E.asp?case=32&rm=&itemNum=199707%20%20%20%20 Sinagoga de Alemania], [http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/galleries/viewItem2E.asp?case=33&rm=&itemNum=199804%20%20%20%20 Sinagoga de India], [http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/galleries/viewItem2E.asp?case=30&rm=&itemNum=200184%20%20%20%20 Sinagoga de Italia], [http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/galleries/viewGalleryE.asp?case=31 Sinagoga de Surinam], [http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/galleries/viewGalleryE.asp?case=29 Vestimenta e Indumentaria Etnográficas], [http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/galleries/viewGalleryE.asp?case=25 Ciclo de la Vida: Nacimiento, Esposorios, Defunción], [http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/galleries/viewGalleryE.asp?case=36 Shabat, Pésaj y Sucot], [http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/galleries/viewGalleryE.asp?case=34 Janucá y Purim].
* [http://www.mahj.org/ Museo de Arte y de Historia del Judaísmo, París]
* [http://www.thejewishmuseum.org/ Museo de Arte Judío, Nueva York]

====DATUM====

[[Mishné Torá]] = código legal

*Mishné Torá, '''1342'''. [[:File:Sefer_Ahavah_title-panel.jpg|Sefer Ahavah]]. a skilled non-Jewish artist of Perugia by the name of Matteo di Ser Cambio. Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem, Heb. 4* 1103. 14th century. A page with a decorated title-panel of Sefer Ahavah (Book of Love) from the second book of the Mishneh Torah. Spain and Italy, 14th century. This is one of the most elaborately decorated manuscripts of the Mishneh Torah. In the absence of a colophon, it can be inferred from the script that the manuscript was copied either in Spain or southern France in the first half of the 14th century (in any case, before 1351, when the codex was sold in Avignon). The scribe's name was probably Isaac, since this name is decorated in several places in the text. The manuscript was illuminated in burnished gold and lively wash colors by a skilled non-Jewish artist of Perugia by the name of Matteo di Ser Cambio. Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem, Heb. 4* 1103 [http://www.library.yale.edu/judaica/site/exhibits/maimonides/exhibit1.html] - [http://web.nli.org.il/sites/NLI/Hebrew/digitallibrary/pages/viewer.aspx?presentorid=NLI_EDU&DocID=NNL03_EDU700275916 foto y datos JUNL]. El libro fue escrito entre 1300 y 1350, luego miniado en Sefarad y hacia 1400 con iluminaciones realizadas por un artista del taller de Mateo Di Ser Cambio proveniente de o en Perugia.

*Guía de los Perplejos, Barcelona, '''1348'''. Facsimile of a page from Maimonides' great philosophical work Moreh Nevukhim (Guide of the Perplexed) written originally in Arabic and here in the Hebrew translation of Samuel ibn Tibbon (ca. 1160-1230) copied and illuminated in Barcelona, 1348. The seated figure is holding an astrolabe. Royal Library, Copenhagen, Cod. Hebr. XXXVII, fol. 114r [http://www.library.yale.edu/judaica/site/exhibits/maimonides/exhibit1.html]

*Mishné Torá, Lisboa, '''1472'''. Facsimile of the colophon of the Lisbon Mishneh Torah written by the scribe Solomon ibn Alzuk and completed in 1471-72. The British Library, London, Harley Ms. 5699, fol. 434v. [http://www.library.yale.edu/judaica/site/exhibits/maimonides/exhibit1.html]

*Golden Haggadah. "The Golden Haggadah, one of the finest surviving Spanish Hebrew manuscripts, was made near Barcelona in Northern Spain. The Haggadah, which literally means ‘narration’, is the service-book used in Jewish households on Passover Eve to commemorate the Exodus from Egypt. The text is preceded by a series of full-page miniatures depicting scenes mainly from the Book of Exodus. These sumptuous illuminations set against gold-tooled backgrounds earned the manuscript its name and were executed in the northern French Gothic style" [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/hightours/haggadah/ BL] + "The Golden Haggadah is one of the finest of the surviving Haggadah manuscripts from medieval Spain. The Haggadah, which literally means 'narration', is the Hebrew service-book used in Jewish households on Passover Eve at a festive meal to commemorate the Exodus from Egypt. | It is one of the most frequently decorated Jewish books. The fact that it was intended for use at home with its main aim being to educate the young, provides ample scope for artistic creativity. | The Golden Haggadah was probably made near Barcelona in about 1320. In addition to the Haggadah text itself the manuscript contains liturgical Passover poems according to the Spanish rite. The text is preceded by a series of full-page miniatures depicting scenes mainly from the Book of Exodus. These sumptuous illuminations set against gold-tooled backgrounds earned the manuscript its name and were executed by two artists in the northern French Gothic style. | The 17th-century Italian binding has an elaborate border on each cover. Hebrew is written from right to left, so the Golden Haggadah opens from the right. British Library Add. MS 27210 [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/ttp/hagadah/accessible/introduction.html BL Virtual Bk Images Only]

====IMAGO====

<gallery>
<gallery>
File:Rambam mishne-torah.jpg|Mishné Torá:Sefer Ahavah, Sefarad-Perugia?, 14th century - c. 1342 INUL
Archivo:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1971-006-02, München, Judenverfolgung, Michael Siegel.jpg|1933 Múnich
File:Arba_ah_Turim_(aka_Ba%27al_ha-Turim),_spanish,_c._1300.jpg|Arba ha-Turim, Sefarad, c. 1350. Gótico internacional, escuela lombarda. Véase Gutmann, Hebrew Ms Ptg, 1979, 27:XVI.
Archivo:Cleaning the street after Kristallnacht.jpg|1938 Kristallnacht
File:Mishneh Torah (Books 7 to 14) by Maimonides - Google Art Project.jpg|Mishné Torá: Sefer Mishpatim, c. 1457. semi-cursive Ashkenazic script. IMJ
Archivo:Judenstern JMW.jpg|1941 Insignia amarilla
File:Printers- Giovanni di Gara, Publisher and proofreader- Israel ben Daniel ha-Zifroni - The Venice Haggadah - Google Art Project.jpg|Hagadá de Venecia, 1609. Impresa por Giovanni di Gara e Israel ben Daniel ha-Zifroni. IM
Archivo:Heydrich-Endlosung.jpg|1942 Conferencia de Wannsee
File:Esther_Megillah_Italy_1616.jpg|Meguilat Ester, Italia, 1616. INUL
Archivo:WW2 Holocaust Europe map-es.svg|1942-45 Deportaciones y exterminio
</gallery>
Archivo:Brody Jews awating deportation, ca. 1943.jpg|1943 Deportación, Brody, Ucrania

Archivo:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-N0827-318, KZ Auschwitz, Ankunft ungarischer Juden.jpg|1944 Auschwitz
[http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/galleries/viewItemE.asp?case=26&itemNum=493544|Sefardi Menorah. Illuminated leaf with illustration of the Menorah]. IM. Spain, Late 15th century. Since the Temple’s destruction, depictions of its seven-branched candelabrum (Menorah) have served a symbol of the Temple and of redemption. Medieval Hebrew manuscripts contain many portrayals of the Menorah alongside other Tabernacle and Temple vessels. In Spain and Provence, these were especially profuse, and the Bible codex was sometimes called a Mikdashyah (God’s Temple). This single leaf, probably part of a manuscript, shows the Menorah symmetrically flanked by tongs, incense shovels, and the three-stepped stone on which, according to the Mishnah, the priest stood to trim the lamp.
Archivo:Bones of anti-Nazi German women still are in the crematoriums in the German concentration camp at Weimar, Germany.jpg|1945 Buchenwald

Archivo:The Liberation of Bergen-belsen Concentration Camp, April 1945 BU4260.jpg|1945 Bergen-Belsen
[[:Archivo:Mishneh Torah (Books 7 to 14) by Maimonides - Google Art Project.jpg|''Sefer Mishpatim'' (enlace escrito desde commons)]]. Facsimile of a page with a decorated title-panel of Sefer Mishpatim (Book of Civil Law) from the 13th book of the Mishneh Torah, northern Italy, 15th century. In the bottom register three men stand before a panel of four seated judges. The top register consists of a jousting scene that is unrelated to the text. Private collection, fol. 298v. [http://www.library.yale.edu/judaica/site/exhibits/maimonides/exhibit1.html]
Archivo:Holocaustdeathtoll%.png|1946 Porcentaje de víctimas judías del Holocausto

====Commons categories====

[[:en:Category:Jewish art|Jewish Art]]

[[:en:Category:Judaism in art|Judaism in art]]

[[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Illuminated_manuscripts_in_Hebrew Heb Ill Mss]

[[:en:Category:Hebrew_manuscripts,_Wellcome_Collection Heb Mss Wellcome Coll.]]

[[:en:Category:Illuminated manuscripts in Hebrew|Heb Ill Mss]]

[[:en:Category:Illuminated_Haggadot|Hagadot]]

[[:en:Category:Book of Esther|Meguilot Ester]]

Sefarad

[[:en:Category:Kaufmann_Haggadah|Hagadá Kaufmann, Cataluña, S. XIV]]

[[:en:Category:Rylands_Haggadah|Hagadá Rylands, Cataluña, s. XIV. John Rylands University Library, Manchester]]

[[:en:Category:Golden_Haggadah_(c.1320)_-_BL_Add_MS_27210|Hagadá Dorada, 1320]]

[[:en:Category:Barcelona_Haggadah_(14th_C)_-_BL_Add_MS_14761|Hagadá Barcelona, 1350]]

[[:en:Category:Sarajevo Haggadah|Hagadá Sarajevo, Barcelona, 1350]] - [[Hagadá de Sarajevo]]

[[:en:Category:Alba_Bible|Biblia de Alba]]

Asquenaz

[[:en:Category:Kaufmann Mishneh Torah|Mishné Torá Kaufmann, Fr, 1290]]

[[:en:Category:Images from the Rotschild Haggadah - high resolution|Hagadá Rothschild, It, 1450]]

[[:en:Category:Hebrew_calligraphy Hebrew callygraphy]]

====LINKS n ARTICLES====

[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0009_0_09500.html JVL Illuminated Hebrew Mss.]

[http://web.nli.org.il/sites/NLI/English/digitallibrary/moreshet_bareshet/Pages/damascus.aspx Burgos 1260 (JNL Damascus Keter)]

[http://www.jtslibrarytreasures.org/ JTS Treasures]
[http://www.jtsa.edu/prebuilt/prato/index.shtml Prato Haggadah JTS]
[http://patrimonio-ediciones.com/facsimil/prato-haggadah Prato Haggadah - facsímil]
[https://jtsa.edu/prebuilt/exhib/prato/index.html Prato Hagadah 2006]

[http://kaufmann.mtak.hu/index-en.html|Colección David Kaufmann. Mss. miniados hebreos del medioevo . En la Biblioteca de la Academia Húngara de Ciencias.] - [http://kaufmann.mtak.hu/index-es.html versión castellana]. - [http://kaufmann.mtak.hu/es/ms422/ms422-coll1.htm folios]; [http://kaufmann.mtak.hu/es/study10.htm Hagadá catalana (MS A 422)]; [http://kaufmann.mtak.hu/es/study11.htm A]; [http://kaufmann.mtak.hu/es/study12.htm B]; [http://kaufmann.mtak.hu/es/study05.htm Mishneh Torah fr (MS A 77)]; [http://kaufmann.mtak.hu/es/study06.htm artistas]; [http://kaufmann.mtak.hu/es/study07.htm profanidad] | [http://kaufmann.mtak.hu/es/study08.htm Mahzor (MS A 384)]; [http://kaufmann.mtak.hu/es/study09.htm zodíaco]; ver también: [http://kaufmann.mtak.hu/es/ms77a/ms77a-coll1.htm mishné torá fr 1296 (Ms A 77)] y [http://kaufmann.mtak.hu/es/ms384/ms384-coll1.htm Majzor de-sur 1320 (Ms 384)]

<gallery>
File:Manuscript_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|Damascus Keter, Burgos
File:Kaufmann Haggadah p 014.jpg|The Kaufmann Haggadah (MS Kaufmann A 422) was produced in 14th century Catalonia. It contains the prayers, poems and narrative texts to be recited on the eve of the festival of the Jewish Easter, Pesach, the Feast of the Passover. fol. 13r
File:Illustration-haggadah-pesach.jpg
File:Illustration-haggadah-exodus.jpg
File:Illustration-mamluk-lamps.jpg
File:Illustration-pesach-lamb.jpg
File:Illustration-childhood-of-moses.jpg
File:Illustration-burning-bush-with-christ.gif
File:Ligature-Alef-Lamed.JPG
File:Illustration-machzor-hunting-scene.gif|Majzor (tripartito) 1320
File:Ms77a-046v.jpg|Mishneh Torah (Maimonides), North-Eastern France, 1296. Kauffman Ms. 77a, fol. 046v.<ref>Another remarkable trait of this manuscript is that it contains many profane illustrations in the margin – in one instance the illustration is even obscene – which bear no relation whatsoever to the text. This cannot be regarded a unique feature of manuscripts produced in the middle of the 13th century: their emergence was closely connected to the spread of Dominican and Franciscan preaching at the time with parables and exempla using motifs from animal fables, bestiaries and – sometimes even becoming completely independent of the text itself. The widespread use of anecdotes in sermons was meant to rekindle flagging interest in theological dogma among believers, and the margin illustrations in manuscripts are to a considerable extent visual manifestations of themes popularized through fabliaux and exempla. Gabrielle Sed-Rajna has shown that most of “the marginal figures have been transferred to this manuscript from a model book used also for several contemporary Latin manuscripts from the same area, executed for the local aristocratic family Bar” – an example of close professional relationship between craftsmen of the Jewish and Christian communities. The popularity of representations of this kind in Christian art in general is attested, for instance, by the fiery diatribe of Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) against non-religious monastic ornamentation. It may be remarked that margin illustrations – including obscene representations – abound in Christian liturgical books while they are rare in secular ones, a strange phenomenon, which Randall is inclined to attribute to an attempt at “provocation by contrast.” Not infrequently it is difficult to decipher the exact symbolic meaning of a given illustration; sometimes this is hardly any longer possible in view of the frequent occurrence of more or less abstruse references to contemporary persons and ideas. There can be no doubt, however, that these margin illustrations were often simply the figments of the artists' imaginations, “diversions which relieved the tedium of daily life.” Thus for instance at the bottom of folio 46 of volume I of our manuscript, the frontispiece of the Book of Adoration, we can see a scene “from the Roman de Renard: the fox, having stolen a goose (or here a cock), is pursued by a woman brandishing a spindle.” In connection with the obscene scene in the upper margin – a man shooting an arrow at the nude hindquarters of a man bending forward – one cannot help but imagine the illuminator who, tired of his monotonous work, suddenly conceives a prank just like an adolescent, in the same way as his modern-day successor, the composer of entries in an encyclopaedia, tired of carding, inserts an entry on a non-existent painter into the serious work of reference, or the lexicographer suddenly gives vent to the accumulated tension of monotony in one of his entries - [http://kaufmann.mtak.hu/en/study07.htm].</ref>
</gallery>

Yale
*[http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/galleries/judaicaE.asp IM: Judaica]
*[http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/galleries/viewGalleryE.asp?case=26 IM: ILL MSS]
*[https://www.library.yale.edu/judaica/site/exhibits/children/exhibit1.html Hagadot manuscritas]
*[http://www.library.yale.edu/judaica/site/exhibits/maimonides/introduction.html Expo Maimónides at Yale]
*[http://www.library.yale.edu/judaica/site/exhibits/maimonides/exhibit1.html Maimónides Ill. Mss. at Yale]
*[https://www.library.yale.edu/judaica/site/exhibits/children/exhibit2.html hagadot impresas]
* [http://www.library.yale.edu/judaica/site/collection/incunabula.php libros impresos siglo XV]
* [http://www.library.yale.edu/judaica/site/collection/16imprints.php idem siglo XVI]
*[https://www.library.yale.edu/judaica/site/exhibits/children/exhibit4.html hagadot modernas]
*[https://www.library.yale.edu/judaica/site/exhibits/children/exhibit3.html hagadot IL]

McBee
[http://richardmcbee.com/images/pdfs/Jewish_Art_Primer_Complete.pdf jewish art definition]
[http://richardmcbee.com/writings/jewish-art-before-1800/item/the-sarajevo-haggadah-the-choice-of-images sarajevo]
[http://richardmcbee.com/writings/jewish-art-before-1800/item/rylands-haggadah-part-i rylands 1]
[http://richardmcbee.com/writings/jewish-art-before-1800/item/rylands-haggadah-part-ii rylands 2]
[http://richardmcbee.com/writings/jewish-art-before-1800/item/rylands-haggadah-medieval-jewish-art-in-context rylands in context]
[http://richardmcbee.com/writings/jewish-art-before-1800/item/synagogues-in-spain ES synagogues]

[https://www.pinterest.com/mothemelusine/medieval-and-renaissance-jewish-illuminated-manusc/ Heb Mss S Collection Pins]
[https://www.pinterest.com/nenarok/hebrew-manuscripts/ Heb Mss Russian Collection Pins]
[https://www.pinterest.com/der4321/art-et-monde-juif/ Superfine Judaica French Collection Pins]
[https://www.pinterest.com/mscogsworthy/history-jewish-spain/ Sefarad Pins]
[https://www.pinterest.com/alisonshearman/haggadah-hagadah/ Haggadah Pins]
[https://www.pinterest.com/igoldfarb/judaica/ Judaica]

BL Virtual Books : [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/ttp/hagadah/accessible/introduction.html Accesible Golden Haggadah] - [http://www.bl.uk/turning-the-pages/?id=47111807-4e9a-43de-be65-96f49c3d623c&type=book Golden Haggadah] -
[http://www.bl.uk/turning-the-pages/?id=4145201d-ee22-4382-9ae8-2c78d9138444&type=book Lisbon Bible] - [http://www.bl.uk/turning-the-pages/?id=47111807-4e9a-43de-be65-96f49c3d623c&type=book Vesalius]

====Prato Hagadá====
[http://www.jtslibrarytreasures.org/ JTS Treasures]
[http://patrimonio-ediciones.com/facsimil/prato-haggadah facsimil eds]
[http://www.jtsa.edu/prebuilt/prato/index.shtml historia]
[https://jtsa.edu/prebuilt/exhib/prato/index.html expo con datos]

====JWS MS====
[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0009_0_09500.html JWS MSS en JVL]

[http://kaufmann.mtak.hu/en/study02.htm Hungarian Academy of Sciences: Kaufmann Collection]

[http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedmanuscripts/record.asp?MSID=19108&CollID=27&NStart=27210 BL: Golden Haggadah Entry]

====[http://www.schechter.edu/facultyForum.aspx?ID=120 Schechter Institute on Akedah]====

Prior to the 1930`s, most scholars were convinced that ancient Jewry produced no art. As a result, the discovery in 1932 of the biblical wall-paintings decorating the third century synagogue of Dura Europos,Syria stunned the academic world. In these earliest extant examples of Jewish art (antedating comparable Christian art by two centuries) the community expresses its acceptance of pious rabbinic midrashim. Center stage above the Torah ark, a naively drawn Abraham stands firm before the altar, knife raised, his back to the viewer. Dura Europos Synagogue, Akedah (detail), 244 C.E.

he saving ram is tethered behind Abraham awaiting its theological moment. Tiny Isaac is impaled upon a monumental altar (see the Midrash in Targum Yonatan, below). He too looks away from us, as does Sarah (rarely represented in akedah scenes) in the doorway of her tent, the highest and most distant point of the scene. They are all focused on the hand of God, "the Place from afar" at Moriah (v.3), identified in late biblical times as the site of the once and forever restored Temple of Jerusalem. 170 years after its destruction, the Temple and its implements are visually restored at the center and left of this scene, together with the akedah, the symbols of Diaspora hope for national and religious restoration. Dura Europos Synagogue, Akedah

Just three years prior to the discovery of Dura, a stunning mosaic floor of a 6th century synagogue had been uncovered at Kibbutz Bet Alpha., the earliest akedah to be found in Israel. The naive style of the mosaic displays Jewish, pagan and possibly Christian elements. On entering the synagogue, the worshiper first encountered the akedah, a focal narrative of Jewish tradition. The worshiper next saw a zodiac, centered on the sun god Helios and his chariot. Is this a synagogue? It is likely that these pagan symbols were interpreted as representing the ritual calendar of the congregation - but, it is also evidence of a Judaism culturally alive to the imagery of the Greco-Roman Byzantine heritage. Finally, in the third section, closest to the holy ark, the worshiper saw (as in Dura) the doors, menorah and ritual tools of the restoredTemple. Left: Bet Alpha Synagogue, Entire Floor

Above right: detail, Bet Alpha Synagogue, Akedah, 6th century: The playful color patterns and paper-doll character of the figures belie the theological intensity of the akedah scene. The two servants stand at the left, together with the ass (v. 5). At the center point, the ram hangs from a bush, rather than being caught in the thicket, as recounted in the Bible (v. 13). Above, a haloed hand of the angel "calls out": Do not raise [your hand] (v. 11 – 12). On the right, the child Isaac is held aloft between Abraham and the burning altar (v. 10). The artists altered the sequence of the story by placing the ram at center stage. Thus the mosaic seems to focus on God’s compassionate substitution of Isaac by the ram, rather than on Abraham’s extraordinary act of faith. It has been suggested that the hanging ram is based on Christian iconography, connecting Isaac, the ram and Jesus as parallel sacrifices. But just as in the use of the pagan zodiac, the borrowing of this model does not imply a heterodox interpretation, but rather cultural contact.

