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==語源==
[[File:SLNSW 479519 16 Observatory SH 198.jpg|thumb|1873年的澳大利亞新南威爾士天文台]]
[[File:Quito Observatory.JPG|thumb|19世紀時位於[[厄瓜多]][[基多]]的[[基多天文台]],位置在[[赤道]]以南12角分處<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oaq.epn.edu.ec/ |title=Inicio |publisher=[[Quito Astronomical Observatory]] |language=es |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328112459/https://oaq.epn.edu.ec/ |archive-date=28 March 2018-03-28}}</ref>]]
漢語中「天文」一詞最早出現於《[[十翼|易傳]]》。《易經·賁卦·彖辭》:「剛柔交錯,天文也;文明以止,人文也。觀乎天文,以察時變;觀乎人文,以化成天下。」「文」是指一切現象或形相,「天文」就是指自然現象。<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|year=1983年|title=文化|encyclopedia=《中華百科全書》|edition=典藏版|publisher=|url=http://ap6.pccu.edu.tw/Encyclopedia/data.asp?id=8969|access-date=2020-07-29|archive-date=2020-11-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201118130704/http://ap6.pccu.edu.tw/Encyclopedia/data.asp?id=8969|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{wikisource-inline|周易/賁|易經·賁卦·彖辭}}</ref>
 
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=== 「天文學」和「天體物理學」術語的使用 ===
「天文學」和「天體物理學」是同義詞<ref name="scharrinhausen">{{cite web|url=http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=30|title=Curious About Astronomy: What is the difference between astronomy and astrophysics?|last=Scharringhausen|first=B.|access-date=17 November 2016-11-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609102139/http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=30|archive-date=9 June 2007-06-09 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="odenwald">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronomycafe.net/qadir/q449.html|title=Archive of Astronomy Questions and Answers: What is the difference between astronomy and astrophysics?|last=Odenwald|first=Sten|website=astronomycafe.net|publisher=The Astronomy Cafe|access-date=20 June 2007-06-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708092148/http://www.astronomycafe.net/qadir/q449.html|archive-date=8 July 2007-07-08 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="pennstateerie">{{cite web
|title=Penn State Erie-School of Science-Astronomy and Astrophysics
|url=http://www.erie.psu.edu/academic/science/degrees/astronomy/astrophysics.htm
|access-date=20 June 2007-06-20
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071101100832/http://www.erie.psu.edu/academic/science/degrees/astronomy/astrophysics.htm
|archive-date=1 November 2007-11-01
}}</ref>。根據嚴格的詞典定義,「天文學」是指「對地球大氣層外的物體和物質及其物理和化學性質的研究」<ref name="mw-astronomy">{{cite web
|title=Merriam-Webster Online
|work=Results for "astronomy"
|url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/astronomy
|access-date=20 June 2007-06-20| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070617131203/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/astronomy| archive-date= 17 June 2007-06-17 | url-status= live}}</ref>,而"天體物理學"指的是天文學中處理"天體和現象的行為、物理性質和動力學過程"的分支<ref name="mw-astrophysics">{{cite web
|title=Merriam-Webster Online
|work=Results for "astrophysics"
|url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/astrophysics
|access-date=20 June 2007-06-20
|archive-date=21 September 2012-09-21
|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120921/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/astrophysics
|url-status=live
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在望遠鏡等工具發明之前,早期對恒星的研究是用肉眼進行的。隨著文明的發展,最顯著的是[[巴比倫天文學|美索不達米亞]]、[[希臘天文學|希臘]]、{{link-en|波斯天文學|Persian astronomy}}、[[印度天文學]]、[[中國天文學]]、{{link-en|埃及天文學|Egyptian astronomy}}和[[瑪雅文明|中美洲]],天文觀測站被建立起來,關於宇宙性質的想法開始發展。大多數早期天文學包括繪製恒星和行星的位置圖,這門科學現在被稱為[[天體測量學]]。經由這些觀測,形成了關於行星運動的早期想法,並從哲學上探討了太陽、月亮和地球在宇宙中的性質。當時,地球被認為是宇宙的中心,太陽、月亮和恒星圍繞地球旋轉。這被稱為宇宙的[[地心說|地心模型]],或以[[托勒密]]為名的[[天動說|托勒密體系]]<ref>{{cite book|last=DeWitt|first=Richard|title=Worldviews: An Introduction to the History and Philosophy of Science|url=https://archive.org/details/worldviewsintrod0000dewi|date=2010|publisher=Wiley|location=Chichester, England|isbn=978-1-4051-9563-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/worldviewsintrod0000dewi/page/113 113]|chapter=The Ptolemaic System}}</ref>。
 