In 1947, Mordecai Ardon paints the worst scenario. Isaac lies dead at Sarah’s feet, his mother a large, grotesque weeping figure, screams the call of the shofar. Parallel and opposite the fallen Isaac, a fallen ladder of Jewish continuity conveys two dead ends: Jacob’s ladder, that will not be, and the train tracks to Auschwitz. The faceless mother and child echo the universal pieta motif, the mother holding her deceased child, whether in antiquity or in our times. M. Ardon, Sarah, 1947

==A traducir e incluir==

[http://www.cafetorah.com/portal/Curso-de-Hebraico fuente fechada 20.8.2011, 6.7.15]

O idioma hebraico (עברית, ivrit) é uma língua semítica pertencente à família das línguas afro-asiáticas, o termo semítico determina que bem como o árabe e o persa, sua orígem é um tanto desconhecida. As primeiras bases da Bíblia, a Torá, que os judeus ortodoxos consideram ter sido escrita na época de Moisés, cerca de 3.300 anos atrás, foi redigida no hebraico chamado de "Hebraico Clássico".

Embora hoje em dia seja uma escrita foneticamente impronunciável, portanto indecifrável, devido à não-existência de vogais no alfabeto hebraico clássico, os judeus têm-na sempre chamado de לשון הקודש, Lashon haKodesh ("A Língua Sagrada") já que muitos acreditam ter sido escolhida para transmitir a mensagem de Deus à humanidade.

Após a primeira destruição de Jerusalém pelos babilônios em 586 a.C., com o retorno dos judeus para a Terra de Israel, o hebraico clássico foi substituído no uso diário pelo aramaico, tornando-se primariamente uma língua regional, tanto usada na liturgia, no estudo do Mishná (parte do Talmude), bem como também no comércio. Sendo que nos dias de Yeshua(Jesus), este idioma clássico ainda era falados sacerdores, levitas, saduceus e os fariseus doutores da lei, mas o povo em geral utilizava o Aramaico como idioma no dia a dia.

Após a destruição de Jerusalém no ano 70 DC, os judeus foram aos poucos expulsos da Terra de Israel, os que ficaram sofreram influencia dos muitos povos que dominaram na região e o Hebraico deixou de ser utilizado como idioma nacional, passando ser utilizado apenas em liturgias religiosas.

O hebraico renasceu como língua falada durante o final do século XIX e começo do século XX como o hebraico moderno, adotando alguns elementos dos idiomas árabe, ladino, iídiche, e outras línguas que acompanharam a Diáspora Judaica como língua falada pela maioria dos habitantes do Estado de Israel, do qual é a língua oficial primária (o árabe também tem status de língua oficial)

1) Hebreo clásico. http://www.cafetorah.com/portal/Hebraico-Biblico-Hebraico-Classico

Hebraico bíblico, também chamado de hebraico clássico, é a forma arcaica da língua hebraica, uma língua semita falada na área conhecida como Canaã, entre o Rio Jordão e o Mar Mediterrâneo. Hebraico bíblico é conhecido por volta do século 10 AC, e persistiu durante todo o período do Segundo Templo (que termina em 70 dC). O Hebraico bíblico tornou-se eventualmente hebraico Mishnaico que foi usado até o segundo século EC.

O Hebraico bíblico é mais bem utilizado na Bíblia Hebraica, a Bíblia é um documento que reflete vários estágios da língua hebraica em sua forma consonantal, bem como um sistema vocálico que foi adicionado mais tarde, na Idade Média. Há também algumas evidências de variação dialética regional, incluindo as diferenças entre o hebraico bíblico falado no Reino do Norte de Israel e no Reino do sul, o Reino de Judá.

Hebraico Bíblico foi escrito com um número de diferentes sistemas de escrita. Segundo os historiadores, os hebreus adotaram a escrita fenícia em torno do século 12 AC, que teria evoluido como a escrita Paleo-Hebraico. Esta foi mantida pelos samaritanos, que usam o manuscrito Samaritano desde então até os dias de hoje. No entanto, o roteiro aramaico gradualmente deslocou o roteiro Paleo-Hebrew para os judeus, e tornou-se a fonte para o alfabeto hebraico moderno. Todas esses escritas faltavam letras para representar todos os sons do hebraico bíblico, ainda que estes sons são refletidos mas trancrições em grego e latim da mesma época. Estes escritas originalmente utilizadas apenas como consoantes, mas certas letras, conhecidas como matrizes de leituras, tornaram-se cada vez mais usadas para marcar as vogais. Na Idade Média, vários sistemas de sinais diacríticos foram desenvolvidos para marcar as vogais em manuscritos hebraicos, dos quais somente o sistema Tiberiano ainda está em ampla utilização.

O Hebraico Bíblico possuía uma série de "enfátizações" nas consoantes cuja articulação precisa é disputada, provavelmente palatais, guturais ou falangiais. O Hebraico Bíblico anteriormente possuía três consoantes que não têm suas próprias formas no sistema de escrita, mas com o tempo eles se fundiu com outras consoantes. As consoantes se desenvolveram em alofones fricativos sob a influência do aramaico, e esses sons se tornaram uma marginal fonêmica. Os fonemas da faringe e da glote sofreu enfraquecimento em alguns dialetos regionais, como refletido na moderna tradição de leitura do Hebraico Samaritano. O sistema de vogal do Hebraico Bíblico mudou drasticamente ao longo do tempo e é refletida de forma diferente nas transcrições do grego antigo e latim, sistemas de vocalização medieval, moderna e as tradições de leitura.

Hebraico Bíblico tinha uma morfologia típica semita, colocando raízes triconsonantal em padrões para formar palavras. Hebraico bíblico distinguia dois gêneros (masculino, feminino), três números (plural, singular e extraordinariamente dual). Verbos foram marcados para voz e expressão, e teve duas conjugações que pode ter indicado aspecto e / ou tenso (a questão de debate). O tempo ou aspecto dos verbos também foi influenciado pela conjugação, na construção VAV chamados consecutivos. Ordem das palavras padrão era verbo-sujeito-objeto, e os verbos flexionados para o número, gênero e pessoa do seu objecto. Sufixos pronominais podem ser anexado aos verbos (para indicar objeto) ou substantivos (para indicar posse), e substantivos tinham formas de construção especial para uso em construções possessivas.

2) Hebreo mishnáico. http://www.cafetorah.com/portal/Hebraico-Mishnaico

O termo Hebraico Mishnaico refere-se à dialetos do hebraico que são encontrados no Talmud, exceto citações da Bíblia hebraica. Os dialetos podem ainda ser sub-dividido em Hebraico Mishnaic (também chamado de Hebraico Tanaitico, Hebraico da Lei Rabínica, ou Hebraico Mishnaico I), que era uma língua falada, e hebraico Amoraico (também chamado Hebraico Rabínico Tardio ou Hebraico Mishnaico II), que foi uma língua somente literária.

A língua hebraica Mishnaica ou o início de idioma hebraico rabínico é um descendente direto do antigo hebraico bíblico como preservado pelos judeus depois do cativeiro babilônico, e definitivamente gravados por sábios judeus, por escrito, os documentos da Mishnah e outros contemporâneos. Não foram utilizados pelos samaritanos, que preservaram seu próprio dialeto, o Hebraico Samaritano.

A forma de transição da língua ocorre em outras obras na literatura Tanaitica datada do início do século, com a conclusão da Mishná. Estes incluem o Midrashim Halachic (Sifra, Sifre, Mechilta etc) e a coleção expandida do material do Mishnah relacionado com o conhecido como o תוספתא Tosefta. O Talmud contém trechos destas obras, bem como material Tanaitico ainda não atestado em outro lugar; o termo genérico para essas passagens é Baraitot. O dialeto de todas essas obras é muito semelhante ao Hebraico Mishnaico.

Este dialeto é surgiu principalmente a partir do 2º ao 4º século DC, correspondente ao Período Romano após a destruição do Templo em Jerusalém e foi representado pela maior parte no Mishnah e na Tosefta dentro do Talmud e pelos Manuscritos do Mar Morto, são considerada também as cartas de Bar Kokhba e o Rolo de Cobre. Também chamado de Hebraico Tanaitico ou Hebraico Rabínico Precoce.

A primeira seção do Talmud é a משנה Mishnah que foi publicado por volta de 200 DC e foi escrito no dialeto Mishnaico anterior. O dialeto também é encontrado em certos trechos dos manuscritos do Mar Morto.

Cerca de um século após a publicação da Mishná, o Hebraico Mishnaico começou a cair em desuso como língua falada. No período posterior do Talmud, a Guemará babilônica גמרא, comentários publicados cerca de 500 DC, geralmente na Mishná e Baraitot em Aramaico. (Uma versão anterior do Gemara foi publicada entre 350-400 AD.) No entanto, o hebraico sobreviveu como língua litúrgica e literária, na forma do hebraico depois como Amoraico, que às vezes pode ser visto no texto da Gemara.

O Hebraico Mishnaic se desenvolveu sob a profunda influência do aramaico falado em todas as esferas da linguagem, incluindo fonologia, morfologia, sintaxe e vocabulário.

Fonética

Muitos dos traços característicos da pronúncia hebraica pode muito bem ter sido encontrado já no período do hebraico bíblico tardio. Uma característica notável que a distingue de hebraico bíblico do período clássico é acentuação pós-vocálica pára (b, g, d, p, t, k), que tem em comum com o aramaico.

Uma característica nova é que a letra M final é muitas vezes substituída por N final na Mishna (ver Bava Kama 1:4, "מועדין"), mas apenas em conotações fonéticas. Talvez a consoante final nasal nestes morfemas não éra pronunciada, e ao invéz disso, a vogal anterior à ela era nasalizadas. Alternativamente, os morfemas podem ter mudado sob a influência do aramaico.

Além disso, alguns manuscritos sobreviventes da Mishná confundem as consoantes guturais, especialmente (א) (uma parada glotal) e 'ayin (ע) (a fricativa faríngea, gutural). Que poderia ser um sinal de que eles foram pronunciados da mesma forma no Hebraico Mishnaico. Bem como nos dias de hoje são pouco difenciados no Hebraico Moderno.

3) Hebreo medieval. http://www.cafetorah.com/portal/Hebraico-Medieval

O Hebraico Medieval tem muitas características que o distinguem das formas mais antigas do hebraico. A Gramática, sintaxe, estrutura de sentença, e também incluem uma grande variedade de novos itens lexicais, que são geralmente baseados em formas mais antigas.

Na idade de Ouro da Cultura Judaica na Espanha um importante trabalho foi feito por gramáticos para explicar a gramática e o vocabulário do hebraico bíblico, muito disso foi baseado no trabalho dos gramáticos de árabe clássico. Gramáticos hebreus importantes foram Judah ben David Hayyuj e Jonas ibn Janah. Uma grande parte da poesia foi escrita, por poetas como Dunash Ben Labrat, Solomon ibn Gabirol, Judah ha-Levi, haKohen David e os dois Ezras Ibn, em uma "purificação" em hebraico com base no trabalho desses gramáticos, e em árabe metros quantitativos (ver piyyut). Este hebraico literário foi usado mais tarde pelo poetas italianos judeus.

A necessidade de expressar conceitos científicos e filosóficos de grego clássico e o Hebraico Medieval motivado pelo Árabe Medieval influenciou a terminologia e a gramática a partir desses outros idiomas, ou a termos de moeda equivalente a partir de raízes existentes no hebraico, dando origem a um estilo distinto do hebraico filosófico. Muitos paralelos diretos em árabe medieval. A família Tibbon Ibn e, especialmente, Samuel ben Judah ibn Tibbon foram pessoalmente responsáveis pela criação de grande parte desta forma de hebraico, que empregaram em suas traduções de materiais científicos do árabe. Naquele tempo, a original judaica de obras filosóficas eram geralmente escritas em árabe, mas como o passar do tempo, esta forma de hebraico era usada para muitas composições originais também.

Outra influência importante foi Maimonides, que desenvolveu um estilo simples, baseado no Hebraico Mishnaico para usar em seu código de leis, o Mishneh Torá. Literatura rabínica posterior que foi escrita em uma mistura entre este estilo e o hebraico rabínico Aramaizado do Talmud.

No final do século XII e início do século XIII o centro cultural de Judeus no Mediterrâneo foi transferido de um contexto islâmico para terras cristãs. O hebraico escrito usado no Norte da Espanha, Provença (um termo para todo o sul da França) e da Itália era cada vez mais influenciado pela América, particularmente nos escritos filosóficos, e também por diferentes vernáculos (provençal, italiano, etc.) Na Itália, testemunhamos o surgimento de um novo gênero, léxicos filosóficos Italiano-Hebraico. O italiano desses léxicos era geralmente escrito em caracteres hebraicos e são uma fonte útil para o conhecimento da filosofia escolástica entre os judeus. Um dos primeiros léxicos que foi por Moisés b. Shlomo de Salerno, que morreu no final do século XIII. Ele foi feito para esclarecer os termos que aparecem em seu comentário sobre o Guia dos Perplexos de Maimônides. O glossário de Moisés de Salerno foi editado por Giuseppe Sermoneta em 1969. Há também glossários associados aos sábios judeus que fizeram amizade com Pico della Mirandola. Moisés de Salerno também fez um comentário sobre o Guia também contém traduções italianas de termos técnicos, o que traz sistema islâmico de influência do Guia filosófico em confronto com a escolástica do século XIII italiano.

O Hebraico também foi usado como língua de comunicação entre os judeus de diferentes países, particularmente para o propósito do comércio internacional.

Mencionam-se ainda cartas preservadas no geniza Cairo, que mostram que o hebraico e o árabe influenciaram os judeus do Egito medieval. Os termos árabes e sintaxe que aparecem nas cartas constituem uma importante fonte para a documentação da língua falada em árabe medieval, desde que os judeus em terras islâmicas tendem a usar o árabe coloquial, por escrito, em vez de árabe clássico, que é o árabe que aparece em medievais.

==Trabajados==
* [[Arte judío]]
* [[Arte asquenazí]]
* [[Becerro de oro]]
* [[Beth Hatefutsoth]]
* [[Cristo|Cristo en el judaísmo]]
* [[Cristo entre los doctores]]
* [[Diez Mandamientos]]
* [[Estrella de David]]
* [[Éxodo]]
* [[Golem]]
* [[Maurycy Gottlieb|Gottlieb]]
* <small>[[Habiru]]</small>
* [[Idioma hebreo|Hebreo]]
* [[Hebreos]]
* [[Insignia amarilla]]
* [[Jamsa]]
* [[Judaísmo y cristianismo]]
* [[La fuente de la gracia]]
* [[Max Liebermann|Liebermann]]
* [[Ephraim Moses Lilien|Lilien]]
* [[Menorá]]
* [[Museo de Israel]]
* [[Profeta]]
* [[Santa María la Blanca (Toledo)|Santa María la Blanca]]
* [[Sinagoga Hurva]]
* [[Anexo:Sumos Sacerdotes de Israel|Sumo Sacerdote]]
* [[Templo de Jerusalén]]
* [[Yidis]]

==En curso==
* [[Calendario hebreo]]
* [[Dura Europos]]
* [[Historia de los judíos]]
* [[Mano de Dios]]
* [[Moisés]]
* [[Sanctasanctórum]]

==Trabajados eventualmente==
* Abraham
* Arte sefardí
* Biblia de Alba
* Capricho (arte)
* Cautiverio de Babilonia 586-537 aEC
* Crónicas de Núremberg
* Cúpula de la Roca
* Doce Tribus de Israel
* Dybbuk
* Efraím
* Gótico español
* Hartmann Schedel
* Israelita
* Jehú
* José (patriarca)
* Judaísmo y cristianismo
* [[Leví (patriarca)]]
* Macabeos
* Manasés (hijo de José)
* Mevaseret Sion
* Modernismo (arte)
* Obelisco Negro
* Oseas
* Palmaj
* Sinagoga
* Tabernáculo
* Tierra Prometida
* Tribu de Efraín
* [[Tribu de Leví]]
* Tribu de Manasés
* Pogromo de Kishinev

==Aún sin trabajar==
* Agam - Yaacob Agam
* Arca de la Alianza
* Biblia hebrea
* Chagall - Marc Chagall
* Diáspora sefardí
* Diez Mandamientos
* Divisiones étnicas judías
* Dura Europos
* Estela de Mesha (inscripciones paleohebreas), siglo IX aEC
* Gueto
* Hagadá
* Hebreo - Idioma hebreo
* Hilel
* Historia de los judíos en España
* Historia de los judíos en la Tierra de Israel
* Historia del Antiguo Israel
:* Reino de Israel
::* Monarquía Unida — [[:en:Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|United Kingdom of Israel and Judah]], 1020-930 aEC
::* Reino del norte (Samaria) — [[:en:Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)]], 930-720 aEC
:* Reino de Judá — 930-587 aEC
* Holocausto
* Homaranismo - Hilelismo
* Israëls - Jozef Israëls
* Mendelsohn - Erich Mendelsohn
* Museo de Arte y de Historia del Judaísmo, París
* Oppenheim - Moritz Daniel Oppenheim
* Pueblo judío
* Sion
* Solución final
* Sucot
* Talmud
* Tanaj
* Teoría del reemplazo
* Tierra Santa
* Tribus de Israel
* Zona de Asentamiento

==A ser creados==
* Bak - Samuel Bak
* Judaica
* Raban - [[:en:Ze'ev Raban|Ze'ev Raban]]
* Sumo Sacerdote de Israel - existe sólo como Anexo:Sumos Sacerdotes de Israel
* Szyk - [[:en:Arthur Szyk|Arthur Szyk]] — [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arthur_Szyk02.jpg| Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám 1940] ([[:en:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubaiyat_of_Omar_Khayyam|poesía persa siglos XI-XII]]) ; [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%27Battle_of_the_Warsaw_Ghetto%27_by_Arthur_Szyk,_1945.jpg| Batalla del Gueto de Varsovia 1945] ; [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eleanor_Roosevelt_and_Arthur_Szyk_-_NARA_-_195394.jpg Historia Visual de las Naciones: IL 1945-49] ; [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arthur_Szyk09.jpg Hagadá 1956] ; [http://www.szyk.com/ sitio oficial].
* Roca Fundacional o Roca de la Fundación

==Compilación material a ser incluido en entradas diversas==

* [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/he/6/67/Israelites_%26_Judeans_captives_Shoshenq_1st_campaign_to_Canaan_%28926-5_BCE%29.png Relieve de Shoshenq con israelitas, 926 aEC]
* [https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%91%D7%A5:Israel%27s_History-Hebrews-Israelites-Jews-Samaritans-heritage.png Israelitas, judíos y samaritanos]
* [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Images_of_Israelites_from_the_10th_Century_BCE Imágenes de israelitas s 10 aEC Shishaq-Karnak]
* [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Black_Obelisk Imágenes de israelitas s 9 aEC Obelisco negro]
* [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Lachish_Reliefs Imágenes de israelitas s 7 aEC Lajish]
* [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Dura-Europos_synagogue_painting Imágenes de israelitas s 3 EC Dura]

<gallery>
Archivo:The rock of the Dome of the Rock Corrected.jpg|La así llamada "Roca Fundacional" (hebreo: אבן השתייה, Even Hashetiá; árabe: صخرة, Sajrah) preservada en el interior del [[Domo de la Roca]]
File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_079.jpg|[[Moisés]] con los [[Diez Mandamientos]]

File:12_Tribes_of_Israel_Map.svg|Las Doce Tribus de Israel, 1200-1050 a.E.C.
File:אהרן_בן_חיים._1836._מפת_גבולי_ארץ_הצבי._התרס.jpg|Doce tribus. Aaron ben Hayyim of Grodno, 1836. Mapa publicado en Varsovia en 1883
Archivo:Kingdom_of_Israel_1020_map.svg|Reino de Israel (monarquía unida) en tiempos de [[Saúl]] y [[David]], 1020–930 a.E.C.
File:C+B-Egypt-Fig15-KarnakPlaceListCartouches.PNG|Shoshenq I, 926 a.E.C.
File:The divided kingdom.jpg|La monarquía dividida: Reino de Judá (sur) y [[Reino de Israel]] (norte), 926 a.E.C. (Bible Society, 1888).
File:אהרן בן חיים. 1836. מפת גבולי ארץ הצבי. ורשה 1883.jpg|Juda e Israel. Aaron ben Hayyim of Grodno, 1836. Mapa publicado en Varsovia en 1883
Archivo:Kingdoms of Israel and Judah map 830-es.svg|Reino de Judá y [[Reino de Israel]], c. [[siglo IX a. C.|830 a.E.C.]]

File:Tissot_The_Flight_of_the_Prisoners.jpg|Exilio babilónico. Deportación de los judíos del Reino de Judá a Babilonia tras la destrucción del Templo de Salomón (Tissot, 1896-1902)

Archivo:Herodes el Gran.jpg|Reino de Herodes el Grande, siglo I
File:P8170082.JPG|Segundo Templo de Jerusalén
File:A. Salzmann - Fragments Juda ï que et Romain.jpg|Fragmentos arqueológicos judaico y romano. Fotografiados por [[Auguste Salzmann]] en 1853.
[[Archivo:Silver shekel - First Jewish Revolt, 2nd year.jpg|200px|thumb|Antiguo [[shéquel]] de plata de [[Israel]], con [[Kidush|cáliz de kidush]] y [[Punica granatum|tres granadas]] simbólicas de Judea, Samaria y Galilea, forjado en el segundo año de la [[Primera Guerra Judeo-Romana|Primera Guerra Judía contra Roma]], 66-73 E.C.
File:David Roberts - The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans Under the Command of Titus, A.D. 70.jpg|Sitio y destrucción de Jerusalén por los romanos, 70 EC (Roberts, 1850)
File:Sack_of_jerusalem.JPG|Expolios de Jerusalén, 70 EC

File:Duraeuropa-1-.gif|Dura Europus, 244 EC
File:Dura Europos fresco holy man.jpg|Josué, representado entre el sol y la luna en un fresco de la [[Dura Europos|Sinagoga de Dura Europos]], 244-256 E.C.<ref>''Jewish Art'', ed. Cecil Roth, Tel Aviv: Massadah Press, 1961, cols. 203-204: "Joshua".</ref>

File:Beit Alpha.jpg|Mosaico del Sinagoga de [[Beit Alfa]], siglo V
File:ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg|Mosaico en la Sinagoga de [[Seforis]], siglo V
File:Hammat Gader.JPG|Mosaic proveniente de la Sinagoga de [[Hamat Gader]], siglo V-VI
File:Roman. Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog, 6th century C.E.jpg|Mosaico con [[Menorá]], lulav y etróg'', siglo VI.

File:Reception of Jews in Poland 1096.jpg|Llegada de los judíos a Polonia, 1096 (Jan Matejko, s. XIX).
File:1099jerusalem.jpg|Los cruzados capturan Jerusalén, 1099

File:Barcelona Haggadah 42v.l.jpg|''Hagadá Barcelona'', s. XIV, fol. 42v
File:V06p143001 Haggadah.jpg|''Hagadá Cataluña'', s. XIV. Versificación: "Ilu... ve lo..."

File:Zion Gate(js).jpg|Puerta de Sion, Jerusalén, 1540
File:Dome of the Rock, 1546.jpg|''Beit Hamikdash''. Insignia hebrea con bendiciones de Marco Antonio Giustiniani, que incorpora una imagen del Templo de Jerusalén representado a partir del Domo de la Roca como fuente de inspiración al Domo de la Roca; Venecia, 1546

File:Napoleon_stellt_den_israelitischen_Kult_wieder_her,_30._Mai_1806.jpg|Emancipación de los judíos, 1806
File:Degradation alfred dreyfus.jpg|Degradación de [[Alfred Dreyfus]] (Le Petit Journal, 1895).
File:Musée des Horreurs 6.jpg|Musée des Horreurs: Le Traître, litografía, 1899
</gallery>

'''Recursos a ser incorporados'''
*[https://archive.org/stream/liederdesghettoa00roseuoft#page/n1/mode/2up Lieder des Ghetto]

'''Material a traducir y explorar su imaginería''':

*[http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/szyk/ Washington, D.C., Library of Congress, ''Arthur Szyk: Artist for Freedom'', diciembre de 1999-mayo de 2000; accedido 22 de junio de 2014]. Arthur Szyk (1894 - 1951) was one America's leading political artists during World War II, when he produced hundreds of anti-Axis illustrations and cartoons in aid of the Allied war effort. Throughout his career he created art in the service of human rights and civil liberties -- in his native Poland, in Paris where he was trained during the 1920s, and in America, the country he adopted in 1940. Settling in the United States, Szyk announced, "At last, I have found the home I have always searched for. Here I can speak of what my soul feels. There is no other place on earth that gives one the freedom, liberty and justice that America does." / Born of Jewish parents in Lodz, Poland, Szyk acquired his early art training in Paris and Cracow. Between 1919 and 1920, during Poland's war against the Soviet Bolsheviks, he served as artistic director of the Department of Propaganda for the Polish army regiment quartered in Lodz. In 1921, he moved to Paris where he lived and worked for ten years. In 1934, Szyk traveled to the United States for exhibitions of his work, including one at the Library of Congress where a series of thirty-eight miniatures commemorating George Washington and the Revolutionary period were shown. In late 1940, after a period of residence in England, he immigrated to the United States. / In America, Arthur Szyk embraced the patriotic and democratic spirit of his adopted country. His work entitled The United States of America, includes portrayals of an African American and Native American, representing the diversity of American society, as well as familiar imagery -- Hoover Dam, the Manhattan skyline, the Golden Gate Bridge, and the Pony Express. His anti-Axis cartoons appeared frequently in such popular magazines as Collier's and in two published compilations, The New Order (1941) and Ink & Blood (1946). He also illustrated numerous works, including a richly rendered, magnificently printed Haggadah (1940), reflecting his passion for his own Jewish heritage and concern for the Jewish people in the face of Nazi hostility.

*[http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/toc.html Washington, D.C., Library of Congress, ''Scrolls from the Dead Sea: The Ancient Library of Qumram and Modern Scholarship'', abril-agosto de 1993; accedido 22 de junio de 2014.] The exhibition Scrolls From the Dead Sea: The Ancient Library of Qumran and Modern Scholarship brings before the American people a selection from the scrolls which have been the subject of intense public interest. Over the years questions have been raised about the scrolls' authenticity, about the people who hid them away during the period in which they lived, about the secrets the scrolls might reveal, and about the intentions of the scrolls' custodians in restricting access. The Library's exhibition describes the historical context of the scrolls and the Qumran community from whence they may have originated; it also relates the story of their discovery 2,000 years later. In addition, the exhibition encourages a better understanding of the challenges and complexities connected with scroll research.

*[http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/words-like-sapphires/ Washington, D.C., Library of Congress, ''Words Like Sapphires: 100 Years of Hebraica at the Library of Congress, 1912–2012'', octubre de 2012-abril de 2013; accedido 22 de junio de 2014.] The Hebraic Section of the Library of Congress is recognized as one of the world’s foremost centers for the study of Hebrew and Yiddish materials. Its beginnings can be traced to Jacob H. Schiff’s gift in 1912 of nearly 10,000 books and pamphlets. In the century since Schiff’s initial gift, the Library has expanded its Hebraic holdings to close to 200,000 works in Hebrew and related languages.

===Ilustraciones temas varios===
[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ark_of_the_Covenant Arca de la Alianza]
[https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%91%D7%A5:Ark_Jerusalem.jpg Augusta Victoria]
<gallery>
|Réplica del Arca de la Alianza
File:Figures_060_The_erection_of_the_Tabernacle_and_the_Sacred_vessels_(right_plate).jpg|The Erection of the Tabernacle and the Sacred vessels (right plate); as in Exodus 40:17-19: "And it came to pass in the first month in the second year, on the first day of the month, that the tabernacle was reared up. And Moses reared up the tabernacle, and fastened his sockets, and set up the boards thereof, and put in the bars thereof, and reared up his pillars. And he spread abroad the tent over the tabernacle, and put the covering of the tent above upon it; as the Lord commanded Moses."; illustration from the 1728 Figures de la Bible; illustrated by Gerard Hoet (1648–1733) and others, and published by P. de Hondt in The Hague; University of Oklahoma Libraries
File:Cathédrale d'Auch 20.jpg|Transport of the Ark, Auch Cathedral, France
File:James Jacques Joseph Tissot - The Ark Passes Over the Jordan - Google Art Project.jpg|Tissot, ''The Ark Passes Over the Jordan'', between 1896 and 1902
File:Folio 29r - The Ark of God Carried into the Temple.jpg|Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry, Folio 29r - The Ark of God Carried into the Temple, 1412-15. Musée Condé, Chantilly
File:Royal_Arch_Room_Ark_replica_2.jpg|Replica of the Ark of the Covenant in the Royal Arch Room of the George Washington Masonic National Memorial
File:GivatZvi713.jpg|Parochet for Yamim Noraim in Mizmor L'Assaf Shul, made by Efod Art Embroidery, Nahariya, 2011
File:Kaufmann Day of Atonement.jpg|Isidor Kaufmann, Day of Atonement, 1907
File:Weinles_On_the_eve_of_Yom_Kippur.jpg|Jakub Weiles, On the eve of Yom Kippur, c. 1890. National Museum, Varsovia
File:Cherubim_Bate.jpg|Cherubim, from ulius Bate, A new and literal translation, from the Hebrew, of the Pentateuch of Moses, and of the historical books of the Old Testament, to the end of the second book of Kings (1773).
File:Ark of the Covenant church in Axum Ethiopia.jpg|Ark of the Covenant church in Axum, Ethiopia, 2004
File:Church_of_the_Annonciade_(choir).jpg|Choeur de l'église du monastère de l'Annonciade à Menton. Avec une réplique de l'Arche d'Alliance
File:Tissot The Seven Trumpets of Jericho.jpg|Tissot, ''The Seven Trumpets of Jericho'' 1896 and 1902
File:LEV 8- High priest in robes and breastplate.jpg|High priest in robes and breastplate
File:James Tissot - A Patriarch - Walters 372009.jpg|Tissot, A Patriarch, 1850
File:Heinheim-judenfried-07.jpg|Cementerio Judío, Heinheim, Alemania, siglo XVII
File:Heinheim-judenfried-16.jpg|Idem
File:Bowyer_Bible_Volume_1_Print_11._Frontispiece_to_Bible_with_twelve_tribes_and_twelve_apostles._Anonymous.png|Judaismo y Cristianismo. Biblia: frontispicio con tribus y apóstoles. Sur la colonne de gauche les médaillons des 12 tribus d'Israël (1. RUBEN 2. SIMON (épée) 3. LEVI 4. JUDAH (lion) 5. DAN 6. NEPHTALI 7. GAD 8. ASHER 9. ISSACHAR 10. ZEBULON 11. JOSEPH 12. BENJAMIN ) et sur la colonne de droite ceux des 12 apôtres. One of 6,330 prints in the 45 volumes of the Bowyer Bible in Bolton Museum, England.
File:Bikur_Cholim_Hospital_04.jpg|Ze'ev Raban
File:Russian_-_Bowl_with_Judah_and_Lion_Surrounded_by_Scened_from_the_Book_of_Esther_-_Walters_4446.jpg|Judá y el león; escenas de la historia de Ester. Moscú, 1690
File:Tombstone of Hendel Bassevi (née Geronim) at the Old Jewish Cemetery of Prague.jpg|[[León de Judá]]
File:Kirkut Skwierzyna 8325.JPG|Cementerio judío de Skwierzyna, Polonia
File:Radom Jewish Cemetery - matzeva1.jpg|Cementerio judío de Radom
File:10 kwietnia 2009 r. Będzin 414.jpg|Cementerio judío de Będzin
</gallery>

Symbols on Jewish gravestones
* Star of David : The six-pointed Star of David, a symbol of Judaism, is frequently found on Jewish tombstones.
* Cohanim Hands – Priestly Blessing : Two hands with outspread fingers indicated that the dead man was descended from priestly stock (Kohanim) who blessed the people in this fashion
* Ewer : Levite pitcher (and bowl)
* the shofar (ram's horn) indicating that the deceased was a blower of the shofar
* deer : people whose name is Zvi, Hirsch or Naftali (deer representing the tribe of Naphtali)
* lion : people whose name is Aryeh, Judah, Leib or Loew (lion representing the tribe of judah)
* bear : people whose name is Dov and Ber.
* wolf : representing the Tribe of Benjamin
* books : an open book indicates the presence of a rabbi, an officiating minister, or just a scholar
* bookshelves : groups of books, sometimes arranged in an open bookcase, or on shelves.
* fish : zodiac sign for the month of Adar
* menorah : one of the oldest symbols of Judaism
* candles : one of the most accepted symbols of the woman. The candle was lit by the Jewish woman. Most of the candlesticks have three branches but there are ones with two, five and more. A broken candle on a gravestone symbolizes an early death, at a young age.
* crown . כתר שם טוב "crown of a good name" (based on Mishna in Avos 4:17)
* tree : A broken tree or branch is a sign that the deceased was young at the time of death
* bird : appears on the gravestones of many women
* grapes : cluster of grapes is an emblem of Israel,

===Biblia por Tissot===
[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bible_art_by_James_Tissot Biblia por Tissot] [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:The_Life_of_Jesus_Christ_by_James_Tissot addendum]
<gallery>
File:Tissot God Renews His Promises to Abraham.jpg|Dios renueva sus promesas con Abraham
File:Tissot_Moses.jpg|Moisés
File:Tissot_The_Songs_of_Joy.jpg|Cantos de alegría
File:Tissot_Moses_and_the_Ten_Commandments.jpg|Moisés con el Decálogo
File:Tissot_Bezalel.jpg|Bezalel
File:Tissot_Moses_and_Joshua_in_the_Tabernacle.jpg|Moisés y Josué en el Tabernáculo
File:Tissot Isaiah.jpg|Isaías
File:Tissot_Zechariah.jpg|Zacarías
File:Tissot_Jonah.jpg|Jonás
</gallery>

=== Compilados ===
<gallery>
Image:Strasbourg Cathédrale Notre Dame statue de la Synagogue.jpg|La Synagogue aux yeux bandés, portant une lance et les Tables de la Loi brisées. Cathédrale de Strasbourg, XIIIe siècle.
Image:Strasbourg_ancienne_Synagogue_quai_Kléber_1898.jpg|Ancienne synagogue de Strasbourg (1896–1940), inaugurée en 1898, brûlée par les nazis en 1940.
File:Synagogue de Thann (détail).jpg|Synagogue de Thann, Alsacia. Les tables de la loi; מַה-נּוֹרָא, הַמָּקוֹם הַזֶּה Genèse 28:17 - Que ce lieu est redoutable !
File:BibleSPaoloFol050vFrontDeut.jpg|Deuteronomio. Portada del Deuteronomio en la "Biblia de San Paolo". Bible of S Paolo fuori le Mura, fol. 50r
File:Caen_palais_de_justice_tables_de_la_Loi.JPG|Palacio de Justicia, Caen
File:Bedum_wapen.svg|Coat of arms of the Dutch municipality of Bedum, Holanda
File:Rabbinerbibel.jpg|Rabbinerbibel
File:Delaroche_Discovery_of_Moses.jpg|Paul Delaroche (1797–1856), Moisés y Miriam.
File:Miriams Tanz.jpg|Tomić Psalter, Bulgaria, 1360. Museo de Historia, Moscú. Miriams Dance, see Exodus 15:20 "Then Miriam the prophetess, Aaron's sister, took a tambourine in her hand, and all the women followed her, with tambourines and dancing"
File:Sculptures of King David and Miriam in York Minster.jpg|York Minster, Inglaterra
File:Lavement_mains_synagogue_lavement_pieds_église_vitrail_saint_etienne_du_mont.jpg|Stained glass window (early 17th century), Church Saint Etienne du Mont in Paris. Above: Rabbis washing their hands under a menorah and the Ark of the Covenant, and a plan of the Synagogue. Below: Christ washing the feet of the Apostles, and a plan of the Church
Français : Vitrail, début XVIIème siècle, salle des catéchismes de l'Eglise Saint Etienne du Mont à Paris. En haut, les rabbins se lavent les mains sous un chandelier et l'Arche d'Alliance, à droite, un plan symbolique de la Synagogue. En bas, le Christ lave les pieds des Apôtres le Jeudi Saint, à droite, un plan symbolique de l' Eglise.
File:Postland.jpg|Tierra Prometida. Abraham Ortelius, 1575
File:1632_Tirinus_Map_of_the_Holy_Land_-_Israel_w-_numerous_insets_-_Geographicus_-_HolyLand-tirinus-1632.jpg|Tierra Santa. Tirinius, 1632. Chorographia Terrae Sanctae in Angustiorem Formam Redacta, et ex Variis Auctoribus a Multis Erroribus Expurgata
File:Four_holy_cities_plaque.jpg|Las 4 ciudades santas. Holy Cities Plaque (Palestine, nineteenth century). Depicting the four Holy Cities of the Holy Land, this plaque is divided into four quadrants, with Jerusalem occupying by far the largest area in the upper right quadrant. Below Jerusalem, is Hebron. Dividing the drawing roughly down the center is the Jordan River. In the top left quadrant -- higher even than Jerusalem -- is Safed; and directly below it, we find Tiberias. Each of the four cities includes representations of the sacred shrines, as well as the graves of sainted rabbis and holy men. siglo XIX
File:Charles_Francois_Delamarche._Carte_De_La_Terre_Hebreux_ou_Israelites_partagee_selon_l%27ordre_de_Dieu_aux_douze_tirbus_descendantes_Des_Douze_Fils_De_Jacob._Paris_1797.jpg|Charles Francois Delamarche. Carte De La Terre Hebreux ou Israelites partagee selon l'ordre de Dieu aux douze tirbus descendantes Des Douze Fils De Jacob. Paris 1797.
File:Old_Jerusalem_Jewish_Quarter_street_Mosaic_12_tribes.JPG
File:Oni Synagogue, building.jpg|Sinagoga de Oni, Georgia, 1880
</gallery>