[[File:Suryaprajnapati Sutra.jpg|thumb|,西元前6世紀倫敦(肖恩)收藏西元前6世紀的[[耆那教]]天文學文本,蘇里亞普拉伊納普蒂斯特拉(Suryaprajnaptisūtra )。上圖:{{circa|1500}}年的手稿<ref>[http://www.schoyencollection.com/23-religions/living-religions/23-17-jainism/astronomy/ms-5297 SuryaprajnaptiSūtra] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170615024618/http://www.schoyencollection.com/23-religions/living-religions/23-17-jainism/astronomy/ms-5297 |date=15 June 2017-06-15 }}, The Schoyen Collection, London/Oslo</ref>]]
 
早期,一個特別重要的發展是數學和科學天文學的開始,它始於[[巴比倫天文學|巴比倫人]],為後來在許多其它文明中發展起來的天文傳統奠定了基礎<ref>{{cite journal|title=Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity|author=Aaboe, A. |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]|volume=276|issue=1257|date=1974|pages=21–42|jstor=74272|doi=10.1098/rsta.1974.0007|bibcode = 1974RSPTA.276...21A |s2cid=122508567 }}</ref>。[[巴比倫天文學|巴比倫人]]發現[[月食]]在一個稱為[[沙羅週期|沙羅]]的重複週期中反覆重現<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEsaros/SEsaros.html |title=Eclipses and the Saros |publisher=NASA |access-date=28 October 2007-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030225501/http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEsaros/SEsaros.html |archive-date=30 October 2007-10-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref>。
 
[[File:AiKhanoumSunDial.jpg|thumb|希臘的赤道[[日晷]]。在西元前2-3世紀的{{link-en|奧克斯的亞歷山大|Ai-Khanoum}},是今天的阿富汗]]
 
繼巴比倫人之後,[[古希臘]]和[[希臘文明|希臘化]]世界在天文學方面取得了重大進展。[[希臘天文學]]的特點是從一開始就尋求對天體現象的理性和物理解釋<ref>{{Cite book| last = Krafft| first = Fritz| date = 2009| contribution = Astronomy| editor-last = Cancik| editor-first = Hubert| editor2-last = Schneider| editor2-first = Helmuth| title = Brill's New Pauly| title-link = Brill's New Pauly}}</ref>。西元前3世紀,[[阿里斯塔克斯]]估計了{{link-en|月亮和太陽的大小和距離|On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus)}},他提出了地球和行星圍繞太陽旋轉的[[太陽系]]模型,現在稱為[[日心說]]模型<ref>{{cite journal | title = Aristarchus's On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and the Moon: Greek and Arabic Texts | journal = Archive for History of Exact Sciences | date = May 2007-05 | first1 = J.L. | last1 = Berrgren |first2= Nathan |last2= Sidoli | volume = 61 | issue = 3 | pages = 213–54 | doi = 10.1007/s00407-006-0118-4| s2cid = 121872685 }}</ref>。在西元前2世紀,[[喜帕恰斯]]發現了[[歲差]],計算了月球的大小和距離,並發明了已知最早的天文設備,如[[星盤]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Hipparchus.html|title=Hipparchus of Rhodes|publisher=School of Mathematics and Statistics, [[University of St Andrews]], Scotland|access-date=28 October 2007-10-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071023062202/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Hipparchus.html|archive-date=23 October 2007-10-23 |url-status=live}}</ref>。喜帕恰斯還創建了一個包含1,020顆恒星的綜合目錄,北半球的大部分[[星座]]都來自希臘天文學<ref>{{cite book|last=Thurston|first=H.|title=Early Astronomy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rNpHjqxQQ9oC&pg=PA2|year=1996|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-94822-5|page=2|access-date=2015-06-20 June 2015|archive-date=3 February 2021-02-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203012120/https://books.google.com/books?id=rNpHjqxQQ9oC&pg=PA2|url-status=live}}</ref>。[[安提基特拉機械]](約西元前150-80年)是早期的[[類比計算機]],設計用於計算給定日期的[[太陽]]、[[月亮]]和[[行星]]的位置。複雜性類似的科技人工製品直到14世紀才重新出現,當時在歐洲出現了機械的[[天文鐘]]<ref name=insearchoflosttime>{{cite journal|last1=Marchant|first1=Jo|title=In search of lost time|journal=Nature|volume=444|issue=7119|pages=534–38|date=2006|pmid=17136067|doi=10.1038/444534a|bibcode = 2006Natur.444..534M |doi-access=free}}</ref>。
 