*[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Jewish_history Jewish History]
*[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Israelites Israelites]
*[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Israel_and_Judah Ancient Israel n Judah]
*[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Beyt_ha-Tefutsoth Beth Hatefutsoth]
*[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jews_in_art Jews in art]

==Referencia bíblica==
*[http://bibliaparalela.com/ Biblia Paralela]
*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Nah%C3%BAm+2%3A15&version=NIV BibleGateway]
*[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&lpg=PP1&ots=D1D3cX-T3Y&dq=Mercer%20Bible%20Dictionary&pg=PA420#v=onepage&q&f=false Mercer Dictionary of the Bible, ed. Watson E. Mills y Roger Aubrey Bullard, Mercer UP, 1990]
*[http://www.wikicristiano.org/diccionario-biblico/1027/becerro-a/ Diccionario Bíblico: Becerro de oro]

==Filatelia==
<gallery>
File:Stamps of Israel - Souvenir Sheet - Taviv.jpg|Procesión solemne de los judíos de Praga, grabado, 1741
File:Stamp of Israel - TAVIV 1960.jpg|Procesión solemne de los judíos de Praga, grabado, 1741
File:Stamp of Israel - Menorah 1952.jpg|Menorá y tribus. "...And the children of Israel shall pitch their tants, every man by his own camp and every man by his own standard..." Numbers I: 52. - Otte Wallish, 1952
File:Stamp of Israel - Tenth Independence Day.jpg|Memorial Day for the Fighters for Independence 1958 - Otte Wallish
</gallery>

== Mapas ==
<gallery>
File:The National Library of Israel - Canaan as it was possessed both in Abraham and Israels dayes with with the stations and bordering nations.jpg|John Speed, 1595
File:Halma. Descriptio Paradisi et Terrae Canaan, regionumque a Patriarchis primum habitatarum. 1707.jpg|Descriptio Paradisi et Terrae Canaan, regionumque a Patriarchis primum habitatarum. Franciscus Halma, 1707
File:Carte du voïage des Israëlites dans le désert depuis leur sortie de l'Egipte jusqu'au passage du Jourdain.jpg|Carte du voïage des Israëlites dans le désert depuis leur sortie de l'Egipte jusqu'au passage du Jourdain. Jean-Baptiste Liébaux, siglo XVII
File:CanaanMap.jpg|Canaan. 1880
File:Henri_Li%C3%A9baux._Carte_de_la_Terre_promise_dress%C3%A9e_par_l%27auteur_du_commentaire_sur_Josu%C3%A9._17th_century.jpg|Tierra Prometida. Liébaux, siglo XVII. Bibliothèque nationale de France
File:1702 Visscher Stoopendaal Map of Israel, Palestine or the Holy Land - Geographicus - PerigrinatiaeVeertich-stoopendaal-1702.jpg|Mapa bíblico. Keurs 1702 (basado en Nicholas Visscher, 1650; y D. Stoopendaal).
File:1570 Palestinae Hondius.jpg|Ortelius - Hondius, 1570
File:1632 Tirinus Map of the Holy Land - Israel w- numerous insets - Geographicus - HolyLand-tirinus-1632.jpg|Tirinus, 1632
File:1695 Eretz Israel map in Amsterdam Haggada by Abraham Bar-Jacob.jpg|Abraham Bar-Jacob, 1695
File:1720 Funck Map of Israel - Palestine - Holy Land - Geographicus - TerraeSanctae-funck-1720.jpg|Funck, 1720
File:1729 Schryver Map of Israel showing 12 Tribes - Geographicus - Israel-schryver-1729.jpg|Tribes. Schryver, 1729
File:1750 Homann Heirs Map of Israel - Palestine - Holy Land (12 Tribes) - Geographicus - Palestina-homannheirs-1750.jpg|Tribus. Johann Christoph Harenberg, 1750
File:1759 map Holy Land and 12 Tribes.jpg|Tribus. Tobias Lotter, 1759
File:Tobias Lotter. Charta geographica Terrae Santae Divisa in duodecim Tribus Israelis.1762.jpg|Lotter, 1762
File:1770 Bonne Map of Israel showing the Twelve Tribes - Geographicus - Israel-bonne-1770.jpg|Rigobert Bonne, 1770
File:Charles_Francois_Delamarche._Carte_De_La_Terre_Hebreux_ou_Israelites_partagee_selon_l%27ordre_de_Dieu_aux_douze_tirbus_descendantes_Des_Douze_Fils_De_Jacob._Paris_1797.jpg|Delamarche, Paris, 1797
File:The National Library of Israel - Vilna Gaon Map.jpg|Gaon de Vilna, 1802
File:1889 Palestine, as divided among the Twelve Tribes.jpg|Claude Reignier Conder, 1889
File:The map of the Holy Land by Marino Sanudo (drawn in 1320).jpg|Martino Sanudo, 1320
File:Abraham_and_Jehuda_Cresques_Catalan_Atlas._Eastern_Europe_view_from_the_south.E.jpg|Abraham y Judá Cresques, Tierra Santa, Atlas, 1375
File:1450_¿_Carta_Catalana_jpeg_copy.C.jpg|Carta Catalana, 1450
File:Rudimentum Holy Land.jpg|Rudimentum Novitiorum: Terra Sanctae. Lucas Brandis, 1475
File:Sanson. Geographiae Sacrae ex Veteris et Novo Testamento desuptae Tabula Secunda in qua Terra Promissa Sie Judaea. 1662.jpg|Geographiae Sacrae. Nicolas Sanson, 1662. Publicado 1690.
File:Portolan chart of Guillem Soler (c.1380, Paris) Israel.jpg|Israel. Guillem Soler, 1380
File:Land of Israel by Rabbi Chaim Salomon Pinta of Zefat.1875.jpg|Tierra de Israel. Rabbi Chaim Salomon Pinta, Zefat, 1875
File:Moshe Ganbash - Shiviti - Google Art Project.jpg|Holy Land. Shiviti. Moshe Ganbash, 1838-39
File:Deportation of Jews by Assyrians-es.svg|Deportaciones asirias, 734-715 a.E.C.
File:Antoine_Philippe_Houze_._L%27Empire_des_Perses._1844_(E).jpg|Imperio persa. Houze, 1844.
Archivo:Palestine_under_the_Persians_Smith_1915.jpg|[[Imperio persa|Período persa]], 538-332 a.E.C.
Archivo:Palestine_under_the_Maccabees_Smith_1915.jpg|Época de los [[macabeos]], 168-135 a.E.C.
Archivo:Map Hasmonean Kingdom-es.svg|Fases de expansión del [[Asmoneos|Reino Asmoneo]], 134-63 a.E.C.
File:Hasmoneese_rijk.PNG|[[Asmoneos|Reino Asmoneo]] en su apogeo, 76-67 a.E.C.
Archivo:Herodes el Gran.jpg|Reino de [[Herodes el Grande]], 40 a.E.C.-4 E.C.
</gallery>

=== T ===

<gallery>
File:OYC_View_37_20130709_123924.jpg|Old Yishuv Court Museum, Bario Judío, J. shiviti
File:OYC VIEW 3 20130709 124220.jpg|menora
File:OYC_VIEW_2_20130709_124207.jpg|lujot
File:Old_Yishuv_Court_Museum_P1140809.JPG|tc
File:Old_Yishuv_Court_Museum_P1140808.JPG|tcz
File:The_Jewish_Museum_of_Greece_(Athens)_(8605694655).jpg|Museo Judío de Grecia, Atenas
File:AJI view 20121204 141358.jpg|Funda. Zeev Jabotinsky Institute, Israel
File:Parashat_Noah.jpg|Torah Reading. Pointer
File:Тас_-_таблічка_для_аздаблення_скрутка_Торы..JPG|Belarus, 19th-century. National Historical Museum of Belarus
File:Thoraschrein.jpg|Br Silver breast plate for Torah, Bavaria-Bohemia
File:V11p133004 Torah.jpg|Silver torah Breast plate. Jewish Encyclopedia
File:V11p130006_Torah.jpg|Silver torah Breast plate. Jewish Encyclopedia, by 1900
File:TorahBreastPlate.jpg|Silver torah Breast plate. Hadad Brothers, Israel, 2010
File:Torah_crown.jpg|TC. Nyirbator, Hungary. 1886-1922. Yeshiva University Museum, NY
File:Torah_crown_Joods_Hist_Mus_Amsterdam_08_11_2012.jpg|Torah crown, 1775, gilt silver, from the Portuguese Synagogue. Joods Historisch Museum, Amsterdam
File:09289_Jüdische_Zeremonialobjekte_und_Angewandte_Kunst_des_Freilichtmuseums_Sanok,_2011.jpg|T crowns n finials. Sanok, Polonia
File:09283 Jüdische Zeremonialobjekte und Angewandte Kunst des Freilichtmuseums Sanok, 2011.jpg|Judaica, Sanok
File:Turin_Synagogue_36-_Expo.JPG|Judaica. Torah mantles, Torah breast plates, Torah crowns Sinagoga de Turin
File:Judaica.jpg|Judaica
File:09282 Jüdische Zeremonialobjekte und Angewandte Kunst des Freilichtmuseums Sanok, 2011.jpg|Judaica. Sanok, PL
File:09286_Jüdische_Zeremonialobjekte_und_Angewandte_Kunst_des_Freilichtmuseums_Sanok,_2011.jpg|Sanok
File:09288 Jüdische Zeremonialobjekte und Angewandte Kunst des Freilichtmuseums Sanok, 2011.jpg|Sanok
File:BialystokerPurim07.JPG|Sinagoga Bialystoker, NY, 1906.
File:BialyBimah.JPG|Sinagoga Bialystoker, NY, 1906. bimah parojet
File:AaronRod.jpg|Aaron rod
File:ברכת_התורה_בשלט_בבית_הכנסת_הגדול_בעפולה.jpg|Bendición de la Torá. Beth Shalom Synagogue, Afula
File:V11p126001_Torah.jpg|Estuche
File:Lwow-Muzeum_religii-korona_na_zwoj_Tory.jpg|Corona. Silver Thora crown in Lviv Museum of Religion
File:00181_Jüdisches_Haus_im_Freichlichtmuseum_in_Sanok.jpg|Piotr Kranc Sztuczyński, Papercutting, Sanok, PL, 2011
</gallery>

==Ayuda==
* [https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Tablón_de_anuncios_de_los_bibliotecarios/Portal/Archivo/Miscelánea/Actual Tablón de bibliotecarios]
*[[Usuario:Jkbw|Jkbw]] (berlín)
*[[Usuario:AVIADOR|Aviador]] (reversor)
*[[Usuaria:Lourdes_Cardenal|Lourdes]] (supresora)

== Destructividad dolosa y persistente==
; Asunto
* '''Vandalismo insistente y doloso de REGISTRO ''', [https: ... aquí], FECHA. - Solicito su exclusión de Wikipedia por destructividad intencional y persistente. Justificación: al focalizar en la investigación y desarrollo de cada artículo invertimos tiempo y dedicación en nuestro quehacer; ese ha debe ser nuestro trabajo y no perder el tiempo con gente que se dedica a destruir Wikipedia - Para sentar precedente, en caso de no haberlo, o bien para reafirmar nuestras políticas, la respuesta de los bibliotecarios wikipedísticos debe ser inequívoca, severa y contundente, caso contrario perderemos nuestras vidas SOLO revirtiendo los caprichos de anónimos malintencionados. No estaría por otra parte de más el que sólo los usuarios registrados podamos editar: por el momento libramos una batalla contra "fantasmas". Agradezco y envío mis saludos cordiales para todo el Equipo Wikipedístico,
; Usuario que lo solicita
* --FECHA (UTC) [[Usuario:Calimeronte|Cali Mero]] ([[Usuario Discusión:Calimeronte|intracorrespondencia]])
; Respuesta
(a rellenar por un bibliotecario)

== Cronología ==

Abraham <br />
2000.<ref name="Wilkinson">Philip Wilkinson, ''Religiões'' (2008), Río de Janeiro: Zahar, 2011, pp. 61-83.</ref><ref name="OLDR">''O livro das religiões'' (The Religions Book), ed. Gareth Jones y Georgina Palffy, San Pablo: Globo, 2013, pp. 164-199.</ref> <br />
1850.<ref name="SedRajna">Gabrielle Sed-Rajna, ''Abecedaire du Judaïsme'', París: Flammarion, 2000, pp. 116-117.</ref>

Patriarcas <br />
2000-1500.<ref name="OLDR"/>

Éxodo, seguido de la revelación de la Torá en Sinaí <br />
1300.<ref name="OLDR"/> <br />
siglo XIII.<ref name="Wilkinson"/> <br />
1250.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />

David, rey de Israel, conquista Jerusalén y la hace capital de su reino. <br />
1010-970.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />
1005-965.<ref name="OLDR"/> <br />

"Canción del Mar", poema bíblico proclama a YHVH como dios supremo sobre todos los demás <br />
1000.<ref name="OLDR"/> <br />

Reinado de Salomón; construcción del Primer Templo de Jerusalén. <br />
970-931.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />

Separación de los reinos: Judá e Israel <br />
931.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />

Salmanazar V toma Samaria <br />
722.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />

Rey Josías de Judá prohibe el culto a cualquier otro diose que no sea YHVH <br />
622.<ref name="OLDR"/> <br />

Nabucodonosor toma Jerusalén; destrucción del Templo y deportación de los habitantes a Babilonia <br />
587-586.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />
586.<ref name="Wilkinson"/><ref name="OLDR"/> <br />

Libro de Isaías escrito en Babilonia y el reino de Judá <br />
540.<ref name="OLDR"/> <br />

Edicto de Ciro II de Persia autoriza el regreso de los exiliados; reconstrucción de Jerusalén y su Templo <br />
538.<ref name="SedRajna"/><ref name="Wilkinson"/> <br />

Segundo Templo de Jerusalén <br />
516.<ref name="Wilkinson"/> <br />

400 Alejandro Magno conquista Judea <br />
<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />

Judea bajo dominio de los Lagidos de Egipto <br />
285-200.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />

Dominio de la dinastía seleucida del reino de Siria <br />
200-167.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />

Revuelta de los Macabeos <br />
siglo II a.E.C.<ref name="Wilkinson"/> <br />
167-142.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />

Manuscritos del Mar Muerto <br />
150 a.E.C - 68 E.C.<ref name="OLDR"/>

Reino de la dinastía hasmonea <br />
142-37.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />

Pompeyo entra en Jerusalén; control romano sobre Judea <br />
63.<ref name="SedRajna"/><ref name="Wilkinson"/> <br />

Herodes proclamado "rey de Judea" por el senado romano <br />
40.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />

Herodes el Grande entra en función, estabiliza la situación política y remodela el Segundo Templo de Jerusalén <br />
37-4.<ref name="SedRajna"/><ref name="Wilkinson"/> <br />

Filón de Alejandría describe al Dios de la Biblia en términos filosóficos griegos, pero sin atributos aristotélicos <br />
30 a.E.C - 50 E.C.<ref name="OLDR"/> <br />

Dinastía herodiana <br /> <br />
4-41.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />

Procuradores romanos dirigen Judea <br />
44-66.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />

Guerra judía; Roma envía al general Vespaciano para combatir a los judíos <br />
66-70.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />

Tito toma Jerusalén e incendia el Templo <br />
70.<ref name="SedRajna"/><ref name="Wilkinson"/> <br />

Rebeliones contra el imperio romano <br />
70-135.<ref name="OLDR"/> <br />

Toma de Masada <br />
73.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />

Revuelta de Bar Kojba <br />
132-135.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />

Comienza la redacción del Talmud <br />
170.<ref name="Wilkinson"/> <br />

Compilación de la Mishná - versión escrita de la ley oral judaica <br />
200.<ref name="SedRajna"/><ref name="OLDR"/> <br />

Cristianismo pasa a ser religión oficial del Imperio Romano <br />
392.<ref name="Wilkinson"/> <br />

Culminación del Talmud de Babilonia - incluye la Mishná y la Guemará (serie de comentarios sobre la Mishná) <br />
425.<ref name="OLDR"/> <br />
500.<ref name="SedRajna"/> <br />

Rabí Shimon bar Yojai compila el Zohar, obra clave de la cábala o misticismo judaico <br />
1250.<ref name="OLDR"/> <br />

== Bibliografía ==
<!-- orden cronológico -->
*Sed-Rajna, Gabrielle. ''Abecedaire du Judaïsme'', París: Flammarion, 2000.
*Wilkinson, Philip. ''Religiões'' (Religions, 2008), Río de Janeiro: Zahar, 2011.
*Jones, Gareth, y Georgina Palffy, eds., ''O livro das religiões'' (The Religions Book), San Pablo: Globo, 2013.

== Referencias ==
{{listaref}}

<small>'''YIVO'''
* [http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Language/Hebrew hebrew]
* [http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Khazaria khazaria]
* [http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Ashkenaz ashkenaz]
* [http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Shtetl shtetl]
* [http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Assimilation assimilation]
* [http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Holocaust holocaust]
* [http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Land_of_Israel land of il]</small>

== Golden Haggadah DATA ==

Golden Haggadah, Northern Spain, probably Barcelona, c.1320
British Library Add. MS. 27210

Golden Haggadah
The extravagant use of gold-leaf in the backgrounds of its 56 miniature paintings earned this magnificent manuscript its name: the 'Golden Haggadah'. It was made around 1320, in or near Barcelona, for the use of a wealthy Jewish family. The holy text is written on vellum pages in Hebrew script, reading from right to left. Its stunning miniatures illustrate stories from the biblical books of 'Genesis' and 'Exodus' and scenes of Jewish ritual.

What does this page show?
Anticlockwise from top right: Adam naming the animals, the Creation of Adam and Eve, the Temptation, Cain and Abel offering a sacrifice, Cain slaying Abel, and lastly Noah, his wife and sons coming out of the ark. God's image is forbidden in Jewish religious contexts, and is totally absent in all the miniatures here. Instead, angels are seen intervening at critical moments.

What is a haggadah?
A haggadah is a collection of Jewish prayers and readings written to accompany the Passover 'seder', a ritual meal eaten on the eve of the Passover festival. The ritual meal was formalised during the 2nd century, after the example of the Greek 'symposium', in which philosophical debate was fortified by food and wine.
The literal meaning of the Hebrew word 'haggadah' is a 'narration' or 'telling'. It refers to a command in the biblical book of 'Exodus', requiring Jews to "tell your son on that day: it is because of that which the Lord did for me when I came forth out of Egypt".
Perhaps because it was mainly intended for use at home, and its purpose was educational, Jewish scribes and artists felt completely free to illustrate the Haggadah. Indeed it was traditionally the most lavishly decorated of all Jewish sacred writings, giving well-to-do Jews of the middle ages a chance to demonstrate their wealth and good taste as well as their piety. The man for whom the 'Golden Haggadah' was made must have been rich indeed.

What is Passover?
Passover commemorates one of the most important events in the story of the Jewish people. Like Christianity and Islam, Judaism traces its origins back to Abraham. He was leader of the Israelites, a group of nomadic tribes in the Middle East some 4,000 years ago. Abraham established a religion that distinguished itself from other local beliefs by having only one, all-powerful God. According to a Covenant made between them, the Jews would keep God's laws, and in return they would be protected as chosen people.
The Israelites were captured and taken as slaves to Egypt, where they suffered much hardship. Eventually, a prophet called Moses delivered the Jews from their captivity with the help of several miraculous events intended to intimidate the Egyptian authorities. The last of these was the sudden death of the eldest son in every family. Jewish households were spared by smearing lambs' blood above their doors - a sign telling the 'angel of death' to pass over.

Why was a Jewish manuscript made in Spain?
The wandering tribes of Israel finally settled in the 'promised land' after their delivery from captivity in Egypt. But the twin kingdoms of Israel and Judah were to fall to the Assyrians and Babylonians. Then, in 63 BC, the region came under the governance of the Roman Empire. In 70 AD, the Roman army destroyed the Second Jewish Temple and sacked Jerusalem; in 135 AD they crushed a Judaean uprising. As a result of this many Jews went into exile.
Some migrated across north Africa to Spain. For many centuries, these 'Sephardic' Jews lived peacefully and productively under both Christian and Islamic rulers. The Jewish community in Barcelona had been established since Roman times and was one of the most affluent in Spain by the time the 'Golden Haggadah' was produced.
Jews acted as advisers, physicians and financiers to the Counts of Barcelona, who provided economic and social protection. They grew attuned to the tastes of the court and began commissioning manuscripts decorated in Christian style. Though the scribe who wrote its Hebrew text would have been a Jew, the illuminators of the 'Golden Haggadah' are likely to have been Christian artists, instructed in details of Judaic symbolism by the scribe or patron.

Who made the Golden Haggadah?
The illumination of the manuscript - its paintings and decoration - was carried out by two artists. Though their names are unknown, the similarity of their styles implies they both worked in the same studio in the Barcelona region. The gothic style of northern French painting was a strong influence on Spanish illuminators, and these two were no exceptions.
There is also Italian influence to be seen in the rendering of the background architecture. Differences between the two artists may be attributed to their individual talents and training. The painter of the scenes shown here tends towards stocky figures with rather exaggerated facial expressions. The second artist has a greater sense of refinement and achieves a better sense of space.

How did the 'Golden Haggadah' come to the British Library?
Islamic rule in Spain came to an end in 1492, when King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella (the Catholic Monarchs) defeated the Muslim army at Granada and restored the whole of Spain to Christianity. Months later the entire Jewish population was expelled. The manuscript found its way to Italy and passed through various hands, serving as a wedding present at one stage. In 1865, the British Library (then the British Museum Library) bought it as part of the collection of Hebrew poet and bibliophile Giuseppe (or Joseph) Almanzi.

[http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/sacredtexts/golden.html BL]

== Arte y escritura hebrea ==
<gallery widths=200 heights=200>
Archivo:Kohenbreastplate.jpg|''Jóshen'' o Pectoral del [[Anexo:Sumos Sacerdotes de Israel|Sumo Sacerdote]] de los [[hebreos]], con una docena de piedras preciosas simbolizando las [[Doce Tribus de Israel]].<ref>[http://legacy.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=%C3%89xodo28&version=RVR1960 Éxodo 28]; ''Encyclopedia Judaica'', Nueva York, 1905-6.</ref>
File:Menorah engraving, Great Mosque of Gaza.jpg|Diseño del relieve hallado en la [[Gran Mezquita de Gaza]], con inscripciones en hebreo y griego.
Archivo:Leningrad Codex Carpet page e.jpg|[[Códice de Leningrado]], 1008 E.C.
Archivo:Worms festival prayerbook.jpg|[[Arte asquenazí]]. ''Libro de oraciones de Worms'', c. 1285-90. Biblioteca Nacional, Universidad Hebrea de Jerusalén
Archivo:Birdhea5.jpg|Los hebreos recolectan el maná y reciben la [[Torá|Ley]]. ''[[Hagadá]] de los Pajaritos'' (Pésaj), c. 1300.<ref>En este manuscrito preservado en el [[Museo de Israel]] en Jerusalén, las figuras con cabeza de ave también bendicen el vino, se lavan las manos antes de comer vegetales y recitan poemas litúrgicos llamados en hebreo ''paytanim'' (Elie Kedourie, ''Le monde du judaïsme'', Londres y París: Thames & Hudson, 2003, pp. 117-118, 259). Para una posible interpretación de la relación entre texto e imagen en este manuscrito, véase Marc Michael Epstein, ''The Medieval Haggadah: Art, Narrative & Religious Imagination'', New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2011; y Richard McBee, "[http://www.jewishpress.com/sections/arts/birds-head-haggadah-revealed-the-medieval-haggadah-art-narrative-religious-imagination/2012/03/29/0/ Bird’s Head Haggadah Revealed]", ''The Jewish Press'', 29 de marzo de 2012 (consultado 21 de noviembre de 2014).</ref>
Archivo:Barcelona Haggadah 30v.jpg|[[Arte sefardí]]. [[Hagadá|Hagadá Barcelona]],<ref>Manuscrito hebreo-catalán presevado y exhibido en la British Library de Londres (BL Add MS 14761).</ref> manuscrito hebreo, 1350, fol. 30v: "Esclavos fuimos de Faraón en Egipto."
Archivo:Ha Lahma Ania.jpg|[[Hagadá|Hagadá Barcelona]], 1350: "Ha-Lajmanía"
Archivo:Barcelona Haggadah 42v.l.jpg|[[Hagadá|Hagadá Barcelona]], 1350, fol. 42v
Archivo:Kaufmann Haggadah p 014.jpg|Texto hebreo con caracteres típicamente sefarditas, Hagadá de Cataluña, siglo XIV. Colección Kaufmann
Archivo:Illustration-mamluk-lamps.jpg|Hagadá de Cataluña, s. XIV: [[Sinagoga]]
Archivo:Marror artichoke.jpg|[[Hagadá de Sarajevo]], manuscrito hebreo, s. XIV: "Maror zé"
Archivo:Illustration-haggadah-exodus.jpg|Hagadá de Cataluña, s. XIV: [[Moisés]] lidera el [[Éxodo]]
Archivo:Kennicott Bible 305r.l.jpg|[[Tanaj|Biblia Kennicott]], 1476, fol. 305r: [[Jonás (profeta)|Jonás]].<ref>[http://www.kennicottbible.org/ The Kennicott Bible]</ref>
File:Book of Avodah (Service; on Temple Worship). Opening panel, folio 41v.The Israel Museum.jpg|''[[Mishné Torá]]'' ([[Maimónides]]), manuscrito italo-hebreo [[Renacimiento|renacentista]], ''c''. 1457, fol. 41v.<ref>[http://www.imj.org.il/exhibitions/presentation/exhibit/?id=929 Together Again: A Renaissance Mishneh Torah from the Vatican Library and The Israel Museum], Museo de Israel, mayo-septiembre de 2015.</ref>
Archivo:WLA_jewishmuseum_16th_century_Synagogue_Wall.jpg|[[Hejal]] de la [[Sinagoga]] de [[Isfahan]], [[Persia]], siglo XVI. Porción azulejada con inscripción hebrea.<ref>Preservada en el Jewish Museum de Nueva York.</ref>
Archivo:Ketubbah David Immanuel and Rachel.jpg|''Ketubá'' (contrato matrimonial judío) del matrimonio Pinto, Italia, c. 1650-1700. [[Beth Hatefutsoth]], Tel Aviv.<ref>Acerca de la ''ketubá'' (כְּתוּבָּה; pl. ''ketubot''), véase [http://beinecke.library.yale.edu/collections/highlights/art-ketubah-decorated-jewish-marriage-contracts Art of the Ketubah: Decorated Jewish Marriage Contracts ranging from the 17th to the 20th Centuries], ''Yale University'', Beinecke Rare Books & Manuscript Library, 2009 (accedido diciembre de 2013).</ref>
File:Scribe- Nehemiah ben Amshal of Tabriz - Mūsā Nāma (The Book of Moses) by Mulana Shāhīn Shirazi - Google Art Project.jpg|Nehemiah ben Amshal de Tabriz, ''El Libro de [[Moisés]]'', manuscrito hebreo, 1686
Archivo:1695 Eretz Israel map in Amsterdam Haggada by Abraham Bar-Jacob.jpg|'''Eretz Israel''' (ארץ ישראל) o "[[Tierra de Israel|La Tierra de Israel]]", con las [[Doce tribus de Israel|doce tribus]]. Mapa en hebreo por Abraham Bar Jacob, [[Hagadá|Hagadá de Ámsterdam]], 1695.
Archivo:Scroll of esther.jpg|Rollo de [[Esther]] empleado en [[Purim]], Alsacia, 1730.<ref>Acerca del contexto histórico de este período véase Wachtel, [http://www.sothebys.com/en/news-video/blogs/specials/a-treasured-legacy-history-of-the-jewish-people/2013/04/jews-age-of-mercantilism.html The Jews in the Age Of Mercantilism], ''Sotheby's'', 3 de abril de 2013.</ref>
Archivo:YHWH Goya.jpg|[[Francisco de Goya]], "El nombre de Dios", [[YHWH]] (יהוה), detalle del [[tetragrámaton]] hebreo en un triángulo.<ref>El triángulo empleado por Goya tiene connotaciones tanto judías como cristianas, sugiriendo el componente divino de la [[Estrella de David]] así como también la noción de [[Santísima Trinidad]],</ref> representado en ''[[La adoración del nombre de Dios|La Gloria]]'', 1772. [[Catedral-Basílica de Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Zaragoza|Basílica del Pilar]], Zaragoza.
Archivo:May our eyes behold your return in mercy to Zion.jpg|[[Ephraim Moses Lilien]], ''Y nuestros ojos verán con piedad tu retorno a [[Sion]]''.<ref>La estampa es así titulada a partir de la inscripción en idioma hebreo que figura en la misma.</ref> Estampa para el Quinto Congreso Sionista, Basilea, diciembre de 1901.<ref>Imagen publicada en ''Ost und West'', Berlín, enero de 1902, [http://sammlungen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de/cm/periodical/pageview/2585036 17-18].</ref>
Archivo:Design by El Lissitzky 1922.jpg|[[El Lissitzky]], ''Teyashim'', diseño para libro con texto hebreo, 1922.
File:Emblem of Israel.svg|Emblema del moderno [[Israel|Estado de Israel]], 1948
File:PikiWiki Israel 19471 Sculpture quot;Ahavaquot; (love) by Robert India.JPG|Cuatro letras hebreas sugiriendo la palabra "amor" (אהבה) en hebreo. [[Robert Indiana]], ''Ahavá'', 1977. [[Museo de Israel]], [[Jerusalén]].
</gallery>
== Estudio y traducción del idioma hebreo, diccionarios y concordancias ==
<gallery widths=200 heights=200>
Archivo:St Pons de Thomières miséricorde.JPG|Talla medieval con monje inspirado por un ángel al traducir un texto bíblico del hebreo al latín. Sobre la imagen se encuentra incisa la siguiente inscripción: "אבינו שבשמים יהקדיש שמך" (''Avinu shebashamáim iheakdísh shimjá''), es decir, "Nuestro padre que [está] en los cielos santificará tu nombre". Misericordia gótica, Iglesia de St Pons de Thomières, Francia.
Archivo:1524 dictionary by Yuhanna al-Asad and Jacob Mantino Arabic-Hebrew-Latin p alif.jpg|Yuhanna al-Asad y Jacob Mantino ben Samuel, Diccionario árabe-hebreo-latín, 1524.<ref>Natalie Zemon Davis, ''Trickster Travels: A Sixteenth-Century Muslim Between Worlds'', Hill and Wang, 2006, pp.180-181.</ref>
Archivo:Sefer Ha dikduk.jpg|[[Elias Levita]], ''Séfer Ha-Dikdúk'' o Libro de la gramática (hebrea), Basilea, 1525. [[Beth Hatefutsoth]]
Archivo:Mordechai nathan hebrew latin concordance.jpg|Mordejai Natan, ''Séfer Yair Natív'', concordancia bíblica hebreo-latina, Basilea, 1556. [[Beth Hatefutsoth]]
</gallery>
== Ejemplos de textos e inscripciones hebreas ==
<gallery widths=200 heights=200>
File:Jewish oral law.jpg|Relieve con "mapa" de la tradición oral del pueblo judío: desarrollo en forma de río.<ref>Exhibido en [[Beth Hatefutsoth]] en 2011.</ref>
File:058 Dafna Tal Susya SOUTH OF HEBRON IMOT (11965644446).jpg|Mosaico con inscripción de la Sinagoga de Susýa, Hebrón.
File:Elephantine Temple reconstruction request.gif|Yedoniah, Papiro con solicitud de reconstrucción de sinagoga, dirigida al gobernador de Judea, Elefantina, 407 a.E.C.
File:The Great Isaiah Scroll MS A (1QIsa) - Google Art Project-x4-y0.jpg|Sección del Gran Rollo de Isaías, siglo I a.E.C. [[Santuario del Libro]], [[Museo de Israel]], Jerusalén
File:Judeo-Persian letter BLI7 OR8212166R1 1.jpg|Carta hebrea, Persia, siglo VIII E.C.
File:192 Casa del Degà, inscripcions jueves i romanes.jpg|Tumba del rabino Jaim ben Isaac.<ref>La inscripción hebrea figura en el dintel superior, es soportada por otras dos en latín (cada una de estas últimas figura en un edículo).</ref> Antiga Casa Degà, Tarragona, Cataluña
File:Anonyme français - Inscription hébraique de Vidals Salomon Nathan - Musée des Augustins - RA 762 TER C.jpg|Lápida de Vidals Salomon Nathan, Francia, 1276-1300. [[Museo de los Agustinos]], [[Toulouse]]
Archivo:Schiefertäfelchen Archäologische Zone.jpg|Inscripción en hebreo lapidario, Sinagoga de Kalkstein, región de Colonia, Alemania, c. siglo XII o XIII.
Archivo:Sefer-torah-vayehi-binsoa.jpg|Hebreo manuscrito. Asquenazí medieval. Fragmento de un rollo de la [[Torá]].
Archivo:Bodleian Bowl (Jewish Encyclopedia).jpg|Recipiente metálico, Francia o Inglaterra, siglo XIII.<ref>Conocido como el "Bodleian Bowl", perteneció al rabino Yechiel de París (''Jewish Encyclopedia'', 1901-6).</ref>
File:Daiyyeinu manuscript.jpg|[[Hagadá]] de [[Pésaj]]. [[Arte asquenazí]]. Manuscrito medieval alemán, c. 1300.<ref>Original preservado en el [[Museo de Israel]], Jerusalén.</ref>
File:Cochin Jewish Inscription.JPG|Inscripción de la Sinagoga Pardesi, [[Cochín]], Kochangadi, India, 1344
File:Eastern wall toledo synagogue.jpg|Fragmento mural con inscripciones en hebreo, [[Sinagoga del Tránsito]] ([[Toledo]], 1357-1363.<ref>La imagen muestra la réplica exhibida en [[Beth Hatefutsoth]] en 2011.</ref>
File:Song of songs Rothschild mahzor.jpg|El ''[[Cantar de los Cantares]]'' del rey [[Salomón]]. Majzór Rothschild, manuscrito italiano, 1492.<ref>Original preservado en el Jewish Theological Seminary of America, Nueva York.</ref>
File:Cima da Conegliano - The Annunciation.jpg|Cima de Conegliano, ''La Anunciación'', c. 1500-18. [[Museo del Hermitage]], San Petersburgo
File:'Christ' by Quentin Metsys, c. 1529, oil on wood.JPG|Quentin Metsys, ''Cristo'', c. 1529. Porta la inscripción "יהשוה" (una de las varias formas del término Salvador).
File:Sefer Refu' at ha Geviyah, Judah Al Harizi.jpg|Yudah Al Harizi, ''Sefer Refu'at Ha'Geviyah'' (Libro de medicina), [[Salónica]], 1593.
Archivo:Rembrandt - Belshazzar's Feast - WGA19123.jpg|[[Rembrandt]], ''[[El festín de Baltasar (Rembrandt)|El festín de Baltazar]]'', 1635-38.
File:Rapaport Coat of Arms.jpg|Blasón y escudo de armas de la Familia Rapaport, Rapa, Italia, 1600
File:Reyher.jpg|August Erich, ''Retrato de Andreas Reyher y su familia'', 1643. Castillo de Friedenstein. La leyenda presenta la inscripción חכמה ראשית יראת יהוה, significando que la sabiduría fundamental emana antetodo del Creador.
File:Chodorov Synagogue ceiling2.jpg|Israel ben Mordejai Lisnicki de Jaryczow, Cielorraso abovedado de la Sinagoga Jódorov (ingl. Chodorov), [[Galitzia]], Ucrania, 1652.<ref>David Wachtel, "[http://www.sothebys.com/en/news-video/blogs/specials/a-treasured-legacy-history-of-the-jewish-people/2013/04/eastern-europe-jews.html The Jews of Eastern Europe]", ''Sotheby's'', 3 de abril de 2013 (accedido 11 de noviembre de 2013).</ref>
File:Megillat Esther 2.l.jpg|Fragmento de [[Purim|Rollo de Ester]], Alemania, c. 1700.<ref>Original preservado en la colección Gross, Tel Aviv ([http://www.facsimile-editions.com/en/me/ Megillat Esther], consultado 12 de febrero de 2015).</ref>
File:Reichshoffen-Ancienne synagogue (3).jpg|Sinagoga de Reichshoffen, Bajo Rin, Francia
File:Ketuba yemen 1795 2.jpg|''Ketubá'' (contrato matrimonial hebreo), Sa'ana, Yemén, 1795
File:Sinagoga Mare din Harlau1.jpg|Éxodo 25:8. Sinagoga Mare din Harlau, Rumania, 1814
Archivo:JudischerKalender-1831 ubt.jpeg|Calendario judío-alemán, Berlín, "5591" = 1831 E.C.
File:Torah ark curtain - Google Art Project.jpg|''Parojet'' o cortinado del [[Arón Ha-Kodesh]], Praga, 1853. [[Museo de Israel]], Jerusalén
File:Vitrail de synagogue-Musée alsacien de Strasbourg.jpg|[[Los diez mandamientos]]. Vitral de la Sinagoga de Estrasburgo, siglo XIX−
File:Synagogue plaque Sibiu.jpg|Abraham Pavian, Placa con horario de oraciones y versos de Salmos 88:13-17, Sinagoga de Sibiu, Rumania, 1871
File:Rosh hashana vilna.jpg|Portada del Tratado de [[Rosh Hashaná]]. [[Talmud]], Vilna, 1881
Archivo:Chalons Marne Synagogue Verset.jpg|Inscripción con el Salmo 84 sobre la fachada de la Sinagoga de Chalons Marne.
File:Kafka's notebook.JPG|Cuaderno de Franz Kafka con vocabulario hebreo traducido al alemán
File:Academy of the Hebrew Language.JPG|[[Academia del Idioma Hebreo]], [[Universidad Hebrea de Jerusalén]]
File:Door of Four Sephardi Synagogues (2667016779).jpg|[[Arte sefardí]]. Puerta de la [[Las cuatro sinagogas sefardíes|Sinagoga Yohanan Ben-Zakai]], Jerusalén, c. 1970-85
Archivo:Happy Cake.jpg|Torta con la inscripción מזל טוב (Mazal Tov) en letras cursivas, expresando tanto "buena suerte" como "felicidades".
File:Hebrew- Do not hate your brother in your heart.jpg|Pancarta con la inscripción ־ לא תשנא את אחיך בלבבך "No odiarás a tu hermano en tu corazón", Ashdod, 2013
</gallery>
</gallery>
==Antecedentes==
* 321. El Emperador Romano Constantino envia un decreto al magistrado de Colonia (una ciudad alemana) concediendo permiso a los judíos para ser llamados a integrar la corte papal: se trata del más antiguo documento que confirma establecimiento de los judíos en las provincias alemanas.
* 800. Bajo el reinado de Carlomagno, Rey de los Francos, los judíos disfrutan de los mismos derechos económicos que los cristianos; se prohibe cualquier intento de impedir a los judíos la práctica de su religión.
* 1096. Cientos de judíos en Alemania son asesinados, quemados y ahogados como resultado de las Cruzadas.
* 1348. La peste negra diezma más de un tercio de la población europea. Los judíos son considerados sospechosos de envenenar los pozos de agua por razones de odio religioso. Miles de judíos son asesinados y aquellos que sobreviven son expulsados de sus comunidades. Hacia el final de 1350, prácticamente todas las comunidades judías alemanas son destruidas. Una vez que la plaga alcanza su fin, se permite a muchos judíos regresar a Alemania.
==1933-1945==
* 30 enero 1933. El presidente alemán Paul von Hindenburg nombra canciller a Adolf Hitler.
* 1 abril 1933. Boicot nacional de comercios y negocios de propiedad judía con la aprobación del Estado
* 7 abril 1933. El régimen nazi aprobó leyes civiles que prohiben a los judíos ocupar puestos en la función pública o en el servicio civil; se les prohibe inclusive ser contratados por la prensa o la radio.
* 10 mayo 1933. Los nazis llevan a cabo una quema de libros redactados por judíos y adversarios políticos.
* 14 julio 1933. La «Ley para la Prevención de Progenie con Enfermedades Hereditarias» legaliza la esterilización forzosa de personas consideradas por los nazis como biológicamente inferiores. Entre 300.000 y 400.000 personas son esterilizadas.
* 1934. Los judíos son desprovistos del derecho al seguro nacional de salud. Inmediatamente después de la muerte del presidente Hindenburg, Hitler se autoproclama líder absoluto de la nación alemana (Führer); el 90% de los votantes alemanes aprueba los nuevos poderes de Hitler.
* 15 septiembre 1935. En el congreso del partido nazi celebrado en Nuremberg, Hitler anuncia las leyes raciales y de ciudadanía que excluyen a los judíos de la sociedad alemana: los despojan de sus derechos civiles como ciudadanos alemanes y los separan de los alemanes legal, social y políticamente. Los judíos son definidos como una raza separada por "La Ley de Protección de la Sangre y el Honor Alemán", que además prohibe los casamientos o relaciones sexuales entre judíos y alemanes.
* 1935. Más de 120 leyes, decretos, y ordenanzas fueron puestos en vigor a partir de las Leyes de Nuremberg y antes del estallido de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, socavando los derechos de los judíos alemanes. Los nazis prohiben a los judíos prestar servicio militar. Miles de alemanes conversos al cristianismo o que hasta entonces no se habían considerado judíos, son definidos como "no arios" en caso de tener al menos un progenitor o abuelo judío.
* 1936. Se priva a los judíos del derecho al voto.
* Junio de 1936. Se abre en Múnich la oficina central de una entidad para «combatir la molestia gitana».
* 12 de julio de 1936. Se arresta y deporta a Dachau a los gitanos alemanes.
* 1-16 de agosto de 1936. Juegos Olímpicos en Berlín: se retiran los letreros antijudíos hasta que concluyen las Olimpiadas.
* 28 agosto 1936. Arresto masivo de testigos de Jehová y envío a campos de concentración
* 13 marzo 1938. Alemania anexiona Austria
* 9 al 10 de noviembre de 1938. La noche del 9 al 10 de noviembre se lleva a cabo una brutal agresión a escala nacional contra los judíos, sus casas, negocios y sinagogas. En un pogromo denominado "Kristallnacht" (noche de los cristales rotos), cerca de 1.000 sinagogas son incendiadas y 76 destruidas; más de 7.000 comercios y hogares judíos son saqueados, alrededor de cien judíos son asesinados y 30.000 judíos son arrestados y enviados a campos de concentración. Los nazis obligan a los judíos a pagar por los daños de la Kristallnacht y luego a transferir sus negocios a manos "arias".
* 15 de noviembre de 1938. Todos los niños judíos son expulsados de las escuelas públicas. Los nazis prohiben a los judíos la práctica del comercio. Se les prohibe practicar la medicina y el derecho. A pedido de Suiza, se exige que los pasaportes judíos lleven un sello con forma de una gran "J" roja. Los Estados Unidos convocan una conferencia de la Liga de las Naciones en Francia con delegados de 32 países, para deliberar sobre la posibilidad de prestar ayuda a los refugiados judíos, pero ningún país se muestra dispuesto a aceptarlos.
* 1 de septiembre de 1939. El ejército nazi invade Polonia. Tras la invasión, los nazis llevan a cabo un plan para abusar y eliminar a los llamados indeseables, particularmente los judíos y los eslavos. A partir de ese momento 3.000.000 de judíos polacos son recluidos en unos 400 guetos recién creados, donde el hambre, el hacinamiento, el frío y las enfermedades siegan decenas de miles de vidas. Los nazis obligan a los judíos a entregar todas sus pertenencias de oro y plata.
* Octubre de 1939: Hitler ordena que a los pacientes «incurables» internados y a las personas con discapacidades físicas se les dé muerte en un programa de supuesta eutanasia: se calcula que hubo 275.000 víctimas de tal «eutanasia».
* 1940. Aislación mediante murallas de los guetos de Lodz y Varsovia.
* Primavera de 1940. Alemania invade Dinamarca, Noruega, Bélgica, Luxemburgo, los Países Bajos y Francia
* 22 de junio de 1941. El ejército alemán invade la Unión Soviética, con lo que viola el pacto germano-soviético de no agresión. Escuadrones y unidades móviles asesinas (Einsatzgruppen) siguen al ejército alemán y perpetran matanzas en masa por toda la Europa oriental. Hasta el otoño de 1942, tales unidades masacran 1.500.000 judíos y a decenas de miles de otros seres humanos.
* 28 y 29 de septiembre de 1941: Más de 33.000 judíos son masacrados en dos días en Babi Yar, cerca de Kiev, la capital de Ucrania.
* Septiembre de 1941 los nazis comienzan a usar camionetas o camiones con gas cargados con grupos de personas que eran encerradas y asfixiadas con monóxido de carbono. Estas camionetas son usadas hasta finales de 1941.
* Diciembre de 1941: En Chelmno se asesinan unos 5.000 gitanos austríacos en camiones utilizados como cámaras de gas; se calcula que la cifra total de gitanos ejecutados oscila entre 200.000 y 500.000. Seis campos de muerte o exterminio fueron construidos en Polonia. Éstos son conocidos también como fábricas de la muerte: Auschwitz-Birkenau, Treblinka, Belzec, Sobibór, Lublin (también llamado Majdanek) y Chelmno. El propósito principal de estos campos es el exterminio metódico de millones de personas inocentes. El primero, Chelmno, comienza a operar a finales de 1941; los demás solo desde 1942. Los campos son una parte esencial de la opresión sistemática nazi y de la muerte masiva de judíos, adversarios políticos, y otros grupos considerados social o racialmente indeseables. Los nazis establecen campos de concentración, campos de trabajos forzados, campos de exterminio o muerte, campos de tránsito y campos de prisioneros de guerra: las condiciones de vida de todos los campos eran brutales. En 1941, los nazis prohiben la emigración de los judíos del Reich; los judíos alemanes son obligados a portar una "estrella amarilla".
* 20 de enero de 1942. Se celebra en Wannsee una conferencia de oficiales nazis con el fin de planear la denominada «solución final»: el exterminio de la judeidad europea. El oficial de las SS Reinhard Heydrich convoca a una reunión de oficiales del gobierno nazi para presentar la «solución final». En esta reunión, conocida como la Conferencia de Wannsee, los oficiales nazis acuerdan los planes de las SS acerca del transporte y aniquilación de la totalidad de los 11 millones de judíos de Europa. Los nazis usarían los últimos avances en la tecnología del siglo veinte, ingeniería de alto rendimiento y técnicas de producción en masa, con el único propósito de exterminar a los siguientes grupos raciales: judíos, prisioneros de guerra rusos y gitanos.
* 1942. El Secretario de Asuntos Exteriores Británico Eden informa a la Cámara de los Comunes que los nazis están "ahora llevando a cabo el reiterado intento de Hitler de exterminar a los judíos de Europa". Se prohíbe a los judíos alemanes el uso del transporte público. Habiendo comenzado a principios de 1942, el genocidio judío entra en etapa de plena operación.
* 3 de noviembre de 1943: Se lanza la operación Erntefest (Fiesta de la cosecha) asesinando a todos los judíos que quedan en la región central y meridional de Polonia; en esa fecha en particular se da muerte a balazos a unos 40.000 judíos.
* 19 de marzo de 1944: Alemania ocupa Hungría
* 15 de mayo al 9 de julio de 1944. Más de 437.000 judíos húngaros son deportados a Auschwitz y son ejecutados en cámaras de gas.
* Abril de 1945. El ejército de Estados Unidos libera a los prisioneros de los campos de concentración de Buchenwald y Dachau.
* 17 al 21 de enero de 1945: 56.000 prisioneros son trasladados fuera de Auschwitz y escoltados por guardias armados SS; muchos de esos prisioneros pierden la vida en esa "Marcha de la Muerte".
* 20 de abril al 3 de mayo de 1945: Marcha de la Muerte de doce días de duración, desde Sachsenhausen; unos 26.000 prisioneros comienzan el recorrido de 200 kilómetros, pero solo poco más de 15.000 sobreviven al ser liberados por las fuerzas aliadas.
* 7 de mayo de 1945: Alemania se rinde y finaliza la guerra en Europa.
* Noviembre de 1945: Comienzan los juicios de Nuremberg por los crímenes de guerra.
* 30 de septiembre de 1946. Se anuncian los veredictos de los juicios por los crímenes de guerra.
==Recursos==
* [http://www.ushmm.org/es/holocaust-encyclopedia Cronología USHMM]
* [http://www.ushmm.org/es/holocaust-encyclopedia Enciclopedia del Holocausto]
* [http://www.un.org/es/holocaustremembrance/2006/crono.html Naciones Unidas]
* [http://www.memoriadeuntestimonio.org/cronologia.htm Memoria de un testimonio]
* Michel Bar-Zohar, ''Les Vengeurs'', París : Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1968 ; en: Andrés Ciudad y María Josefa Iglesias, [http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/v2/contextos/4288.htm Cronología del genocidio judío], ''Arte-Historia'', España: Junta de Castilla y León.
* [http://www.historyplace.com/worldwar2/holocaust/ Holocaust Timeline], ''The History Place'', 1997.
* Jacqueline Goldberg, [http://www.analitica.com/bitblioteca/jgoldberg/holocausto.asp Cronología de un ensañamiento], ''Analítica'', mayo de 2000.
* Elvira Smeke, [http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/es/education/educational_materials/pdfs/propuesta3.pdf Holocausto], Seminario para la Universidad Anáhuac, ''Yad Vashem'', 2009.
* [http://www.morashasyllabus.com/Spanish/class/Historia%20del%20Holocausto%20I%20-%20Apendice.pdf Momentos clave de la Historia Judía: Historia del Holocausto I – Cronología], ''Morashá'', pp. 1-8.
* [http://www.noam.org.ar/pdf/Cronologia_de_la_Shoa.pdf Cronología de la Shoá], ''Noam'', Argentina, pp. 1-12.