=== 中世紀 ===
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與此同時,[[中古伊斯蘭天文學|天文學在伊斯蘭世界]]以及世界其他地區蓬勃發展。這導致9世紀初[[穆斯林世界]]出現了第一個[[天文台|觀測站]]<ref name="Kennedy-1962">{{Cite journal |last=Kennedy |first=Edward S. |date=1962 |title=Review: ''The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory'' by Aydin Sayili |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=237–39 |doi=10.1086/349558 }}</ref><ref name="Micheau-992-3">{{Cite journal|last=Micheau|first=Françoise|editor-last=Rashed|editor-first=Roshdi|editor2-last=Morelon|editor2-first=Régis|title=The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East|journal=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science|volume=3|pages=992–93}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nas |first=Peter J|title=Urban Symbolism|date=1993 |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-09855-8|page=350}}</ref>。964年,波斯穆斯林天文學家[[阿卜杜勒-拉赫曼·蘇菲]]在他的"[[恒星之書]]"中描述了[[仙女座星系]],這是[[本星系群]]中最大的[[星系]]<ref name="NSOG">{{cite book |last1= Kepple |first1= George Robert |first2=Glen W. |last2=Sanner |title= The Night Sky Observer's Guide |volume= 1 |publisher= Willmann-Bell, Inc. |date= 1998 |isbn= 978-0-943396-58-3 |page=18}}</ref>。由埃及阿拉伯天文學家{{link-en|Ali ibn Ridwan}}和[[中國天文學|中國天文學家]]於1006年觀測到的[[超新星]][[SN 1006]],是有記錄以來[[視星等]]最明亮的恒星事件。一些對科學做出重大貢獻的著名伊斯蘭{{notetag|主要是波斯和阿拉伯}}天文學家包括[[巴塔尼]]、[[塔比·伊本·庫拉]]、[[阿卜杜勒-拉赫曼·蘇菲]]、[[比魯尼]]、{{link-en|AbūIshāq Ibrāh h Al-Zarqīl}}、{{link-en|Al-Birjandi}}、以及[[馬拉蓋天文台]]和{{link-en|撒馬爾罕天文台|Ulugh Beg Observatory }}。在那段時間裡,西方天文學家引入了許多{{link-en|阿拉伯的恆星名稱|List of Arabic star names}}<ref name="short history">{{cite book|first=Arthur|last=Berry|title=A Short History of Astronomy From Earliest Times Through the 19th Century|publisher=Dover Publications, Inc.|location=New York|date=1961|isbn=978-0-486-20210-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofas0000berr}}</ref><ref name="Cambridge history">{{cite book|editor=Hoskin, Michael|title=The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1999|isbn = 978-0-521-57600-0}}</ref>。
 
人們還認為[[大辛巴威]]和[[廷布克圖]]的廢墟<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/royalkingdomsofg00patr|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/royalkingdomsofg00patr/page/103 103]|title= The royal kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhay: life in medieval Africa|first=Pat|last= McKissack|author2=McKissack, Frederick|date=1995|publisher=H. Holt|isbn=978-0-8050-4259-7}}</ref>可能也設有天文台<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3137-eclipse-brings-claim-of-medieval-african-observatory.html|title=Eclipse brings claim of medieval African observatory|date=2002|journal=New Scientist|access-date=3 February 2010-02-03|last=Clark|first=Stuart|author2=Carrington, Damian|archive-date=30 April 2015-04-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430173144/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3137-eclipse-brings-claim-of-medieval-african-observatory.html|url-status=live}}</ref>。在[[後古代史]]的[[西非]],天文學家研究了恒星的運動及其與季節的關係,根據複雜的數學計算,繪製了星圖以及其他行星的精確軌道圖。 [[桑海帝國|桑海]]的歷史學家{{link-en|馬哈茂德·卡蒂| Mahmud Kati}}在1583年8月記錄了一場流星雨<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hammer|first=Joshua|title=The Bad-Ass Librarians of Timbuktu And Their Race to Save the World's Most Precious Manuscripts|url=https://archive.org/details/badasslibrarians0000hamm_h2n4|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4767-7743-6|location=1230 Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10020|pages=[https://archive.org/details/badasslibrarians0000hamm_h2n4/page/26 26]–27}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DJpDW6IAukC&pg=PA182|title=African Cultural Astronomy|first=Jarita C.|last=Holbrook|author2=Medupe, R. Thebe|author3=Urama, Johnson O.|publisher=Springer|date=2008|isbn=978-1-4020-6638-2|access-date=19 October 2020-10-19|archive-date=17 August 2021-08-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817020340/https://books.google.com/books?id=4DJpDW6IAukC&pg=PA182|url-status=live}}</ref>。歐洲人此前認為,在殖民統治前的中世紀,[[撒哈拉以南非洲]]沒有天文觀測,但現代發現情况並非如此<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2003/november/cosmic.htm |title=Cosmic Africa explores Africa's astronomy |access-date=3 February 2002-02-03 |publisher=Science in Africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031203055223/http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2003/november/cosmic.htm |archive-date=3 December 2003-12-03 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DJpDW6IAukC&pg=PA180|title=African Cultural Astronomy|first=Jarita C.|last=Holbrook|author2=Medupe, R. Thebe|author3=Urama, Johnson O.|publisher=Springer|date=2008|isbn=978-1-4020-6638-2|access-date=26 August 2020-08-26|archive-date=26 August 2016-08-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826084847/https://books.google.com/books?id=4DJpDW6IAukC&pg=PA180|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://royalsociety.org/news.asp?year=&id=4117 |title=Africans studied astronomy in medieval times|date=30 January 2006-01-30|publisher=The Royal Society|access-date=3 February 2010-02-03 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080609112829/http://royalsociety.org/news.asp?year=&id=4117 |archive-date = 9 June 2008-06-09}}</ref><ref>Stenger, Richard {{cite news|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2002-12-05/tech/zimbabwe.observatory_1_supernova-forecast-eclipses-star?_s=PM:TECH |title=Star sheds light on African 'Stonehenge' |work=CNN |date=5 December 2002-12-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512162930/http://articles.cnn.com/2002-12-05/tech/zimbabwe.observatory_1_supernova-forecast-eclipses-star?_s=PM%3ATECH |archive-date=12 May 2011-05-12 }}. CNN. 5 December 2002. Retrieved on 30 December 2011.</ref>。
 