Revisión actual - 07:46 30 may 2022

Esta es mi zona de pruebas. Es subpágina de mi página de usuario y me sirve para hacer pruebas. Ella no es un artículo de la enciclopedia. Solicito no modificarla. Gracias, Calimeronte

Talla con monje inspirado por un ángel al traducir el texto bíblico. Inscr.: "Nuestro padre que [está] en los cielos santificará tu nombre". Misericordia gótica, Pons de Thomières, Francia.

Cita literal de imagen en Commons

[editar]

Planchas sobre la Inquisición en Caprichos 23 y 24, con personajes vestidos con sambenito y titulados ellos Aquellos polbos y No hubo remedio. En sus apuntes (Álbum C, 1803-24), Goya expresa su resentimiento hacia la Inquisición. Allí, muchas de las imágenes están comentadas o tituladas explicando la causa de lo que ocurre: Por haber nacido en otra parte, Por linaje de ebreos, Por mober la lengua en otro modo, Por casarse con quien quiso, etc. señalando la frivolidad con que la Inquisición perseguía a sus víctimas. La visión de Goya con respecto a la Inquisición ya había cambiado. De ser una institución anticuada, que se asienta sobre supersticiones y un pueblo ignorante, una institución específicamente española, pasa a convertirse en un símbolo de la injusticia universal.

A verificar

[editar]

DATUM

[editar]

Mishné Torá = código legal

  • Mishné Torá, 1342. Sefer Ahavah. a skilled non-Jewish artist of Perugia by the name of Matteo di Ser Cambio. Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem, Heb. 4* 1103. 14th century. A page with a decorated title-panel of Sefer Ahavah (Book of Love) from the second book of the Mishneh Torah. Spain and Italy, 14th century. This is one of the most elaborately decorated manuscripts of the Mishneh Torah. In the absence of a colophon, it can be inferred from the script that the manuscript was copied either in Spain or southern France in the first half of the 14th century (in any case, before 1351, when the codex was sold in Avignon). The scribe's name was probably Isaac, since this name is decorated in several places in the text. The manuscript was illuminated in burnished gold and lively wash colors by a skilled non-Jewish artist of Perugia by the name of Matteo di Ser Cambio. Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem, Heb. 4* 1103 [2] - foto y datos JUNL. El libro fue escrito entre 1300 y 1350, luego miniado en Sefarad y hacia 1400 con iluminaciones realizadas por un artista del taller de Mateo Di Ser Cambio proveniente de o en Perugia.
  • Guía de los Perplejos, Barcelona, 1348. Facsimile of a page from Maimonides' great philosophical work Moreh Nevukhim (Guide of the Perplexed) written originally in Arabic and here in the Hebrew translation of Samuel ibn Tibbon (ca. 1160-1230) copied and illuminated in Barcelona, 1348. The seated figure is holding an astrolabe. Royal Library, Copenhagen, Cod. Hebr. XXXVII, fol. 114r [3]
  • Mishné Torá, Lisboa, 1472. Facsimile of the colophon of the Lisbon Mishneh Torah written by the scribe Solomon ibn Alzuk and completed in 1471-72. The British Library, London, Harley Ms. 5699, fol. 434v. [4]
  • Golden Haggadah. "The Golden Haggadah, one of the finest surviving Spanish Hebrew manuscripts, was made near Barcelona in Northern Spain. The Haggadah, which literally means ‘narration’, is the service-book used in Jewish households on Passover Eve to commemorate the Exodus from Egypt. The text is preceded by a series of full-page miniatures depicting scenes mainly from the Book of Exodus. These sumptuous illuminations set against gold-tooled backgrounds earned the manuscript its name and were executed in the northern French Gothic style" BL + "The Golden Haggadah is one of the finest of the surviving Haggadah manuscripts from medieval Spain. The Haggadah, which literally means 'narration', is the Hebrew service-book used in Jewish households on Passover Eve at a festive meal to commemorate the Exodus from Egypt. | It is one of the most frequently decorated Jewish books. The fact that it was intended for use at home with its main aim being to educate the young, provides ample scope for artistic creativity. | The Golden Haggadah was probably made near Barcelona in about 1320. In addition to the Haggadah text itself the manuscript contains liturgical Passover poems according to the Spanish rite. The text is preceded by a series of full-page miniatures depicting scenes mainly from the Book of Exodus. These sumptuous illuminations set against gold-tooled backgrounds earned the manuscript its name and were executed by two artists in the northern French Gothic style. | The 17th-century Italian binding has an elaborate border on each cover. Hebrew is written from right to left, so the Golden Haggadah opens from the right. British Library Add. MS 27210 BL Virtual Bk Images Only

IMAGO

[editar]

Menorah. Illuminated leaf with illustration of the Menorah. IM. Spain, Late 15th century. Since the Temple’s destruction, depictions of its seven-branched candelabrum (Menorah) have served a symbol of the Temple and of redemption. Medieval Hebrew manuscripts contain many portrayals of the Menorah alongside other Tabernacle and Temple vessels. In Spain and Provence, these were especially profuse, and the Bible codex was sometimes called a Mikdashyah (God’s Temple). This single leaf, probably part of a manuscript, shows the Menorah symmetrically flanked by tongs, incense shovels, and the three-stepped stone on which, according to the Mishnah, the priest stood to trim the lamp.

Sefer Mishpatim (enlace escrito desde commons). Facsimile of a page with a decorated title-panel of Sefer Mishpatim (Book of Civil Law) from the 13th book of the Mishneh Torah, northern Italy, 15th century. In the bottom register three men stand before a panel of four seated judges. The top register consists of a jousting scene that is unrelated to the text. Private collection, fol. 298v. [5]

Commons categories

[editar]

Jewish Art

Judaism in art

[Heb Ill Mss

en:Category:Hebrew_manuscripts,_Wellcome_Collection Heb Mss Wellcome Coll.

Heb Ill Mss

Hagadot

Meguilot Ester

Sefarad

Hagadá Kaufmann, Cataluña, S. XIV

Hagadá Rylands, Cataluña, s. XIV. John Rylands University Library, Manchester

Hagadá Dorada, 1320

Hagadá Barcelona, 1350

Hagadá Sarajevo, Barcelona, 1350 - Hagadá de Sarajevo

Biblia de Alba

Asquenaz

Mishné Torá Kaufmann, Fr, 1290

Hagadá Rothschild, It, 1450

en:Category:Hebrew_calligraphy Hebrew callygraphy

[editar]

JVL Illuminated Hebrew Mss.

Burgos 1260 (JNL Damascus Keter)

JTS Treasures Prato Haggadah JTS Prato Haggadah - facsímil Prato Hagadah 2006

David Kaufmann. Mss. miniados hebreos del medioevo . En la Biblioteca de la Academia Húngara de Ciencias. - versión castellana. - folios; Hagadá catalana (MS A 422); A; B; Mishneh Torah fr (MS A 77); artistas; profanidad | Mahzor (MS A 384); zodíaco; ver también: mishné torá fr 1296 (Ms A 77) y Majzor de-sur 1320 (Ms 384)

Yale

McBee jewish art definition sarajevo rylands 1 rylands 2 rylands in context ES synagogues

Heb Mss S Collection Pins Heb Mss Russian Collection Pins Superfine Judaica French Collection Pins Sefarad Pins Haggadah Pins Judaica

BL Virtual Books : Accesible Golden Haggadah - Golden Haggadah - Lisbon Bible - Vesalius

Prato Hagadá

[editar]

JTS Treasures facsimil eds historia expo con datos

JWS MS

[editar]

JWS MSS en JVL

Hungarian Academy of Sciences: Kaufmann Collection

BL: Golden Haggadah Entry

Prior to the 1930`s, most scholars were convinced that ancient Jewry produced no art. As a result, the discovery in 1932 of the biblical wall-paintings decorating the third century synagogue of Dura Europos,Syria stunned the academic world. In these earliest extant examples of Jewish art (antedating comparable Christian art by two centuries) the community expresses its acceptance of pious rabbinic midrashim. Center stage above the Torah ark, a naively drawn Abraham stands firm before the altar, knife raised, his back to the viewer. Dura Europos Synagogue, Akedah (detail), 244 C.E.

he saving ram is tethered behind Abraham awaiting its theological moment. Tiny Isaac is impaled upon a monumental altar (see the Midrash in Targum Yonatan, below). He too looks away from us, as does Sarah (rarely represented in akedah scenes) in the doorway of her tent, the highest and most distant point of the scene. They are all focused on the hand of God, "the Place from afar" at Moriah (v.3), identified in late biblical times as the site of the once and forever restored Temple of Jerusalem. 170 years after its destruction, the Temple and its implements are visually restored at the center and left of this scene, together with the akedah, the symbols of Diaspora hope for national and religious restoration. Dura Europos Synagogue, Akedah

Just three years prior to the discovery of Dura, a stunning mosaic floor of a 6th century synagogue had been uncovered at Kibbutz Bet Alpha., the earliest akedah to be found in Israel. The naive style of the mosaic displays Jewish, pagan and possibly Christian elements. On entering the synagogue, the worshiper first encountered the akedah, a focal narrative of Jewish tradition. The worshiper next saw a zodiac, centered on the sun god Helios and his chariot. Is this a synagogue? It is likely that these pagan symbols were interpreted as representing the ritual calendar of the congregation - but, it is also evidence of a Judaism culturally alive to the imagery of the Greco-Roman Byzantine heritage. Finally, in the third section, closest to the holy ark, the worshiper saw (as in Dura) the doors, menorah and ritual tools of the restoredTemple. Left: Bet Alpha Synagogue, Entire Floor

Above right: detail, Bet Alpha Synagogue, Akedah, 6th century: The playful color patterns and paper-doll character of the figures belie the theological intensity of the akedah scene. The two servants stand at the left, together with the ass (v. 5). At the center point, the ram hangs from a bush, rather than being caught in the thicket, as recounted in the Bible (v. 13). Above, a haloed hand of the angel "calls out": Do not raise [your hand] (v. 11 – 12). On the right, the child Isaac is held aloft between Abraham and the burning altar (v. 10). The artists altered the sequence of the story by placing the ram at center stage. Thus the mosaic seems to focus on God’s compassionate substitution of Isaac by the ram, rather than on Abraham’s extraordinary act of faith. It has been suggested that the hanging ram is based on Christian iconography, connecting Isaac, the ram and Jesus as parallel sacrifices. But just as in the use of the pagan zodiac, the borrowing of this model does not imply a heterodox interpretation, but rather cultural contact.

In 1947, Mordecai Ardon paints the worst scenario. Isaac lies dead at Sarah’s feet, his mother a large, grotesque weeping figure, screams the call of the shofar. Parallel and opposite the fallen Isaac, a fallen ladder of Jewish continuity conveys two dead ends: Jacob’s ladder, that will not be, and the train tracks to Auschwitz. The faceless mother and child echo the universal pieta motif, the mother holding her deceased child, whether in antiquity or in our times. M. Ardon, Sarah, 1947

A traducir e incluir

[editar]

fuente fechada 20.8.2011, 6.7.15

O idioma hebraico (עברית, ivrit) é uma língua semítica pertencente à família das línguas afro-asiáticas, o termo semítico determina que bem como o árabe e o persa, sua orígem é um tanto desconhecida. As primeiras bases da Bíblia, a Torá, que os judeus ortodoxos consideram ter sido escrita na época de Moisés, cerca de 3.300 anos atrás, foi redigida no hebraico chamado de "Hebraico Clássico".

Embora hoje em dia seja uma escrita foneticamente impronunciável, portanto indecifrável, devido à não-existência de vogais no alfabeto hebraico clássico, os judeus têm-na sempre chamado de לשון הקודש, Lashon haKodesh ("A Língua Sagrada") já que muitos acreditam ter sido escolhida para transmitir a mensagem de Deus à humanidade.

Após a primeira destruição de Jerusalém pelos babilônios em 586 a.C., com o retorno dos judeus para a Terra de Israel, o hebraico clássico foi substituído no uso diário pelo aramaico, tornando-se primariamente uma língua regional, tanto usada na liturgia, no estudo do Mishná (parte do Talmude), bem como também no comércio. Sendo que nos dias de Yeshua(Jesus), este idioma clássico ainda era falados sacerdores, levitas, saduceus e os fariseus doutores da lei, mas o povo em geral utilizava o Aramaico como idioma no dia a dia.

Após a destruição de Jerusalém no ano 70 DC, os judeus foram aos poucos expulsos da Terra de Israel, os que ficaram sofreram influencia dos muitos povos que dominaram na região e o Hebraico deixou de ser utilizado como idioma nacional, passando ser utilizado apenas em liturgias religiosas.

O hebraico renasceu como língua falada durante o final do século XIX e começo do século XX como o hebraico moderno, adotando alguns elementos dos idiomas árabe, ladino, iídiche, e outras línguas que acompanharam a Diáspora Judaica como língua falada pela maioria dos habitantes do Estado de Israel, do qual é a língua oficial primária (o árabe também tem status de língua oficial)

1) Hebreo clásico. http://www.cafetorah.com/portal/Hebraico-Biblico-Hebraico-Classico

Hebraico bíblico, também chamado de hebraico clássico, é a forma arcaica da língua hebraica, uma língua semita falada na área conhecida como Canaã, entre o Rio Jordão e o Mar Mediterrâneo. Hebraico bíblico é conhecido por volta do século 10 AC, e persistiu durante todo o período do Segundo Templo (que termina em 70 dC). O Hebraico bíblico tornou-se eventualmente hebraico Mishnaico que foi usado até o segundo século EC.

O Hebraico bíblico é mais bem utilizado na Bíblia Hebraica, a Bíblia é um documento que reflete vários estágios da língua hebraica em sua forma consonantal, bem como um sistema vocálico que foi adicionado mais tarde, na Idade Média. Há também algumas evidências de variação dialética regional, incluindo as diferenças entre o hebraico bíblico falado no Reino do Norte de Israel e no Reino do sul, o Reino de Judá.

Hebraico Bíblico foi escrito com um número de diferentes sistemas de escrita. Segundo os historiadores, os hebreus adotaram a escrita fenícia em torno do século 12 AC, que teria evoluido como a escrita Paleo-Hebraico. Esta foi mantida pelos samaritanos, que usam o manuscrito Samaritano desde então até os dias de hoje. No entanto, o roteiro aramaico gradualmente deslocou o roteiro Paleo-Hebrew para os judeus, e tornou-se a fonte para o alfabeto hebraico moderno. Todas esses escritas faltavam letras para representar todos os sons do hebraico bíblico, ainda que estes sons são refletidos mas trancrições em grego e latim da mesma época. Estes escritas originalmente utilizadas apenas como consoantes, mas certas letras, conhecidas como matrizes de leituras, tornaram-se cada vez mais usadas para marcar as vogais. Na Idade Média, vários sistemas de sinais diacríticos foram desenvolvidos para marcar as vogais em manuscritos hebraicos, dos quais somente o sistema Tiberiano ainda está em ampla utilização.

O Hebraico Bíblico possuía uma série de "enfátizações" nas consoantes cuja articulação precisa é disputada, provavelmente palatais, guturais ou falangiais. O Hebraico Bíblico anteriormente possuía três consoantes que não têm suas próprias formas no sistema de escrita, mas com o tempo eles se fundiu com outras consoantes. As consoantes se desenvolveram em alofones fricativos sob a influência do aramaico, e esses sons se tornaram uma marginal fonêmica. Os fonemas da faringe e da glote sofreu enfraquecimento em alguns dialetos regionais, como refletido na moderna tradição de leitura do Hebraico Samaritano. O sistema de vogal do Hebraico Bíblico mudou drasticamente ao longo do tempo e é refletida de forma diferente nas transcrições do grego antigo e latim, sistemas de vocalização medieval, moderna e as tradições de leitura.

Hebraico Bíblico tinha uma morfologia típica semita, colocando raízes triconsonantal em padrões para formar palavras. Hebraico bíblico distinguia dois gêneros (masculino, feminino), três números (plural, singular e extraordinariamente dual). Verbos foram marcados para voz e expressão, e teve duas conjugações que pode ter indicado aspecto e / ou tenso (a questão de debate). O tempo ou aspecto dos verbos também foi influenciado pela conjugação, na construção VAV chamados consecutivos. Ordem das palavras padrão era verbo-sujeito-objeto, e os verbos flexionados para o número, gênero e pessoa do seu objecto. Sufixos pronominais podem ser anexado aos verbos (para indicar objeto) ou substantivos (para indicar posse), e substantivos tinham formas de construção especial para uso em construções possessivas.

2) Hebreo mishnáico. http://www.cafetorah.com/portal/Hebraico-Mishnaico

O termo Hebraico Mishnaico refere-se à dialetos do hebraico que são encontrados no Talmud, exceto citações da Bíblia hebraica. Os dialetos podem ainda ser sub-dividido em Hebraico Mishnaic (também chamado de Hebraico Tanaitico, Hebraico da Lei Rabínica, ou Hebraico Mishnaico I), que era uma língua falada, e hebraico Amoraico (também chamado Hebraico Rabínico Tardio ou Hebraico Mishnaico II), que foi uma língua somente literária.

A língua hebraica Mishnaica ou o início de idioma hebraico rabínico é um descendente direto do antigo hebraico bíblico como preservado pelos judeus depois do cativeiro babilônico, e definitivamente gravados por sábios judeus, por escrito, os documentos da Mishnah e outros contemporâneos. Não foram utilizados pelos samaritanos, que preservaram seu próprio dialeto, o Hebraico Samaritano.

A forma de transição da língua ocorre em outras obras na literatura Tanaitica datada do início do século, com a conclusão da Mishná. Estes incluem o Midrashim Halachic (Sifra, Sifre, Mechilta etc) e a coleção expandida do material do Mishnah relacionado com o conhecido como o תוספתא Tosefta. O Talmud contém trechos destas obras, bem como material Tanaitico ainda não atestado em outro lugar; o termo genérico para essas passagens é Baraitot. O dialeto de todas essas obras é muito semelhante ao Hebraico Mishnaico.

Este dialeto é surgiu principalmente a partir do 2º ao 4º século DC, correspondente ao Período Romano após a destruição do Templo em Jerusalém e foi representado pela maior parte no Mishnah e na Tosefta dentro do Talmud e pelos Manuscritos do Mar Morto, são considerada também as cartas de Bar Kokhba e o Rolo de Cobre. Também chamado de Hebraico Tanaitico ou Hebraico Rabínico Precoce.

A primeira seção do Talmud é a משנה Mishnah que foi publicado por volta de 200 DC e foi escrito no dialeto Mishnaico anterior. O dialeto também é encontrado em certos trechos dos manuscritos do Mar Morto.

Cerca de um século após a publicação da Mishná, o Hebraico Mishnaico começou a cair em desuso como língua falada. No período posterior do Talmud, a Guemará babilônica גמרא, comentários publicados cerca de 500 DC, geralmente na Mishná e Baraitot em Aramaico. (Uma versão anterior do Gemara foi publicada entre 350-400 AD.) No entanto, o hebraico sobreviveu como língua litúrgica e literária, na forma do hebraico depois como Amoraico, que às vezes pode ser visto no texto da Gemara.

O Hebraico Mishnaic se desenvolveu sob a profunda influência do aramaico falado em todas as esferas da linguagem, incluindo fonologia, morfologia, sintaxe e vocabulário.

Fonética

Muitos dos traços característicos da pronúncia hebraica pode muito bem ter sido encontrado já no período do hebraico bíblico tardio. Uma característica notável que a distingue de hebraico bíblico do período clássico é acentuação pós-vocálica pára (b, g, d, p, t, k), que tem em comum com o aramaico.

Uma característica nova é que a letra M final é muitas vezes substituída por N final na Mishna (ver Bava Kama 1:4, "מועדין"), mas apenas em conotações fonéticas. Talvez a consoante final nasal nestes morfemas não éra pronunciada, e ao invéz disso, a vogal anterior à ela era nasalizadas. Alternativamente, os morfemas podem ter mudado sob a influência do aramaico.

Além disso, alguns manuscritos sobreviventes da Mishná confundem as consoantes guturais, especialmente (א) (uma parada glotal) e 'ayin (ע) (a fricativa faríngea, gutural). Que poderia ser um sinal de que eles foram pronunciados da mesma forma no Hebraico Mishnaico. Bem como nos dias de hoje são pouco difenciados no Hebraico Moderno.

3) Hebreo medieval. http://www.cafetorah.com/portal/Hebraico-Medieval

O Hebraico Medieval tem muitas características que o distinguem das formas mais antigas do hebraico. A Gramática, sintaxe, estrutura de sentença, e também incluem uma grande variedade de novos itens lexicais, que são geralmente baseados em formas mais antigas.

Na idade de Ouro da Cultura Judaica na Espanha um importante trabalho foi feito por gramáticos para explicar a gramática e o vocabulário do hebraico bíblico, muito disso foi baseado no trabalho dos gramáticos de árabe clássico. Gramáticos hebreus importantes foram Judah ben David Hayyuj e Jonas ibn Janah. Uma grande parte da poesia foi escrita, por poetas como Dunash Ben Labrat, Solomon ibn Gabirol, Judah ha-Levi, haKohen David e os dois Ezras Ibn, em uma "purificação" em hebraico com base no trabalho desses gramáticos, e em árabe metros quantitativos (ver piyyut). Este hebraico literário foi usado mais tarde pelo poetas italianos judeus.

A necessidade de expressar conceitos científicos e filosóficos de grego clássico e o Hebraico Medieval motivado pelo Árabe Medieval influenciou a terminologia e a gramática a partir desses outros idiomas, ou a termos de moeda equivalente a partir de raízes existentes no hebraico, dando origem a um estilo distinto do hebraico filosófico. Muitos paralelos diretos em árabe medieval. A família Tibbon Ibn e, especialmente, Samuel ben Judah ibn Tibbon foram pessoalmente responsáveis pela criação de grande parte desta forma de hebraico, que empregaram em suas traduções de materiais científicos do árabe. Naquele tempo, a original judaica de obras filosóficas eram geralmente escritas em árabe, mas como o passar do tempo, esta forma de hebraico era usada para muitas composições originais também.

Outra influência importante foi Maimonides, que desenvolveu um estilo simples, baseado no Hebraico Mishnaico para usar em seu código de leis, o Mishneh Torá. Literatura rabínica posterior que foi escrita em uma mistura entre este estilo e o hebraico rabínico Aramaizado do Talmud.

No final do século XII e início do século XIII o centro cultural de Judeus no Mediterrâneo foi transferido de um contexto islâmico para terras cristãs. O hebraico escrito usado no Norte da Espanha, Provença (um termo para todo o sul da França) e da Itália era cada vez mais influenciado pela América, particularmente nos escritos filosóficos, e também por diferentes vernáculos (provençal, italiano, etc.) Na Itália, testemunhamos o surgimento de um novo gênero, léxicos filosóficos Italiano-Hebraico. O italiano desses léxicos era geralmente escrito em caracteres hebraicos e são uma fonte útil para o conhecimento da filosofia escolástica entre os judeus. Um dos primeiros léxicos que foi por Moisés b. Shlomo de Salerno, que morreu no final do século XIII. Ele foi feito para esclarecer os termos que aparecem em seu comentário sobre o Guia dos Perplexos de Maimônides. O glossário de Moisés de Salerno foi editado por Giuseppe Sermoneta em 1969. Há também glossários associados aos sábios judeus que fizeram amizade com Pico della Mirandola. Moisés de Salerno também fez um comentário sobre o Guia também contém traduções italianas de termos técnicos, o que traz sistema islâmico de influência do Guia filosófico em confronto com a escolástica do século XIII italiano.

O Hebraico também foi usado como língua de comunicação entre os judeus de diferentes países, particularmente para o propósito do comércio internacional.

Mencionam-se ainda cartas preservadas no geniza Cairo, que mostram que o hebraico e o árabe influenciaram os judeus do Egito medieval. Os termos árabes e sintaxe que aparecem nas cartas constituem uma importante fonte para a documentação da língua falada em árabe medieval, desde que os judeus em terras islâmicas tendem a usar o árabe coloquial, por escrito, em vez de árabe clássico, que é o árabe que aparece em medievais.