六個多世紀以來{{notetag|從中世紀晚期恢復古代學習到啟蒙運動}},羅馬天主教會為天文學研究提供的財政和社會支持可能比所有其他機構都多。 教會的動機之一是定出每年[[复活节]]的日期<ref>J.L. Heilbron, ''The Sun in the Church: Cathedrals as Solar Observatories'' (1999) p.3</ref>。
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[[天文攝影]]是業餘天文學的一個分支。許多業餘天文學家會選擇專門觀測某一類天體或某一類天文現象。<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.amsmeteors.org/| title= The American Meteor Society| accessdate= 2006-08-24| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20060822135040/http://www.amsmeteors.org/| archivedate= 2006-08-22| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Jerry|last=Lodriguss|url=http://www.astropix.com/|title=Catching the Light: Astrophotography|accessdate=2006-08-24|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901185541/http://www.astropix.com/|archivedate=2006-09-01|deadurl=no}}</ref>
 
大部分業餘天文學家都在[[可見光]]範圍內做觀測,但也有一小部分用可見光以外的波長進行觀測,包括在傳統天文望遠鏡上加上紅外濾光片,或使用[[射電望遠鏡]]。[[卡爾·央斯基]]在1930年代開始在無線電波長進行觀測,開創了業餘射電天文學。業餘天文學家不但可以使用自己的器材,還可以使用開放給業餘者的專業射電天文望遠鏡。<ref>{{cite web|author = Ghigo, F.|date = 2006-02-07|url = http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/hist_jansky.shtml|title = Karl Jansky and the Discovery of Cosmic Radio Waves|publisher = National Radio Astronomy Observatory|accessdate = 2006-08-24|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20060831105945/http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/hist_jansky.shtml|archivedate = 2006-08-31|deadurl = no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~arcus/cara/|title=Cambridge Amateur Radio Astronomers|accessdate=24 August 2006-08-24|archive-date=2012-05-24|archive-url=https://archive.is/20120524/http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~arcus/cara/|dead-url=no}}</ref>
 
與大多數現代科學領域不同的是,業餘天文學家至今仍在為天文學作出重大的貢獻。比如,他們通過[[掩星]]的方法提高[[小行星]]軌道的測量精度,發現新彗星,又對[[變星]]做定期觀測。隨著數碼科技的提升,業餘天文攝影也有了極大的進步。<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.lunar-occultations.com/iota/iotandx.htm| title= The International Occultation Timing Association| accessdate= 2006-08-24| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20060821180723/http://www.lunar-occultations.com/iota/iotandx.htm| archivedate= 2006-08-21| deadurl= yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://cbat.eps.harvard.edu/special/EdgarWilson.html |title=Edgar Wilson Award |publisher=IAU Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams |accessdate=2010-10-24 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101024202325/http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/special/EdgarWilson.html |archivedate=2010-10-24 |deadurl=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.aavso.org/| title= American Association of Variable Star Observers| publisher= AAVSO| accessdate= 2010-02-03| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100202050715/http://www.aavso.org/| archivedate= 2010-02-02| deadurl= no}}</ref>