Trabajados

[editar]

En curso

[editar]

Trabajados eventualmente

[editar]
  • Abraham
  • Arte sefardí
  • Biblia de Alba
  • Capricho (arte)
  • Cautiverio de Babilonia 586-537 aEC
  • Crónicas de Núremberg
  • Cúpula de la Roca
  • Doce Tribus de Israel
  • Dybbuk
  • Efraím
  • Gótico español
  • Hartmann Schedel
  • Israelita
  • Jehú
  • José (patriarca)
  • Judaísmo y cristianismo
  • Leví (patriarca)
  • Macabeos
  • Manasés (hijo de José)
  • Mevaseret Sion
  • Modernismo (arte)
  • Obelisco Negro
  • Oseas
  • Palmaj
  • Sinagoga
  • Tabernáculo
  • Tierra Prometida
  • Tribu de Efraín
  • Tribu de Leví
  • Tribu de Manasés
  • Pogromo de Kishinev

Aún sin trabajar

[editar]
  • Agam - Yaacob Agam
  • Arca de la Alianza
  • Biblia hebrea
  • Chagall - Marc Chagall
  • Diáspora sefardí
  • Diez Mandamientos
  • Divisiones étnicas judías
  • Dura Europos
  • Estela de Mesha (inscripciones paleohebreas), siglo IX aEC
  • Gueto
  • Hagadá
  • Hebreo - Idioma hebreo
  • Hilel
  • Historia de los judíos en España
  • Historia de los judíos en la Tierra de Israel
  • Historia del Antiguo Israel
  • Reino de Israel
  • Reino de Judá — 930-587 aEC
  • Holocausto
  • Homaranismo - Hilelismo
  • Israëls - Jozef Israëls
  • Mendelsohn - Erich Mendelsohn
  • Museo de Arte y de Historia del Judaísmo, París
  • Oppenheim - Moritz Daniel Oppenheim
  • Pueblo judío
  • Sion
  • Solución final
  • Sucot
  • Talmud
  • Tanaj
  • Teoría del reemplazo
  • Tierra Santa
  • Tribus de Israel
  • Zona de Asentamiento

A ser creados

[editar]

Compilación material a ser incluido en entradas diversas

[editar]

Recursos a ser incorporados

Material a traducir y explorar su imaginería:

  • Washington, D.C., Library of Congress, Arthur Szyk: Artist for Freedom, diciembre de 1999-mayo de 2000; accedido 22 de junio de 2014. Arthur Szyk (1894 - 1951) was one America's leading political artists during World War II, when he produced hundreds of anti-Axis illustrations and cartoons in aid of the Allied war effort. Throughout his career he created art in the service of human rights and civil liberties -- in his native Poland, in Paris where he was trained during the 1920s, and in America, the country he adopted in 1940. Settling in the United States, Szyk announced, "At last, I have found the home I have always searched for. Here I can speak of what my soul feels. There is no other place on earth that gives one the freedom, liberty and justice that America does." / Born of Jewish parents in Lodz, Poland, Szyk acquired his early art training in Paris and Cracow. Between 1919 and 1920, during Poland's war against the Soviet Bolsheviks, he served as artistic director of the Department of Propaganda for the Polish army regiment quartered in Lodz. In 1921, he moved to Paris where he lived and worked for ten years. In 1934, Szyk traveled to the United States for exhibitions of his work, including one at the Library of Congress where a series of thirty-eight miniatures commemorating George Washington and the Revolutionary period were shown. In late 1940, after a period of residence in England, he immigrated to the United States. / In America, Arthur Szyk embraced the patriotic and democratic spirit of his adopted country. His work entitled The United States of America, includes portrayals of an African American and Native American, representing the diversity of American society, as well as familiar imagery -- Hoover Dam, the Manhattan skyline, the Golden Gate Bridge, and the Pony Express. His anti-Axis cartoons appeared frequently in such popular magazines as Collier's and in two published compilations, The New Order (1941) and Ink & Blood (1946). He also illustrated numerous works, including a richly rendered, magnificently printed Haggadah (1940), reflecting his passion for his own Jewish heritage and concern for the Jewish people in the face of Nazi hostility.
  • Washington, D.C., Library of Congress, Scrolls from the Dead Sea: The Ancient Library of Qumram and Modern Scholarship, abril-agosto de 1993; accedido 22 de junio de 2014. The exhibition Scrolls From the Dead Sea: The Ancient Library of Qumran and Modern Scholarship brings before the American people a selection from the scrolls which have been the subject of intense public interest. Over the years questions have been raised about the scrolls' authenticity, about the people who hid them away during the period in which they lived, about the secrets the scrolls might reveal, and about the intentions of the scrolls' custodians in restricting access. The Library's exhibition describes the historical context of the scrolls and the Qumran community from whence they may have originated; it also relates the story of their discovery 2,000 years later. In addition, the exhibition encourages a better understanding of the challenges and complexities connected with scroll research.

Ilustraciones temas varios

[editar]

Arca de la Alianza Augusta Victoria

Symbols on Jewish gravestones

  • Star of David : The six-pointed Star of David, a symbol of Judaism, is frequently found on Jewish tombstones.
  • Cohanim Hands – Priestly Blessing : Two hands with outspread fingers indicated that the dead man was descended from priestly stock (Kohanim) who blessed the people in this fashion
  • Ewer : Levite pitcher (and bowl)
  • the shofar (ram's horn) indicating that the deceased was a blower of the shofar
  • deer : people whose name is Zvi, Hirsch or Naftali (deer representing the tribe of Naphtali)
  • lion : people whose name is Aryeh, Judah, Leib or Loew (lion representing the tribe of judah)
  • bear : people whose name is Dov and Ber.
  • wolf : representing the Tribe of Benjamin
  • books : an open book indicates the presence of a rabbi, an officiating minister, or just a scholar
  • bookshelves : groups of books, sometimes arranged in an open bookcase, or on shelves.
  • fish : zodiac sign for the month of Adar
  • menorah : one of the oldest symbols of Judaism
  • candles : one of the most accepted symbols of the woman. The candle was lit by the Jewish woman. Most of the candlesticks have three branches but there are ones with two, five and more. A broken candle on a gravestone symbolizes an early death, at a young age.
  • crown . כתר שם טוב "crown of a good name" (based on Mishna in Avos 4:17)
  • tree : A broken tree or branch is a sign that the deceased was young at the time of death
  • bird : appears on the gravestones of many women
  • grapes : cluster of grapes is an emblem of Israel,

Biblia por Tissot

[editar]

Biblia por Tissot addendum

Compilados

[editar]

Referencia bíblica

[editar]

Filatelia

[editar]

Mapas

[editar]

Ayuda

[editar]

Destructividad dolosa y persistente

[editar]
Asunto
  • Vandalismo insistente y doloso de REGISTRO , [https: ... aquí], FECHA. - Solicito su exclusión de Wikipedia por destructividad intencional y persistente. Justificación: al focalizar en la investigación y desarrollo de cada artículo invertimos tiempo y dedicación en nuestro quehacer; ese ha debe ser nuestro trabajo y no perder el tiempo con gente que se dedica a destruir Wikipedia - Para sentar precedente, en caso de no haberlo, o bien para reafirmar nuestras políticas, la respuesta de los bibliotecarios wikipedísticos debe ser inequívoca, severa y contundente, caso contrario perderemos nuestras vidas SOLO revirtiendo los caprichos de anónimos malintencionados. No estaría por otra parte de más el que sólo los usuarios registrados podamos editar: por el momento libramos una batalla contra "fantasmas". Agradezco y envío mis saludos cordiales para todo el Equipo Wikipedístico,
Usuario que lo solicita
Respuesta

(a rellenar por un bibliotecario)

Cronología

[editar]

Abraham
2000.[3][4]
1850.[5]

Patriarcas
2000-1500.[4]

Éxodo, seguido de la revelación de la Torá en Sinaí
1300.[4]
siglo XIII.[3]
1250.[5]

David, rey de Israel, conquista Jerusalén y la hace capital de su reino.
1010-970.[5]
1005-965.[4]

"Canción del Mar", poema bíblico proclama a YHVH como dios supremo sobre todos los demás
1000.[4]

Reinado de Salomón; construcción del Primer Templo de Jerusalén.
970-931.[5]

Separación de los reinos: Judá e Israel
931.[5]

Salmanazar V toma Samaria
722.[5]

Rey Josías de Judá prohibe el culto a cualquier otro diose que no sea YHVH
622.[4]

Nabucodonosor toma Jerusalén; destrucción del Templo y deportación de los habitantes a Babilonia
587-586.[5]
586.[3][4]

Libro de Isaías escrito en Babilonia y el reino de Judá
540.[4]

Edicto de Ciro II de Persia autoriza el regreso de los exiliados; reconstrucción de Jerusalén y su Templo
538.[5][3]

Segundo Templo de Jerusalén
516.[3]

400 Alejandro Magno conquista Judea
[5]

Judea bajo dominio de los Lagidos de Egipto
285-200.[5]

Dominio de la dinastía seleucida del reino de Siria
200-167.[5]

Revuelta de los Macabeos
siglo II a.E.C.[3]
167-142.[5]

Manuscritos del Mar Muerto
150 a.E.C - 68 E.C.[4]

Reino de la dinastía hasmonea
142-37.[5]

Pompeyo entra en Jerusalén; control romano sobre Judea
63.[5][3]

Herodes proclamado "rey de Judea" por el senado romano
40.[5]

Herodes el Grande entra en función, estabiliza la situación política y remodela el Segundo Templo de Jerusalén
37-4.[5][3]

Filón de Alejandría describe al Dios de la Biblia en términos filosóficos griegos, pero sin atributos aristotélicos
30 a.E.C - 50 E.C.[4]

Dinastía herodiana

4-41.[5]

Procuradores romanos dirigen Judea
44-66.[5]

Guerra judía; Roma envía al general Vespaciano para combatir a los judíos
66-70.[5]

Tito toma Jerusalén e incendia el Templo
70.[5][3]

Rebeliones contra el imperio romano
70-135.[4]

Toma de Masada
73.[5]

Revuelta de Bar Kojba
132-135.[5]

Comienza la redacción del Talmud
170.[3]

Compilación de la Mishná - versión escrita de la ley oral judaica
200.[5][4]

Cristianismo pasa a ser religión oficial del Imperio Romano
392.[3]

Culminación del Talmud de Babilonia - incluye la Mishná y la Guemará (serie de comentarios sobre la Mishná)
425.[4]
500.[5]

Rabí Shimon bar Yojai compila el Zohar, obra clave de la cábala o misticismo judaico
1250.[4]

Bibliografía

[editar]
  • Sed-Rajna, Gabrielle. Abecedaire du Judaïsme, París: Flammarion, 2000.
  • Wilkinson, Philip. Religiões (Religions, 2008), Río de Janeiro: Zahar, 2011.
  • Jones, Gareth, y Georgina Palffy, eds., O livro das religiões (The Religions Book), San Pablo: Globo, 2013.

Referencias

[editar]
  1. Another remarkable trait of this manuscript is that it contains many profane illustrations in the margin – in one instance the illustration is even obscene – which bear no relation whatsoever to the text. This cannot be regarded a unique feature of manuscripts produced in the middle of the 13th century: their emergence was closely connected to the spread of Dominican and Franciscan preaching at the time with parables and exempla using motifs from animal fables, bestiaries and – sometimes even becoming completely independent of the text itself. The widespread use of anecdotes in sermons was meant to rekindle flagging interest in theological dogma among believers, and the margin illustrations in manuscripts are to a considerable extent visual manifestations of themes popularized through fabliaux and exempla. Gabrielle Sed-Rajna has shown that most of “the marginal figures have been transferred to this manuscript from a model book used also for several contemporary Latin manuscripts from the same area, executed for the local aristocratic family Bar” – an example of close professional relationship between craftsmen of the Jewish and Christian communities. The popularity of representations of this kind in Christian art in general is attested, for instance, by the fiery diatribe of Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) against non-religious monastic ornamentation. It may be remarked that margin illustrations – including obscene representations – abound in Christian liturgical books while they are rare in secular ones, a strange phenomenon, which Randall is inclined to attribute to an attempt at “provocation by contrast.” Not infrequently it is difficult to decipher the exact symbolic meaning of a given illustration; sometimes this is hardly any longer possible in view of the frequent occurrence of more or less abstruse references to contemporary persons and ideas. There can be no doubt, however, that these margin illustrations were often simply the figments of the artists' imaginations, “diversions which relieved the tedium of daily life.” Thus for instance at the bottom of folio 46 of volume I of our manuscript, the frontispiece of the Book of Adoration, we can see a scene “from the Roman de Renard: the fox, having stolen a goose (or here a cock), is pursued by a woman brandishing a spindle.” In connection with the obscene scene in the upper margin – a man shooting an arrow at the nude hindquarters of a man bending forward – one cannot help but imagine the illuminator who, tired of his monotonous work, suddenly conceives a prank just like an adolescent, in the same way as his modern-day successor, the composer of entries in an encyclopaedia, tired of carding, inserts an entry on a non-existent painter into the serious work of reference, or the lexicographer suddenly gives vent to the accumulated tension of monotony in one of his entries - [1].
  2. Jewish Art, ed. Cecil Roth, Tel Aviv: Massadah Press, 1961, cols. 203-204: "Joshua".
  3. a b c d e f g h i j k Philip Wilkinson, Religiões (2008), Río de Janeiro: Zahar, 2011, pp. 61-83.
  4. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n O livro das religiões (The Religions Book), ed. Gareth Jones y Georgina Palffy, San Pablo: Globo, 2013, pp. 164-199.
  5. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n ñ o p q r s t u v w Gabrielle Sed-Rajna, Abecedaire du Judaïsme, París: Flammarion, 2000, pp. 116-117.

YIVO

Golden Haggadah DATA

[editar]

Golden Haggadah, Northern Spain, probably Barcelona, c.1320 British Library Add. MS. 27210

Golden Haggadah The extravagant use of gold-leaf in the backgrounds of its 56 miniature paintings earned this magnificent manuscript its name: the 'Golden Haggadah'. It was made around 1320, in or near Barcelona, for the use of a wealthy Jewish family. The holy text is written on vellum pages in Hebrew script, reading from right to left. Its stunning miniatures illustrate stories from the biblical books of 'Genesis' and 'Exodus' and scenes of Jewish ritual.

What does this page show? Anticlockwise from top right: Adam naming the animals, the Creation of Adam and Eve, the Temptation, Cain and Abel offering a sacrifice, Cain slaying Abel, and lastly Noah, his wife and sons coming out of the ark. God's image is forbidden in Jewish religious contexts, and is totally absent in all the miniatures here. Instead, angels are seen intervening at critical moments.

What is a haggadah? A haggadah is a collection of Jewish prayers and readings written to accompany the Passover 'seder', a ritual meal eaten on the eve of the Passover festival. The ritual meal was formalised during the 2nd century, after the example of the Greek 'symposium', in which philosophical debate was fortified by food and wine. The literal meaning of the Hebrew word 'haggadah' is a 'narration' or 'telling'. It refers to a command in the biblical book of 'Exodus', requiring Jews to "tell your son on that day: it is because of that which the Lord did for me when I came forth out of Egypt". Perhaps because it was mainly intended for use at home, and its purpose was educational, Jewish scribes and artists felt completely free to illustrate the Haggadah. Indeed it was traditionally the most lavishly decorated of all Jewish sacred writings, giving well-to-do Jews of the middle ages a chance to demonstrate their wealth and good taste as well as their piety. The man for whom the 'Golden Haggadah' was made must have been rich indeed.

What is Passover? Passover commemorates one of the most important events in the story of the Jewish people. Like Christianity and Islam, Judaism traces its origins back to Abraham. He was leader of the Israelites, a group of nomadic tribes in the Middle East some 4,000 years ago. Abraham established a religion that distinguished itself from other local beliefs by having only one, all-powerful God. According to a Covenant made between them, the Jews would keep God's laws, and in return they would be protected as chosen people. The Israelites were captured and taken as slaves to Egypt, where they suffered much hardship. Eventually, a prophet called Moses delivered the Jews from their captivity with the help of several miraculous events intended to intimidate the Egyptian authorities. The last of these was the sudden death of the eldest son in every family. Jewish households were spared by smearing lambs' blood above their doors - a sign telling the 'angel of death' to pass over.

Why was a Jewish manuscript made in Spain? The wandering tribes of Israel finally settled in the 'promised land' after their delivery from captivity in Egypt. But the twin kingdoms of Israel and Judah were to fall to the Assyrians and Babylonians. Then, in 63 BC, the region came under the governance of the Roman Empire. In 70 AD, the Roman army destroyed the Second Jewish Temple and sacked Jerusalem; in 135 AD they crushed a Judaean uprising. As a result of this many Jews went into exile. Some migrated across north Africa to Spain. For many centuries, these 'Sephardic' Jews lived peacefully and productively under both Christian and Islamic rulers. The Jewish community in Barcelona had been established since Roman times and was one of the most affluent in Spain by the time the 'Golden Haggadah' was produced. Jews acted as advisers, physicians and financiers to the Counts of Barcelona, who provided economic and social protection. They grew attuned to the tastes of the court and began commissioning manuscripts decorated in Christian style. Though the scribe who wrote its Hebrew text would have been a Jew, the illuminators of the 'Golden Haggadah' are likely to have been Christian artists, instructed in details of Judaic symbolism by the scribe or patron.

Who made the Golden Haggadah? The illumination of the manuscript - its paintings and decoration - was carried out by two artists. Though their names are unknown, the similarity of their styles implies they both worked in the same studio in the Barcelona region. The gothic style of northern French painting was a strong influence on Spanish illuminators, and these two were no exceptions. There is also Italian influence to be seen in the rendering of the background architecture. Differences between the two artists may be attributed to their individual talents and training. The painter of the scenes shown here tends towards stocky figures with rather exaggerated facial expressions. The second artist has a greater sense of refinement and achieves a better sense of space.

How did the 'Golden Haggadah' come to the British Library? Islamic rule in Spain came to an end in 1492, when King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella (the Catholic Monarchs) defeated the Muslim army at Granada and restored the whole of Spain to Christianity. Months later the entire Jewish population was expelled. The manuscript found its way to Italy and passed through various hands, serving as a wedding present at one stage. In 1865, the British Library (then the British Museum Library) bought it as part of the collection of Hebrew poet and bibliophile Giuseppe (or Joseph) Almanzi.

BL

Arte y escritura hebrea

[editar]

− −

Estudio y traducción del idioma hebreo, diccionarios y concordancias

[editar]

− −

Ejemplos de textos e inscripciones hebreas

[editar]

  1. Éxodo 28; Encyclopedia Judaica, Nueva York, 1905-6.
  2. En este manuscrito preservado en el Museo de Israel en Jerusalén, las figuras con cabeza de ave también bendicen el vino, se lavan las manos antes de comer vegetales y recitan poemas litúrgicos llamados en hebreo paytanim (Elie Kedourie, Le monde du judaïsme, Londres y París: Thames & Hudson, 2003, pp. 117-118, 259). Para una posible interpretación de la relación entre texto e imagen en este manuscrito, véase Marc Michael Epstein, The Medieval Haggadah: Art, Narrative & Religious Imagination, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2011; y Richard McBee, "Bird’s Head Haggadah Revealed", The Jewish Press, 29 de marzo de 2012 (consultado 21 de noviembre de 2014).
  3. Manuscrito hebreo-catalán presevado y exhibido en la British Library de Londres (BL Add MS 14761).
  4. The Kennicott Bible
  5. Together Again: A Renaissance Mishneh Torah from the Vatican Library and The Israel Museum, Museo de Israel, mayo-septiembre de 2015.
  6. Preservada en el Jewish Museum de Nueva York.
  7. Acerca de la ketubá (כְּתוּבָּה; pl. ketubot), véase Art of the Ketubah: Decorated Jewish Marriage Contracts ranging from the 17th to the 20th Centuries, Yale University, Beinecke Rare Books & Manuscript Library, 2009 (accedido diciembre de 2013).
  8. Acerca del contexto histórico de este período véase Wachtel, The Jews in the Age Of Mercantilism, Sotheby's, 3 de abril de 2013.
  9. El triángulo empleado por Goya tiene connotaciones tanto judías como cristianas, sugiriendo el componente divino de la Estrella de David así como también la noción de Santísima Trinidad,
  10. La estampa es así titulada a partir de la inscripción en idioma hebreo que figura en la misma.
  11. Imagen publicada en Ost und West, Berlín, enero de 1902, 17-18.
  12. Natalie Zemon Davis, Trickster Travels: A Sixteenth-Century Muslim Between Worlds, Hill and Wang, 2006, pp.180-181.
  13. Exhibido en Beth Hatefutsoth en 2011.
  14. La inscripción hebrea figura en el dintel superior, es soportada por otras dos en latín (cada una de estas últimas figura en un edículo).
  15. Conocido como el "Bodleian Bowl", perteneció al rabino Yechiel de París (Jewish Encyclopedia, 1901-6).
  16. Original preservado en el Museo de Israel, Jerusalén.
  17. La imagen muestra la réplica exhibida en Beth Hatefutsoth en 2011.
  18. Original preservado en el Jewish Theological Seminary of America, Nueva York.
  19. David Wachtel, "The Jews of Eastern Europe", Sotheby's, 3 de abril de 2013 (accedido 11 de noviembre de 2013).
  20. Original preservado en la colección Gross, Tel Aviv (Megillat Esther, consultado 12 de febrero de 2015).